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The online giant is the world's biggest retailer with a market value that is nearly $250 billion. The New York Times is raising questions about Amazon's work culture, as reporters Jodi Kantor and David Streitfeld spoke with more than 100 current and former employees.

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Handy's 4 classes of culture - A-Z of business terminology

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An Inside Look at Google - Working at Google

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The library looks as if Miss Scarlet (from the board game Clue) has just stepped out, leaving her incriminating noose (in the form of a necktie) prominently draped on the back of an oversize wing chair. A bookcase swings open to reveal a secret room and even more private reading area. Next to the recently expanded Lego play station, employees can scurry up a ladder that connects the fourth and fifth floors, where a fiendishly challenging scavenger hunt was in progress. Dogs strolled the corridors alongside their masters, and a cocker spaniel was napping, leashed to a pet rail, outside one of the dining areas.

Google lets many of its hundreds of software engineers, the core of its intellectual capital, design their own desks or work stations out of what resemble oversize Tinker Toys. Some have standing desks, a few even have attached treadmills so they can walk while working. Employees express themselves by scribbling on walls. The result looks a little chaotic, like some kind of high-tech refugee camp, but Google says that's how the engineers like it.

"We're trying to push the boundaries of the workplace," Mr. Newman said, in what seemed an understatement.

In keeping with a company built on information, this seeming spontaneity is anything but. Everything has been researched and is backed by data. In one of the open kitchen areas, Dr. Welle pointed to an array of free food, snacks, candy and beverages. "The healthy choices are front-loaded," he said. "We're not trying to be mom and dad. Coercion doesn't work. The choices are there. But we care about our employees' health, and our research shows that if people cognitively engage with food, they make better choices."

So the candy (M&Ms, plain and peanut; TCHO brand luxury chocolate bars, chewing gum, Life Savers) is in opaque ceramic jars that sport prominent nutritional labels. Healthier snacks (almonds, peanuts, dried kiwi and dried banana chips) are in transparent glass jars. In coolers, sodas are concealed behind translucent glass. A variety of waters and juices are immediately visible. "Our research shows that people consume 40 percent more water if that's the first thing they see," Dr. Welle said. (Note to Mayor Bloomberg: Perhaps New York City should hide supersize sodas rather than ban them.)

Craig Nevill-Manning, a New Zealand native and Google's engineering director in Manhattan, was the impetus behind the company's decision to hire a cadre of engineers in New York, and he led an exodus to Chelsea from what was a small outpost near Times Square. "I lobbied for this building," he told me. "I love the neighborhood. You can live across the street. There are bars and restaurants."

He showed me a map of the city with dots indicating where each Google employee lives. They're heavily concentrated in Manhattan below 34th Street, Brooklyn and the Upper West Side, most within walking distance of Chelsea or a short subway ride away. "We inherited the informal work environment - the casual dress, the flexible hours - from Silicon Valley, but we adapted it to the East Coast urban environment," he said. After the dot-com collapse in 2000, Manhattan was largely written off as a technology center. Since Google's move, Chelsea is mentioned in the same breath as Silicon Valley. Google has turned over 22,000 square feet of its space, rent-free, to Cornell until its new technology campus can be built on Roosevelt Island.

"The philosophy is very simple," Mr. Nevill-Manning said. "Google's success depends on innovation and collaboration. Everything we did was geared toward making it easy to talk. Being on one floor here removed psychological barriers to interacting, and we've tried to preserve that." Among innovations that sprang from seemingly chance office encounters are the Google Art Project, which is putting thousands of museum works online, and enhancements to the company's AdSense and AdWords advertising platforms. Razor scooters make it easy to get around the huge floors (each covers five acres), which offer every conceivable gathering space, from large open spaces to tiny nooks with whimsical furniture. It was Mr. Nevill-Manning's idea to install the ladder connecting floors, now that Google is too large to fit on one. He said he wouldn't go so far as to say cost is no object, but software engineers "are incredibly productive on a square foot basis," he said. "Their value is enormous. It doesn't cost that much to make them happy."

Allison Mooney, 32, joined Google two years ago from the advertising giant Omnicom Group, and the difference is "night and day," she said. "I came here from the New York agency model, where you work constantly, 24/7. You answer every e-mail, nights and weekends. Here, you don't have to show you're working, or act like you're working. The culture here is to shut down on weekends. People have a life."

And the perks, she added, are "amazing." In the course of our brief conversation, she mentioned subsidized massages (with massage rooms on nearly every floor); free once-a-week eyebrow shaping; free yoga and Pilates classes; a course she took called "Unwind: the art and science of stress management"; a course in advanced negotiation taught by a Wharton professor; a health consultation and follow-up with a personal health counselor; an author series and an appearance by the novelist Toni Morrison; and a live interview of Justin Bieber by Jimmy Fallon in the Google office.

This in addition to a full array of more traditional employee benefits. Curiously, there's some exercise equipment but no fitness center (Google's headquarters in Mountain View, Calif. has multiple state-of-the-art fitness centers) because Manhattan employees said they preferred joining health clubs to exercising with colleagues. (Google subsidizes the gym memberships.) And there's no open bar, although alcohol is served at T.G.I.F. parties (now held on Thursdays), one of which featured a dating game.

After my visit, I spoke to Teresa Amabile, a business administration professor at Harvard Business School and co-author of "The Progress Principle," about creativity at work, and told her I had just been to Google. "Isn't it fantastic?" she said. Some of her former students work there, and "they feel very, very fortunate to be there," she said. As to the broader relationship between the workplace and creativity, "there's some evidence that great physical space enhances creativity," she said. "The theory is that open spaces that are fun, where people want to be, facilitate idea exchange. I've watched people interact at Google and you see a cross-fertilization of ideas." That said, she added, "there isn't a lot of research to support this. And none of this matters unless people feel they have meaningful work and are making progress at it. In over 30 years of research, I've found that people do their most creative work when they're motivated by the work itself."

Ben Waber, who has a Ph.D. from M.I.T. and is the author of "People Analytics," is, at 29, the median age of Google employees. His company, Sociometric Solutions in Boston, uses data to assess workplace interactions. "Google has really been out front in this field," he said. "They've looked at the data to see how people are collaborating. Physical space is the biggest lever to encourage collaboration. And the data are clear that the biggest driver of performance in complex industries like software is serendipitous interaction. For this to happen, you also need to shape a community. That means if you're stressed, there's someone to help, to take up the slack. If you're surrounded by friends, you're happier, you're more loyal, you're more productive. Google looks at this holistically. It's the antithesis of the old factory model, where people were just cogs in a machine."

Both experts were critical of Yahoo's plan to force employees into the office. "If you're spying on them, monitoring them or coercing them, it will create a poisonous atmosphere," Dr. Waber said.

Professor Amabile added: "Google doesn't have to force people. Marissa Mayers's mistake may have been not being more clear about the need to be together and to experience creative excitement. Taking a hard line is likely to have negative effects."

A Yahoo spokeswoman responded: "We don't discuss internal matters. This isn't a broad industry view on working from home. This is about what is right for Yahoo, right now."

It should probably be obvious at this juncture, but Google doesn't require employees to work from the office. It doesn't even keep track of who's there. The notion seems to have never occurred to anyone. "I don't think we've ever had a policy on that," Mr. Newman said, but "we do expect employees to figure out a work schedule with their team and manager. It's not a free-for-all."

For a company with Google's largess - and the profit margins that make it possible - it's hardly necessary to require employees to be at the office. "People want to come in," Ms. Mooney said. On average, she estimates she spends nine hours a day there, five days a week. She mentioned that she recently took a day off - and ended up at the office.

"I live in a studio apartment," she explained. "And I don't have free food."

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The library looks as if Miss Scarlet (from the board game Clue) has just stepped out, leaving her incriminating noose (in the form of a necktie) prominently draped on the back of an oversize wing chair. A bookcase swings open to reveal a secret room and even more private reading area.

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Why the future office will about fun as much as work

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Why the future office will about fun as much as work

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Google's headquarters in Zurich has a massage room, aquarium and a slide to deliver engineers smoothly and quickly to the canteen.

Deloitte's Amsterdam office was designed with one empty room on each floor for employees to put what they wanted in them - most have gone for games such as table football.

At LinkedIn's Californian HQ there is a music room, stocked with keyboards, drums, guitars and audio equipment.

And allowing employees to bring their pets to work is increasingly common.

So when did our offices turn into playgrounds, and does this represent the new way of working?

Technological advances mean that staff can avoid the drudgery of commuting and work from home, coffee shops, or any number of exotic locations. So some companies are working extra-hard to make their offices more attractive places to be.

A recent report from US software giant Citrix forecast that by 2017, some 50% of businesses would have a mobile working policy, and by 2020, 70% of people would work away from the office as often as they worked at a desk.

"Offices are expensive and office space will decline," says Citrix vice president Jacqueline de Rojas.

This is partly due to bosses realising not all jobs need to be done from an office, but also because employees are increasingly demanding a better work-life balance, she adds.

That doesn't mean that the office will die, though.

"Offices will become places of collaboration and connection because culturally we need touch points as we are social animals," she says.

The 'super-desk'

Citrix has installed "genius benches" at its London headquarters - essentially higher and longer shared desks that come with stools, not chairs.

There are also moveable desks, like the ones at headphone maker Skullcandy's office in Zurich. The desks can be configured to work individually or collaboratively, fitting together like puzzle pieces.

Meanwhile, marketing firm Barbarian Group has created a "super-desk" at its New York office which sits up to 170 people, and includes archways where staff can go for private chats.

And Lego has taken hot-desking to the next level at its London and Singapore offices, introducing a system called activity-based working, which means that no-one has a fixed desk any more.

More features about the Future of Work

Space is divided into flexible work zones with no fixed seating and no offices for managers. Employees who leave their workspace for more than one-and-a-half hours need to take all their stuff with them.

Lego even has a department for "new ways of working" and, says senior director Sophie Patrikios, the experiment has gone well.

"In our May 2016 survey, 88% of staff said they liked the choice of where to work. They get a choice of different settings to suit their activity or mood, including a quiet library, a buzzing social area with background music, comfy chairs in cosy corners or big banks of desks to share with team-mates," she says.

Offices are also getting smarter. Research firm Gartner says commercial buildings are already at the forefront of the "internet of things" revolution.

Smart lighting, heating, and even sensors that measure how many people are in an office, are becoming commonplace.

Healthier offices

Such technology plays a vital role in making buildings work more efficiently, but also raises questions about employee privacy and what happens to the data being collected.

More energy-efficient buildings can offer employee benefits too, says Theo Maessen, a senior partner at Dutch-based building design firm BOB (BOB stands for Best Office Building).

"We are building healthier offices that use more daylight, have systems that maintain a constant temperature that eliminates mould and dust, and therefore reduces the rate of illness among employees," he tells the BBC.

Using computer simulation, Mr Maessen can work out the optimum number of windows for a building - no more than 40% of it should be glass, apparently - as well as factors such as the ideal air flow.

The buildings he designs have no air-conditioning, using instead a geothermal system that takes advantage of the constant temperatures found underground.

Warm water is pumped in over winter and cooler water during the summer months.

The company uses wood-fibre bricks that breathe better and, as they are made from by-products from saw mills, are also more environmentally-friendly than traditional bricks.

Occupants of his offices can use an online tool to provide feedback on their welfare and make complaints. Positive feedback has been "very high", Mr Maessen says.

Hot-desking will become standard, he says, and buildings will have to adapt to different uses.

"Over several decades, the occupancy will change. What was an office may become flats or retail space. Clients will also want to experiment with different configurations of their interiors," he says.

"In 20 years maybe we won't work a five-day week, it may be that we work just three days a week, and we have to try to design a building that can accommodate those changes."

In future, office spaces will also be closer to where people live, he believes.

And communities will have communal office space that can be used by anyone, he predicts, cutting down on the need for travel.

Lego's Ms Patrikios agrees that big changes are on the way.

"We've already seen that work is no longer somewhere you go, but something you do," she says.

A greater shift towards flexible working and people having multiple part-time roles, rather than a job for life, will exacerbate the change.

In the future, "going to the office" will mean much more than just "going to work".

Follow Technology of Business editor @matthew_wall on Twitter
Click here for more Technology of Business features

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Why the future office will be as much about fun as work

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Google's headquarters in Zurich has a massage room, aquarium and a slide to deliver engineers smoothly and quickly to the canteen. Deloitte's Amsterdam office was designed with one empty room on each floor for employees to put what they wanted in them - most have gone for games such as table football.

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Inspiring Leadership: a journey to the Promised Land

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Inspiring Leadership: a journey to the Promised Land

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Martin Luther King, Jr. I Have A Dream Speech

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How leadership can inspire collective teamwork

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How leadership can inspire collective teamwork

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How Great Leaders Inspire Action | Simon Sinek | TED

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Restaurant manager job profile | Prospects.ac.uk

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Discover what it takes to be a Restaurant manager. Find out expected salary, working hours, qualifications and more.

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Office manager job profile | Prospects.ac.uk

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Discover what it takes to be a Office manager. Find out expected salary, working hours, qualifications and more.

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Retail managers are responsible for the day-to-day running of a store, with the aim of maximising profits, while minimising costs

As a retail manager, you'll manage the daily operations of a store or department and will have employees reporting to you. You'll report to an area manager.

You'll ensure promotions are run accurately and to the company's standards and make sure that staff are all working towards the target for the day. It's also your job to ensure that excellent customer care standards are met at all times.

Responsibilities

As a retail manager, you'll need to:

manage and motivate a team to increase sales and ensure efficiency

manage stock levels and make key decisions about stock control

analyse sales figures and forecast future sales

analyse and interpret trends to facilitate planning

use information technology to record sales figures, analyse data and forward plan

deal with staffing issues such as interviewing potential staff, conducting appraisals and performance reviews

provide or organise training and development

ensure standards for quality, customer service and health and safety are met

resolve health and safety, legal and security issues

respond to customer complaints and comments

organise special promotions, displays and events

attend and chair meetings

update colleagues on business performance, new initiatives and other pertinent issues

tour the sales floor regularly, talking to colleagues and customers and identifying or resolving urgent issues

deal with sales, as and when required

maintain awareness of market trends in the retail industry, understanding forthcoming customer initiatives and monitoring what competitors are doing

initiate changes to improve the business, such as revising opening hours to ensure the store can compete effectively in the local market

promote the organisation locally by liaising with local newspapers and the community in general

deal with other aspects of the business, such as customer service, finance, human resources, information technology, logistics or marketing - whether you need to do this will depend on the size of the store.

Salary

Salaries for assistant positions generally range between £17,000 and £23,000.

With a few years' experience salaries can reach £20,000 to £30,000, depending on the organisation.

With more experience, salaries of £35,000 to £60,000+ can be achieved in larger shops or supermarkets.

Some retailers offer bonuses or share offers, which can increase the amount payable, as well as other benefits such as pension schemes, company car, staff discount, private healthcare, professional qualifications, gym membership and travel subsidies.

Income figures are intended as a guide only.

Working hours

In the retail sector, the normal working week can exceed 40 hours. During peak periods such as Christmas, sales and other seasonal holidays, managers may work more than 40 hours.

Many retail stores operate in out-of-town sites and are open seven days a week. This means that there is a requirement to work irregular hours including late nights, weekends and bank holidays. Many organisations offer competitive annual leave entitlement. In addition, career breaks or job-sharing opportunities are also available for store managers.

What to expect

Retail is a fast-paced environment and managers have to react to consumer's demands and industry trends. Because of this, there is an element of pressure.

Most companies have a dress code, with fashion retailers offering employees a substantial discount to wear their merchandise on a seasonal basis.

Many companies require their managers to be flexible with their mobility, however this tends to be done on a regional basis and relocation will always be discussed.

Self-employment and franchising are possible. However, in spite of support from trade organisations such as The UK Franchise Directory, small traders can find the competition very tough.

Travel away from your store base is usually just for meetings and training events.

Qualifications

Although this area of work is open to all graduates, a HND or degree in the following subjects may increase your chances:

accounting and finance

business studies

fashion management

marketing

retail management.

However, there may be exceptions where the retailer is a specialist in its field and a more relevant HND or degree may be preferred.

A pre-entry postgraduate qualification is not usually required, although a proportion of retail managers do undertake relevant postgraduate study.

Search postgraduate courses in retail management.

Entry without a HND or degree is possible.

Retailers look for certain personal qualities during the recruitment process, such as people skills, confidence, enthusiasm and good customer-service values. These traits tend to be favoured over academic qualifications.

Many companies expect applicants to have some retail experience whether acquired through part-time or holiday work. Alternatively, larger retailers offer placements for students, which frequently lead to job offers.

Skills

You'll need:

effective leadership and the ability to motivate others

the ability to plan and prioritise workloads and delegate accordingly

customer focus

the capacity to grasp new concepts quickly

the ability to multi-task and work under pressure

shrewd business sense and well-developed commercial awareness

a desire to work as part of a team to generate fresh and innovative ideas.

Work experience

If you want to work in the retail industry, you need to get some work experience. As well as paid employment, you may also wish to consider voluntary work at local charity shops or similar experiences. You may be involved in a variety of different roles like stock management, pricing, merchandising, finance and customer service.

Alternatively, if you wish to work for a specific retailer, contact the local manager to request work shadowing. Be aware that many managers are very busy and may not be able to accommodate your request. Others may offer you another level of management to shadow, such as a supervisor or an assistant manager.

Remember all experience is good experience and if you later apply to the organisation the manager may be involved in the recruitment process.

Employers

There are approximately 287,000 retail outlets in the UK. In 2018, the industry was estimated at being worth around £380 billion.

Typical employers include:

general discounters

high street department stores

home improvement stores

mail order companies

niche retailers

online sellers

specific product-led retailers, e.g. clothing, shoes, food and drink, sporting goods, electrical goods, furniture and furnishings

supermarkets

television shopping channels.

Look for job vacancies at:

Specialist recruitment agencies such as C2Recruitment and Michael Page handle vacancies within the retail sector. CASTUK deals with many related retail management positions.

Competition is fierce, with some companies receiving thousands of applicants for several hundred vacancies. Be aware that closing dates for some training schemes can be as early as December or January, with the aim to start the following September (some close earlier when they have reached their applicant quota), so you'll need to prepare early.

Selection techniques in the industry are generally sophisticated and often based on online application procedures and assessment centres, which usually involve group exercises, presentations and psychometric testing.

You may find it worthwhile to try speculative applications to smaller and independent companies.

Professional development

Many of the larger retail companies have dedicated training stores. Graduate schemes are often well structured and cover all areas of retailing within the store. You may be assigned a mentor who is an experienced manager and who will oversee your training, offering support and guidance.

Training programmes are normally in-house and combine practical on-the-job experience or work shadowing, with supplementary courses and workshops.

Short courses may offer:

training on technical aspects, such as accounts

interpersonal training, such as coaching and mentoring

structured behavioural training in influencing or facilitation skills.

Training programmes aim to give you an overview of the company through exposure to the various retailing areas. The length of training varies between nine months and three years. Many training programmes are flexible and can be tailored to your requirements; you'll be expected to drive your own future in accordance with the needs of the business.

Companies may also support trainees to get further professional qualifications related to specific disciplines.

Career prospects

Most retail companies tend to review employees' performance annually. Appraisals are an opportunity to discuss your progress with your line manager and consider what you want to achieve in the year ahead. Development is a two-way process, and you'll also be expected to make a contribution to your own career development.

Promotion often requires mobility, and if you're working for a smaller chain there may be fewer promotional opportunities.

Progression typically includes:

moving to a larger store, possibly in another part of the country

managing a larger department

moving to an assistant store manager role.

In some organisations, graduates run their own departments within weeks and can manage smaller stores within 18 months.

Within three to five years, you can potentially move into senior retail management positions. You may use this store experience to manage larger and more complicated store environments or to progress into regional management.

The flexibility and size of many retail organisations means that it is possible to move into more specialist areas of the business and head office functions, such as customer service, training and operations management. You can also move between different types of retailers or to a wholesale supplier.

Find out how Lydia became a zero waste shop owner at BBC Bitesize.

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Retail managers are responsible for the day-to-day running of a store, with the aim of maximising profits, while minimising costs As a retail manager, you'll manage the daily operations of a store or department and will have employees reporting to you. You'll report to an area manager.

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Whether you're a corporate executive, a retail manager, or a stay at home parent, being able to delegate responsibilities is a critical skill for making the most of your personal effectiveness. Delegating, however, can be somewhat tricky -...

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Co-op boss let down by former Management

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Co-op boss let down by former Management

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The chief executive of the Co-operative Group has blamed past mismanagement of the organisation for the problems it has faced.

Richard Pennycook told BBC Radio 5 live that the group had been "let down" by its former management.

However, recent changes to its structure and governance should rectify that situation, he said.

The organisation had been "undermanaged" in the past, according to Mr Pennycook.

"We let the co-operative movement down in a fairly significant way, after 150 proud years where the Co-op had a reputation for doing the right thing."

It now needed to become "better at business" and return to making profits, he said: "Just applying good management disciplines and taking out costs can improve profitability."

It had been necessary to go through the "painful" process of selling some businesses to repair the balance sheet, Mr Pennycook said.

The group is focusing on its grocery shops and funerals, and retains a 20% stake in the Co-operative Bank, which is now controlled by US hedge funds.

The Co-op was second to Tesco in the convenience food market, he said, and the quality of its products had increased markedly: "We can absolutely compete with the best."

Mr Pennycook was appointed as the Co-op's interim chief executive early last year before assuming the role permanently.

Allan Leighton, chairman of the Co-operative Group, is in the process of rebuilding the board after being appointed in February as its first independent chair.

His appointment followed the record £2.5bn loss for 2014 that was caused largely by the crisis in the group's banking business.

The former Royal Mail chairman will preside over his first annual meeting of the Co-op on Saturday.

Co-op members will vote on appointing three directors to the board. They are: former Labour minister Hazel Blears; Ruth Spellman, chief executive of the Workers' Educational Association; and Paul Chandler, former chief executive of the fair trade group Traidcraft.

Skills and experience

Mr Pennycook said he was both "surprised and delighted" that three candidates had been found.

"The first principle of the governance reform is that anybody going onto the board had to have the requisite skills and experience," he said.

However, he said the Co-op was yet to take its seat on the board of the Co-op Bank.

An external candidate may be appointed to the position if no one on the Co-op board had the necessary skills, Mr Pennycook said.

"We don't know yet whether we will have somebody on our group board with the qualifications to go on to the banking board. If we do, then that would be the right solution to take up our seat. If it happens that we don't, then we'll seek to appoint an independent suitably qualified non-executive," he said.

"We would hope in future years that we have a healthy pipeline of a people who we'd like to represent on the board."

Despite no longer owning the Co-op Bank, Mr Pennycook said it and the Co-op Group shared a name and many members.

Co-operative ethics and values had been enshrined in its governance and he said it could no longer be called the Co-operative Bank in the future if that were ever to change.

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The chief executive of the Co-operative Group has blamed past mismanagement of the organisation for the problems it has faced. Richard Pennycook told BBC Radio 5 live that the group had been "let down" by its former management. However, recent changes to its structure and governance should rectify that situation, he said.

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Importance of planning in management are:

Planning is the first and most important function of management. It is needed at every level of management. In the absence of planning all the business activities of the organisation will become meaningless. The importance of planning has increased all the more in view of the increasing size of organisations and their complexities.

Planning has again gained importance because of uncertain and constantly changing business environment. In the absence of planning, it may not be impossible but certainly difficult to guess the uncertain events of future.

The following facts show the advantages of planning and its importance for a business organisation:
(1) Planning Provides Direction:
Under the process of planning the objectives of the organisation are defined in simple and clear words. The obvious outcome of this is that all the employees get a direction and all their efforts are focused towards a particular end. In this way, planning has an important role in the attainment of the objectives of the organisation.

For example, suppose a company fixes a sales target under the process of planning. Now all the departments, e.g., purchase, personnel, finance, etc., will decide their objectives in view of the sales target.

In this way, the attention of all the managers will get focused on the attainment of their objectives. This will make the achievement of sales target a certainty. Thus, in the absence of objectives an organisation gets disabled and the objectives are laid down under planning.
(2) Planning Reduces Risks of Uncertainty:
Planning is always done for future and future is uncertain. With the help of planning possible changes in future are anticipated and various activities are planned in the best possible way. In this way, the risk of future uncertainties can be minimised.

For example, in order to fix a sales target a survey can be undertaken to find out the number of new companies likely to enter the market. By keeping these facts in mind and planning the future activities, the possible difficulties can be avoided.
(3) Planning Reduces Overlapping and Wasteful Activities:
Under planning, future activities are planned in order to achieve objectives. Consequently, the problems of when, where, what and why are almost decided. This puts an end to disorder and suspicion. In such a situation coordination is established among different activities and departments. It puts an end to overlapping and wasteful activities.

Consequently, wastages moves towards nil, efficiency increases and costs get to the lowest level. For example, if it is decided that a particular amount of money will be required in a particular month, the finance manager will arrange for it in time.

In the absence of this information, the amount of money can be more or less than the requirement in that particular month. Both these situations are undesirable. In case, the money is less than the requirement, the work will not be completed and in case it is more than the requirement, the amount will remain unused and thus cause a loss of interest.
(4) Planning Promotes Innovative Ideas:
It is clear that planning selects the best alternative out of the many available. All these alternatives do not come to the manager on their own, but they have to be discovered. While making such an effort of discovery, many new ideas emerge and they are studied intensively in order to determine the best out of them.

In this way, planning imparts a real power of thinking in the managers. It leads to the birth of innovative and creative ideas. For example, a company wants to expand its business. This idea leads to the beginning of the planning activity in the mind of the manager. He will think like this:

Should some other varieties of the existing products be manufactured?

Should retail sales be undertaken along with the wholesales?

Should some branch be opened somewhere else for the existing or old product?

Should some new product be launched?

In this way, many new ideas will emerge one after the other. By doing so, he will become habituated to them. He will always be thinking about doing something new and creative. Thus, it is a happy situation for a company which is born through the medium of planning.
(5) Planning Facilitates Decision Making:
Decision making means the process of taking decisions. Under it, a variety of alternatives are discovered and the best alternative is chosen. The planning sets the target for decision making. It also lays down the criteria for evaluating courses of action. In this way, planning facilitates decision making.
(6) Planning Establishes Standards for Controlling:
By determining the objectives of the organisation through planning all the people working in the organisation and all the departments are informed about 'when', 'what' and 'how' to do things.

Standards are laid down about their work, time and cost, etc. Under controlling, at the time of completing the work, the actual work done is compared with the standard work and deviations are found out and if the work has not been done as desired the person concerned are held responsible.

For example, a labourer is to do 10 units of work in a day (it is a matter of planning), but actually he completes 8 units. Thus there is a negative deviation of 2 units. For this, he is held responsible. (Measurement of actual work, knowledge of deviation and holding the labourer responsible falls under controlling.) Thus, in the absence of planning controlling is not possible.

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What is the Importance of Planning in Management?

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ADVERTISEMENTS: Importance of planning in management are: Planning is the first and most important function of management. It is needed at every level of management. In the absence of planning all the business activities of the organisation will become meaningless. The importance of planning has increased all the more in view of the increasing size ...

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A2 Functions of management and leadership

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As a manager, you probably fulfill many different roles every day.

For instance, as well as leading your team, you might find yourself resolving a conflict, negotiating new contracts, representing your department at a board meeting, or approving a request for a new computer system.

Put simply, you're constantly switching roles as tasks, situations, and expectations change. Management expert and professor Henry Mintzberg recognized this, and he argued that there are ten primary roles or behaviors that can be used to categorize a manager's different functions.

In this article and video, we'll examine these roles and see how you can use your understanding of them to improve your management skills.

Click here to view a transcript of this video.

The Roles

Mintzberg published his Ten Management Roles in his book, "Mintzberg on Management: Inside our Strange World of Organizations," in 1990.

The ten roles are:

1. Figurehead.

2. Leader.

3. Liaison.

4. Monitor.

5. Disseminator.

6. Spokesperson.

7. Entrepreneur.

8. Disturbance Handler.

9. Resource Allocator.

10. Negotiator.

The 10 roles are then divided up into three categories, as follows:

Let's look at each of the ten managerial roles in greater detail.

Interpersonal Category

The managerial roles in this category involve providing information and ideas.

1. Figurehead - As a manager, you have social, ceremonial and legal responsibilities. You're expected to be a source of inspiration. People look up to you as a person with authority, and as a figurehead.

2. Leader - This is where you provide leadership for your team, your department or perhaps your entire organization; and it's where you manage the performance and responsibilities of everyone in the group.

3. Liaison - Managers must communicate with internal and external contacts. You need to be able to network effectively on behalf of your organization.

Informational Category

The managerial roles in this category involve processing information.

1. Monitor - In this role, you regularly seek out information related to your organization and industry, looking for relevant changes in the environment. You also monitor your team, in terms of both their productivity, and their well-being.

2. Disseminator - This is where you communicate potentially useful information to your colleagues and your team.

3. Spokesperson - Managers represent and speak for their organization. In this role, you're responsible for transmitting information about your organization and its goals to the people outside it.

Decisional Category

The managerial roles in this category involve using information.

1. Entrepreneur - As a manager, you create and control change within the organization. This means solving problems, generating new ideas, and implementing them.

2. Disturbance Handler - When an organization or team hits an unexpected roadblock, it's the manager who must take charge. You also need to help mediate disputes within it.

3. Resource Allocator - You'll also need to determine where organizational resources are best applied. This involves allocating funding, as well as assigning staff and other organizational resources.

4. Negotiator - You may be needed to take part in, and direct, important negotiations within your team, department, or organization.

Applying the Model

You can use Mintzberg's 10 Management Roles model as a frame of reference when you're thinking about developing your own skills and knowledge. (This includes developing yourself in areas that you consciously or unconsciously shy away from.)

First, examine how much time you currently spend on each managerial role. Do you spend most of your day leading? Managing conflict? Disseminating information? This will help you decide which areas to work on first.

Next, get a piece of paper and write out all ten roles. Score yourself from 1-5 on each one, with 1 being "Very skilled" to 5 being "Not skilled at all."

Once you've identified your weak areas, use the following resources to start improving your abilities in each role.

Figurehead

Figureheads represent their teams. If you need to improve or build confidence in this area, start with your image, behavior, and reputation. Cultivate humility and empathy, learn how to set a good example at work, and think about how to be a good role model.

Leader

This is the role you probably spend most of your time fulfilling. To improve here, start by taking our quiz, How Good Are Your Leadership Skills? This will give you a thorough understanding of your current abilities.

Next, learn how to be an authentic leader, so your team will respect you. Also, focus on improving your emotional intelligence - this is an important skill for being an effective leader.

Liaison

To improve your liaison skills, work on your professional networking techniques. You may also like to take our Bite-Sized Training course on Networking Skills.

Monitor

To improve here, learn how to gather information effectively and overcome information overload. Also, use effective reading strategies, so that you can process material quickly and thoroughly, and learn how to keep up-to-date with industry news.

Disseminator

To be a good disseminator you need to know how to share information and outside views effectively, which means that good communication skills are vital.

Learn how to share organizational information with Team Briefings. Next, focus on improving your writing skills. You might also want to take our communication skills quiz, to find out where else you can improve.

Spokesperson

To be effective in this role, make sure that you know how to represent your organization at a conference. You may also want to read our articles on delivering great presentations and working with the media (if applicable to your role).

Entrepreneur

To improve here, build on your change management skills, and learn what not to do when implementing change in your organization. You'll also need to work on your problem solving and creativity skills, so that you can come up with new ideas, and implement them successfully.

Disturbance Handler

In this role, you need to excel at conflict resolution and know how to handle team conflict. It's also helpful to be able to manage emotion in your team.

Resource Allocator

To improve as a resource allocator, learn how to manage a budget, cut costs, and prioritize, so that you can make the best use of your resources. You can also use VRIO Analysis to learn how to get the best results from the resources available to you.

Negotiator

Improve your negotiation skills by learning about Win-Win Negotiation and Distributive Bargaining.

You might also want to read our article on role-playing - this technique can help you prepare for difficult negotiations.

Key Points

Mintzberg's 10 Management Roles model sets out the essential roles that managers play. These are:

1. Figurehead.

2. Leader.

3. Liaison.

4. Monitor.

5. Disseminator.

6. Spokesperson.

7. Entrepreneur.

8. Disturbance Handler.

9. Resource Allocator.

10. Negotiator.

You can apply Mintzberg's 10 Management Roles model by using it as a frame of reference when you want to develop your management skills. Work on the roles that you fulfill most often as a priority, but remember that you won't necessarily fulfill every role as part of your job.

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Mintzberg's Management Roles: Identifying the Roles Managers Play

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As a manager, you probably fulfill many different roles every day. For instance, as well as leading your team, you might find yourself resolving a conflict, negotiating new contracts, representing your department at a board meeting, or approving a request for a new computer system.

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A1 Definitions of management and leadership

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Management by Objectives: A Video Explanation

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Fiedler's Contingency Theory

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What is your natural leadership style?

Do you focus on completing tasks or on building relationships with your team?

And have you considered that this natural style of leadership might be more suited to some situations than it is to others?

In this article, we'll explore Fiedler's Contingency Model, and we'll look at how it can highlight the most effective leadership style to use in different situations.

Note:

With this theory, we are not using the word "contingency" in the sense of contingency planning. Here, a contingency is a situation or event that's dependent - or contingent - on someone or something else.

Understanding the Model

The Fiedler Contingency Model was created in the mid-1960s by Fred Fiedler, a scientist who studied the personality and characteristics of leaders.

The model states that there is no one best style of leadership. Instead, a leader's effectiveness is based on the situation. This is the result of two factors - "leadership style" and "situational favorableness" (later called "situational control"). We explore these two factors in the next section, below.

Note:

At Mind Tools, we believe that transformational leadership is the best leadership style in most situations, however, we believe that other leadership styles are sometimes necessary.

In our opinion, the Fiedler Contingency Model is unhelpful in many 21st Century workplaces (see Criticisms of the Model, below). It may occasionally be a useful tool for analyzing a situation and determining whether or not to focus on tasks or relationships, but be cautious about applying any style simply because the model says you should. Use your own judgment when analyzing situations.

Leadership Style

Identifying leadership style is the first step in using the model. Fiedler believed that leadership style is fixed, and it can be measured using a scale he developed called Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale (see figure 1).

The scale asks you to think about the person who you've least enjoyed working with. This can be a person who you've worked with in your job, or in education or training.

You then rate how you feel about this person for each factor, and add up your scores. If your total score is high, you're likely to be a relationship-orientated leader. If your total score is low, you're more likely to be task-orientated leader.

Figure 1: Least-Preferred Co-Worker Scale

The model says that task-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more negatively, resulting in a lower score. Fiedler called these low LPC-leaders. He said that low LPCs are very effective at completing tasks. They're quick to organize a group to get tasks and projects done. Relationship-building is a low priority.

However, relationship-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more positively, giving them a higher score. These are high-LPC leaders. High LPCs focus more on personal connections, and they're good at avoiding and managing conflict. They're better able to make complex decisions.

Situational Favorableness

Next, you determine the "situational favorableness" of your particular situation. This depends on three distinct factors:

Leader-Member Relations - This is the level of trust and confidence that your team has in you. A leader who is more trusted and has more influence within the group is in a more favorable situation than a leader who is not trusted.

Task Structure - This refers to the type of task you're doing: clear and structured, or vague and unstructured. Unstructured tasks, or tasks where the team and leader have little knowledge of how to achieve them, are viewed unfavorably.

Leader's Position Power - This is the amount of power you have to direct the group, and provide reward or punishment. The more power you have, the more favorable your situation. Fiedler identifies power as being either strong or weak.

Applying the Fiedler Contingency Model

Step 1: Identify your leadership style

Think about the person who you've least enjoyed working with, either now or in the past.

Rate your experience with this person using the scale in figure 1, above. According to this model, a higher score means that you're naturally relationship-focused, and a lower score means that you're naturally task-focused.

Step 2: Identify your situation

Answer the questions:

Are leader-member relations good or poor?

Is the task you're doing structured, or is it more unstructured, or do you have little experience of solving similar problems?

Do you have strong or weak power over your team?

Step 3: Determine the most effective leadership style

Figure 2 shows a breakdown of all of the factors we've covered: Leader-Member Relations, Task Structure, and Leader's Position Power. The final column identifies the type of leader that Fiedler believed would be most effective in each situation.
Figure 2: Breakdown of Most Effective Leader Style

Leader-Member Relations

Task Structure

Leader's Position Power

Most Effective Leader

For instance, imagine that you've just started working at a new company, replacing a much-loved leader who recently retired. You're leading a team that views you with distrust (so your Leader-Member Relations are poor). The task you're all doing together is well defined (structured), and your position of power is high because you're the boss, and you're able to offer reward or punishment to the group.

The most effective leader in this situation would be high LPC - that is, a leader who can focus on building relationships first.

Or, imagine that you're leading a team that likes and respects you (so your Leader-Member relations are good). The project you're working on together is highly creative (unstructured) and your position of power is high since, again, you're in a management position of strength. In this situation, a task-focused leadership style would be most effective.

Criticisms of the Model

There are some criticisms of the Fiedler Contingency Model. One of the biggest is lack of flexibility. Fiedler believed that because our natural leadership style is fixed, the most effective way to handle situations is to change the leader. He didn't allow for flexibility in leaders.

For instance, if a low-LPC leader is in charge of a group with good relations and doing unstructured tasks, and they have a weak position (the fourth situation), then, according to the model, the best solution is to replace them with a high-LPC leader - instead of asking them to use a different leadership style.

There is also an issue with the Least-Preferred Co-Worker Scale - if you fall near the middle of the scoring range, then it could be unclear which style of leader you are.

There have also been several published criticisms of the Fiedler Contingency Model. One of the most cited is "The Contingency Model: Criticisms and Suggestions," published in the Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 13, No. 3. The authors say that, even under the best circumstances, the LPC scale only has about a 50 percent reliable variance. This means that, according to their criticism, the LPC scale may not be a reliable measure of leadership capability.

It's also perfectly possible that your least preferred co-worker is a genuinely confused, unpleasant or evil person (they do exist) - if you are unfortunate enough to have encountered such a person just once in your career, then you might always be categorized as a low-LPC leader, however people-oriented you actually are.

Key Points

The Fiedler Contingency Model asks you to think about your natural leadership style, and the situations in which it will be most effective. The model says that leaders are either task-focused, or relationship-focused. Once you understand your style, it says that you can match it to situations in which that style is most effective.

However, the model has some disadvantages. It doesn't allow for leadership flexibility, and the LPC score might give an inaccurate picture of your leadership style.

As with all models and theories, use your best judgment when applying the Fiedler Contingency Model to your own situation.

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Fiedler's Contingency Model: Matching Leadership Style to a Situation

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What is your natural leadership style? Do you focus on completing tasks or on building relationships with your team? And have you considered that this natural style of leadership might be more suited to some situations than it is to others?

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John Adair Action Centred Leadership

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Transformational vs Transactional Leadership vid

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Tannenbaum & Schmidt Continuum vid

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Leadership Styles: Tannenbaum & Schmidt Continuum

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Situational Leadership vid

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The whole Unit