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when graffiti and street art are used interchangeably, graffiti is considered as both vandalism and protest on many accounts. however, when graffiti and street art are distinctly separated, graffiti is seen as solely communication between crews and graffiti artists and street art is seen as an expressive, empowered art form.

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Effects of desegregation (the government caring enough to desegregate and then think they did enough so there is no support for facilities and general well being of people and buildings in the ghetto. SILENCED. That is where graffiti is BORN.

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Graffiti to one perspective is defined as “markings, as initials, slogans, or drawings, written, spray-painted, or sketched on a sidewalk, wall of a building or public restroom…” and resulted in statements like “These graffiti are evidence of the neighborhood's decline.” This perspective leaves no room for artistic, authoritative, introspective, and articulate expressions and actions of graffiti artists from the past to the present. The 1970’s in particular, was a time of social reestablishment and (a word for unbalanced recovery) after segregation “ceased”. Graffiti artists --majority of which were black and lived in ghettos-- were at the forefront in the articulation of what had just happened in previous decades, and the remaining effects of segregation that pursued them. Graffiti artists at that time had been villainized for their expression of “attitudes, behavioral dispositions, and social processes” rather than being looked at for individual perspective on their environment (the ghetto) because “direct measurement is difficult”.

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New York City's subway in the late 1970s and 1980s looked like it came straight out of the Walter Hill cult classic, Warriors. Graffiti-laced train carts, poverty-stricken beggars and drug addicts, side by side with colorfully dressed gang members harassing the passengers who gladly give up valuable possessions in exchange for their lives were a normal sight back then.

Crime rates skyrocketed during the 1970s as the NYC subway proved to be the most dangerous transit system in the world. In September 1979, there were 250 felonies reported per week - all going down in the dark hallways of the subway system.

Together with the drug epidemic which forced its users into the underground, it was truly a sad sight to look upon. Gangs such as Black Spades, The Satan Souls, The Devil Rebels, Imperial Survivors to name a few, kept their turf strict, partitioning the underground sections as well.

Due to the high mortality rates among gang members of the time, Luis Garden Acosta, a community leader and the founder of a grassroots environmental justice coalition El Puento, called the streets of Williamsburg, Brooklyn, "killing fields." Rightfully so, for many teenagers were injured or killed due to violent turf wars which raged all over New York's poorest neighborhoods.

As a response to such violence, the police had to develop new tactics, strung between the necessity to control the rampant crime rates and the forever-shrinking budget.

Even though their presence was on a high level since the 1960s, when around 3,100 officers patrolled the subway as part of the Transit Police force, various reports from the late 1970s challenged their effectiveness.

For one, the MTA (Metropolitan Transportation Authority) used different radio frequencies, causing unnecessary confusion. Secondly, the Transport Police patrol patterns quickly became predictable, enabling the felons to effectively avoid them and thus be one step ahead.

In July 1974, another surge of violence in the subway led the MTA to shut down the rearmost cars of trains at night. Over the course of a decade, the MTA would lose an estimated 300 million subway riders because of its bad reputation for being a hotbed of criminal activity.

54 Seconds from Studio 54

Two hundred potential felons were arrested in December 1977 during a police operation titled Subway Sweep. However, the arrests failed to show positive results, for in 1979, in the first two months alone, six murders were reported on the subway. Compared to nine murders committed in the whole of the previous year, this was a significant increase.

Around the same time, a vigilante group called Guardian Angels rose up in order to tackle crime in the subway system and protect its passengers. The organization specialized in unarmed combat and committing citizen arrests against muggers riding the subway.

Quickly gaining popular support, their numbers swelled. By February 1980, around 220 members wore the colors of Guardian Angels, cooperating tightly with the police in an attempt to suppress crime within the NYC subway.

However, it was the system itself that needed fixing - malfunctions were common and many of the cars were poorly lit. Due to budget cutbacks, the trains were shortened, causing outrage among passengers. On top of that, windows were frequently smashed by hooligans.

In 1980 there was $2 million dollars worth of damage from broken windows alone, not counting the repairs concerning infrastructure.

In a desperate attempt to regain popularity, the MTA launched a new transit line in 1978, called Train to the Plane, which provided benefits such as a 24/7 police escort. The line was intended to transfer passengers along Sixth Avenue in Manhattan, leading them to a shuttle bus on Howard Beach that linked directly to JFK Airport.

Despite its best efforts, the MTA failed to attract enough passengers and was shut down in the 1990s, as rider rates continued to drop.

Parallel to this, a growing graffiti subculture was on the rise in the 1970s. This would lead to the city's Mayor John Lindsay to declare the first war on graffiti in 1972. Due to lack of funding, no significant activity was taken to tackle the numerous graffiti artists in their mission to cover every inch of the subway cars with various stencils, tags or turf markings.

The authorities seemed to be losing control over the subway, with murders and robberies becoming a common sight. That was until they decided to use a different approach. In the early 1980s, a new doctrine was instigated.

Dubbed as the "Broken Window" theory, the policy's aim was to focus more on the environment in which crime flourished than on the felons. It was the brainchild of two social scientists − James Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling - who first published their theory in March 1982 in an article for The Atlantic Monthly magazine.

The duo suggested that if a broken window isn't fixed immediately, it encourages vandals to take further action, breaking more windows and eventually occupying the whole building. What this parable proposed was that in order to reduce serious crime within the subway system, the authorities had to battle the minor offenses, such as petty theft, graffiti, fare evasion, or in this case, an act of breaking a window.

Wilson and Kelling believed that in order to eradicate crime, one must first create an environment that discourages it. This meant that the broken window was to be repaired immediately, graffiti was to be covered with paint as soon as possible, and minor offenders should be apprehended. It also meant the introduction of strict measures, together with the use of "stop, question, and frisk" by the NYC Police Department, who were given higher authority.

The theory proved to be highly controversial, and the scientists behind it were accused of being advocates of a zero-tolerance approach.

Even though it took more than a decade for their theory to be effectively put to practice, in the 1990s police commissioner William Bratton and Mayor Rudy Giuliani began introducing measures suggested by Wilson and Kelling.

Accusations of zealotry conducted by the Police Department once again surged, causing the authors of the theory to make an official statement in 2014, insisting on the difference between the broken window effect and zero tolerance:

"Critics use the term "zero tolerance" in a pejorative sense to suggest that Broken Windows policing is a form of zealotry-the imposition of rigid, moralistic standards of behavior on diverse populations. It is not. Broken Windows is a highly discretionary police activity that requires careful training, guidelines, and supervision, as well as an ongoing dialogue with neighborhoods and communities to ensure that it is properly conducted."
Read another story from us: A radical feminist shot Andy Warhol claiming that "he controlled her life"
Whether the theory is justified or not remains a subject of heated debate among social scientists. However, from the mid-1990s to this day, crime rates in the New York City subway system are at a record low. While the deteriorating trend continues, more and more subway users are reported every year, breathing new life into the old underground transport system.

Nikola Budanovic is a freelance journalist who has worked for various media outlets such as Vice, War History Online, The Vintage News, and Taste of Cinema. His main areas of interest are history, particularly military history, literature and film.

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With over 250 felonies in a week, NYC subway in the 1970s was the most dangerous place on earth

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New York City's subway in the late 1970s and 1980s looked like it came straight out of the Walter Hill cult classic, Warriors. Graffiti-laced train carts, poverty-stricken beggars and drug addicts, side by side with colorfully dressed gang members harassing the passengers who gladly give up valuable possessions in exchange for their lives were a normal sight back then.

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Peter Ferrari, who is known across the US city of Atlanta as the artist PLF, argues that the distinction between street art (or murals) and tags is not clear cut, and sees a paradox in public attitudes towards graffiti: ‘People hate the tags, but they want the murals. […] I think there is a misunderstanding, and people don’t realize that it is all connected and all related. You can’t have the mural without the tag’

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"The Evolution Of Street Art". 2017. Invaluable. https://www.invaluable.com/blog/the-evolution-of-street-art/

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When does vandalism become art? For some, it's when a doodle in a bathroom stall makes them smile; for others, it's the moment they encounter a large-scale painting on an unlikely street corner. Street art has a long and controversial history, but in recent years it has evolved and been reinvented as a high art form. More and more, artists who appropriate public space are also harnessing market forces for their own gain.

Street Art Then

The term "graffiti" often refers to guerrilla artwork on inner city walls and train lines, a movement popularized in the late 60s and 70s. One of the earliest forms of graffiti was "tagging," or the use of elaborate typography to encode the painter's name on the sides of buildings or subway cars. Artists got extra points for tagging inaccessible locations, often at great heights, and taggers competed to make their mark better than their competitors. This insular group determined skill by evaluating control of the spray paint and developing their unique typographical marks.

From the beginning, this art form was meant to be transgressive: in a world dominated by global branding, graffiti alienated the power of commercialism and government infrastructure. Street art was often viewed negatively by politicians and more affluent communities because it was associated with gang culture, but the artwork served as a way for disenfranchised groups of citizens to express their dissatisfaction with society.

Street art was also closely tied to hip hop culture. As such, many of the artists began working in New York, but the medium rapidly expanded to urban centers across the United States. Rap legend Fab 5 Freddy was intimately tied to the graffiti community through artists including Keith Haring and Jean-Michel Basquiat.

Haring has become a household name in the history of street art, best known for his public art installations on subways in New York in the 1980s. His style was distinct - he was known for bold outlines, vivid colors and his signature "radiant baby" motif. Like many street artists, Haring's work was inseparable from his activism. He was influenced by the AIDS crisis to create work that sent a message to society about the danger of prejudice.

Haring's friend and fellow art world darling, Jean-Michel Basquiat, began his career by spray-painting enigmatic epigrams on the Lower East Side of Manhattan in the 1970s. By the 1980s, he had befriended fellow artist Andy Warhol, and the two became frequent collaborators. Underscoring the significance of the street art movement, the Whitney Museum of American Art held a retrospective of Basquiat's work in 1992. Today, his pieces reside in the private collections of nearly every major institution and in the private collections of many prominent collectors.

As graffiti spread beyond New York City, each city developed their own hometown heros. In Washington, D.C. it was Taki 183, a moniker that combined his nickname and the number of the street where he lived. Now, Taki 183's canvases sell for thousands at auction.

Renowned contemporary artist Barry McGee is considered to be one of the most pivotal members of the street art movement. Born and raised in San Francisco, McGee's work is inspired by the bold, cartoon-like forms many other graffiti artists used. He uses his pieces to draw attention to the large homeless population in the Bay Area. McGee's work was included in the 2001 Venice Biennale, and soon after, works by the artist began appearing on the secondary market, and soaring in value. His wife, fellow artist Margaret Kilgallen, was also a strong voice in the street art community before her death in 2001 and is one of the few female artists recognized in the field.

Graffiti Across the Globe

From its humble beginnings, graffiti evolved in several directions: some artists began using stencils to create more elaborate works including portraits and landscapes, while others continued using spray paint to put up murals around their cities.

Street art also began appearing internationally. In the early 1980s Blek le Rat pioneered stencil art in Paris. The artist's rat stencils alluded to the controlling nature of state power in the French capital city and served as a way to bring art out of the traditional gallery setting. His use of ready-made stencils let him work quickly and evade arrest.

In Britain, street art has become synonymous with the name Banksy. The artist, whose identity is his most deeply guarded secret, was directly influenced by Blek le Rat to create politically-charged stencils and installation pieces. Banksy began to create his pieces in Bristol in the 1990s but now travels around the world to find backdrops for his pieces. Far from his humble beginnings, Banksy is now the subject of a critically-acclaimed documentary, Exit Through the Gift Shop, and has a prolific line of made-for-sale works on the secondary market.

As his star rises, Banksy's street installations disappear more quickly. Owners of buildings with Banksy murals either destroy or preserve the works for sale. Most street artists, however, will only sanction the sale of their works if they created the piece specifically for that purpose.

Brazilian twins Os Gemeos discovered graffiti through hip hop and were greatly inspired by Barry McGee, whom they met while he was visiting Brazil in 1993. Their large-scale murals have appeared at Art Basel Miami Beach, Tate Modern, and at the Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston.

Street Art Now

Street art and graffiti techniques continue to evolve. Artists like KAWS, who designs vinyl toys and clothing, and Vhils, who creates his work by removing layers to reveal optical portraits, are among contemporary street artists gaining popularity today.

Many artists working today have achieved mainstream success, like American artist Shepard Fairey and French artist Invader. Fairey first gained international attention during the 2008 U.S. presidential election with his now iconic "Hope" poster, which features then-presidential candidate Barack Obama. Just eight years later, his work is now featured in the permanent collections at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., the Museum of Modern Art in New York, and in the V&A in London.

Invader's pixelated video game-like installations have appeared in over 65 cities, in major gallery exhibitions, and at auction. Despite this success, these artists and their contemporaries still find themselves on the wrong side of the law for their sometimes unsanctioned public displays.

Street art's fundamental appeal is twofold: it contests hypocrisy and inequality in society as it serves as self-affirmation for artists whose oeuvre lies outside the traditional scope of fine art.

While still divisive in its treatment of urban architecture, street art has nonetheless become an economically viable form of art. In 2014, Phillips sold Banksy's Submerged Phone Booth (2006) for £722,500, then the third most expensive Banksy sold at auction and the artist's highest priced sculpture ever offered. In that same year, Sotheby's auctioned an untitled Keith Haring canvas from 1986 for $4,869,000. These top-dollar examples demonstrate that what emerged as a grassroots movement has evolved into an internationally-recognized art that collectors will continue to compete for at the highest level.
Looking for more examples of street art? Browse the following upcoming auctions:
Art Urbain - Street For Kids | Le Musée en Herbe | March 9

Contemporary Art Day Auction | Sotheby's | March 9

20th Century & Contemporary Art Day Sale | Phillips | March 10

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When does vandalism become art? For some, it's when a doodle in a bathroom stall makes them smile; for others, it's the moment they encounter a large-scale painting on an unlikely street corner. Street art has a long and controversial history, but in recent years it has evolved and been reinvented as a high art form.

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"The Definition Of Graffiti". 2018. Www.Dictionary.Com. Accessed September 24 2018. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/graffiti.

markings, as initials, slogans, or drawings, written, spray-painted, or sketched on a sidewalk, wall of a building or public restroom, or the like: These graffiti are evidence of the neighborhood's decline.

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1.  "...one of the outgrowths of the graffiti movement is that people all over the world came to New York seeking NYC culture - and part of that culture they were seeking was the graffiti written on our subways."

2. He recalls a great sense of camaraderie between the young men with their spray cans, as does Gennari, who describes them as a "brotherhood" of the city's anti-establishment youth.

3. The results show that contrary to public opinion, the youth interviewed who participate in graffiti writing in its most artistic form, "piecing", are not focused on vandalism but have carefully considered their relationships with their community and their art.

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what is visual culture?

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#5 -- response to graffiti from authorities and the white suburbs

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#5 -- response to graffiti from authorities and the white suburbs

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1. the authorities hated it, as did many passengers, who felt it symbolized a city that was going to rack and ruin.

2. UNDER THE NEW URBAN EPIDEMIC (STATS AND QUOTES)

3. In September 1979, there were 250 felonies reported per week – all going down in the dark hallways of the subway system.

4. Graffiti have not traditionally been regarded as a social indicator, but rather as a folk symbol in their own right. Consequently, their diagnostic significance has been neglected, and they have been primarily treated in anecdotal and jocular vein in popular magazines.

5. The question of whether a ‘good’ cause can justify the breaking of laws (for example, by spraying illicit graffiti onto public road surfaces) and the potential damage graffiti can cause to public or private property cannot be answered here and is highly dependent on specific circumstances and contexts, and on the techniques used.

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1. Eric Felisbret, author and former graffiti artist, says graffiti culture was in a way a product of the civil rights movement.

2. The question of whether a ‘good’ cause can justify the breaking of laws (for example, by spraying illicit graffiti onto public road surfaces) and the potential damage graffiti can cause to public or private property cannot be answered here and is highly dependent on specific circumstances and contexts, and on the techniques used.

3.  It is a visible and powerful form of protest that promotes change and social justice by allowing oppressed groups to express their viewpoints about human rights abuses, past and present.

4. Like many street artists, Haring’s work was inseparable from his activism. He was influenced by the AIDS crisis to create work that sent a message to society about the danger of prejudice.

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1. Ghetto, in slang usage, has entirely lost the sense of forced segregation — the meaning it held for centuries. In a rapid about-face, it's become an indictment of individual choices.

2. "We have become embarrassed about saying ghetto, a word that accurately describes a neighborhood where government has not only concentrated a minority but established barriers to its exit.

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1. markings, as initials, slogans, or drawings, written, spray-painted, or sketched on a sidewalk, wall of a building or public restroom, or the like: These graffiti are evidence of the neighborhood's decline.

2. The line between ‘art’ and ‘vandalism’ in interpretations of illicit graffiti can be very thin and very much depends on the background and point of view of the spectator and on the context within which it is displayed.

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"We have become embarrassed about saying ghetto, a word that accurately describes a neighborhood where government has not only concentrated a minority but established barriers to its exit."
"By the 1960's, when few white families were still living in urban public housing, civil rights groups had little remaining reason to challenge the discriminatory assignment of tenants. Instead, their focus shifted to opposing the placement of what had become predominantly African American projects in already-segregated neighborhoods, increasing residents' racial isolation."

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"NPR Choice Page". 2018. Npr.Org. Accessed September 20 2018. https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2014/04/27/306829915/segregated-from-its-history-how-ghetto-lost-its-meaning.

Ghetto, in slang usage, has entirely lost the sense of forced segregation — the meaning it held for centuries. In a rapid about-face, it's become an indictment of individual choices.

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As you might have gathered from our blog's title, the Code Switch team is kind of obsessed with the ways we speak to each other. Each week in "Word Watch," we'll dig into language that tells us something about the way race is lived in America today. (Interested in contributing? Holler at this form.)
The word "ghetto" is an etymological mystery. Is it from the Hebrew get, or bill of divorce? From the Venetian ghèto, or foundry? From the Yiddish gehektes, "enclosed"? From Latin Giudaicetum, for "Jewish"? From the Italian borghetto, "little town"? From the Old French guect, "guard"?

In his etymology column for the Oxford University Press, Anatoly Liberman took a look at each of these possibilities. He considered ever more improbable origins - Latin for "ribbon"? German for "street"? Latin for "to throw"? - before declaring the word a stubborn mystery.

But whatever the root language, the word's original meaning was clear: "the quarter in a city, chiefly in Italy, to which the Jews were restricted," as the OED puts it. In the 16th and 17th centuries, cities like Venice, Frankfurt, Prague and Rome forcibly segregated their Jewish populations, often walling them off and submitting them to onerous restrictions.

By the late 19th century, these ghettos had been steadily dismantled. But instead of vanishing from history, ghettos reappeared - with a purpose more ominous than segregation - under Nazi Germany. German forces established ghettos in over a thousand cities across Europe. They were isolated, strictly controlled and resource-deprived - but unlike the ghettos of history, they weren't meant to last.

Reviving the Jewish ghetto made genocide a much simpler project. As the Holocaust proceeded, ghettos were emptied by the trainload. The prisoners of the enormous Warsaw ghetto, which at one point held 400,000 Jews, famously fought their deportation to death camps. They were outnumbered and undersupplied, but some managed to die on their own terms; thousands of Jews were killed within the walls of the ghetto, rather than in the camps.
From Anti-Semitism To Race And Poverty
Jewish ghettos were finally abolished after the end of World War II. But the word lived on, redefined as a poor, urban black community.

As early as 1908, "ghetto" was sometimes used metaphorically to describe slum areas that weren't mandated by law but that were limited to a single group of people because of other constraints. That year, Jack London wrote of "the working-class ghetto." Immigrant groups and American Jews were also identified as living in these unofficial "ghettos."

Even as those areas were identified, they were already transforming. A 1928 study of American Jewish ghettos explained why such communities were being "invaded" by people of color: "the Negro, like the immigrant, is segregated in the city into a racial colony. Economic considerations, race prejudice and cultural differences combine to set him apart." "Race prejudice" included laws and lending practices, from redlining to restrictive covenants, explicitly design to separate white and nonwhite city dwellers.

After World War II, "white flight" from inner cities further exacerbated racial segregation. By the '60s and '70s, so-called "negro ghettos" in cities like Chicago, New York and Detroit were central to the cultural conversation about poverty. "Something must be done, and done soon, to build a strong and stable family structure among Negro ghetto dwellers," an Ebony editorial contended in 1966; countless academic articles argued about the causes of ghetto poverty.

And in 1969, Elvis - in his late-career comeback - took a turn for the mournful with "In the Ghetto."
Elvis (and many cover singers after him) sings about Chicago's crowded black ghettos with an outsider's concern: "People, don't you understand / the child needs a helping hand / or he'll grow to be an angry young man some day."
Ghetto Not-So-Fabulous?
Almost half a century later, Busta Rhymes used the same song title to celebrate the ghetto as a source of identity.

Busta Rhymes doesn't ignore the painful effects of intergenerational poverty. The ghetto is where "crackhead chicks still smoke with babies in they belly." But he's not calling for help or claiming that all ghetto-dwellers are miserable. The ghetto is also "where you find beautiful women and rugrats / and some of the most powerful people, I love that!"

Ghettos were always defined by lack of choice - they were places inhabitants were forcedto live, whether by anti-Semitic governments, discriminating neighbors or racist practices like redlining. Sociologist Mario Small argues that these limits have largely been lifted, such that researchers should no longer consider "ghetto" a useful word for urban slums.

And indeed, use of the word "ghetto" in print has been declining since the early '70s. But slang variants have been rising in popularity since before the turn of the millennium. And a quick glance at social media suggests they're not going away; on a recent weekday, twitter users referenced "ghetto" almost 20 times per minute.

"Being ghetto," or behaving in a low-class manner (see also: "ratchet"). "Ghetto fabulous," flashy glamour without the wealth. "Ghetto" as an adjective, roughly synonymous with "jury-rigged," for anything cobbled together out of subpar materials.

Many commentators have objected to these terms. Using ghetto as an insult is, as our own Karen Grigsby Bates has pointed out, inherently classist. Ta-Nehisi Coates once wrote that "ghetto, in its most unironic usage, is a word for people you don't know. It's a word that allows you to erase individuals and create boxes." And arguments that the terms are race-neutral are, well, unconvincing.

This current use of "ghetto" is also curiously mismatched to the history of ghettos. Venice's ghettos were home to prosperous merchants. Warsaw's ghettos housed resistance fighters. Harlem was a ghetto when it hosted a transformative literary and cultural movement. Chicago's Bronzeville was home to the black professional class - ghettos, by removing citizens' freedom to live where they want, force schoolteachers next to drug dealers, working families next to whorehouses.

But slang references to "ghetto culture" don't refer to any of those legacies, or to the perseverance it takes to survive under such limitations. ("You surviving in the ghetto," raps Busta Rhymes, "you can make it anywhere.") Instead, they reduce ghetto life to poverty and poor behavior. Acting ghetto. Being ghetto. Dressing ghetto.

Ghetto, in slang usage, has entirely lost the sense of forced segregation - the meaning it held for centuries. In a rapid about-face, it's become an indictment of individual choices.

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Segregated From Its History, How 'Ghetto' Lost Its Meaning

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As you might have gathered from our blog's title, the Code Switch team is kind of obsessed with the ways we speak to each other. Each week in "Word Watch," we'll dig into language that tells us something about the way race is lived in America today. (Interested in contributing?

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1st part: graffiti as protest
2nd part: response to graffiti

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find definition of ghettoization, or definition of ghetto

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find definition of ghettoization, or definition of ghetto

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I. Introduction
⎝            ⎠

Thesis: Graffiti in the 70's was used as a form of protest against segregation and the [ghettoization] of African American Communities. The suburban white public and their authorities responded to that protest by amplifying already established, and new negative stereotypes about African American communities.

1. Body Paragraphs (topic sentence; quotes; data; informational material; analysis)

1. The word graffiti

1. TS: Graffiti is defined in many ways and through many lenses; however, each perspective carries a stigma or gives space for artistic expression.

2. Define graffiti

3. Differentiate graffiti (black kids in the ghetto signified the neighborhoods decline) and street art (introspective articulation of what's happening around the world or in someone's life around them. Its art.

2. The word ghetto

1. Explain that in the 60’s there was desegregation

2. And that in ghettos there was immense residue of segregation

3. Go into articles of the times and describe and define ghetto

4. Look to quotes in housing segregation pursuit

5. Which sparked graffiti and formed culture for expression of graffiti artists to voice their silenced perspectives

3. graffiti and ghetto as culture

1. Set the scene; protest grows from culture;

2. why that form of protest: spray paint is inexpensive; marking property; fun to do

3. goes into why: its defiant; gets reaction and notice where people feel invisible

4. ghetto and graffiti as protest (from culture)

1. How its defiant; how it gets reaction and notice; how how how

5. response to graffiti from authorities and white public (or separate the two)

1. Graffiti was seen as disruptive and villainized and then criminalized as an act of vandalism. The act of protest of some graffiti was then reappropriated by the opposing force and authorities to reinforce stereotypes.

2. ” Graffiti took on a dynamic of its own where more aggression and more desire to protest against its stereotypes and the authority fed into the incarceration and criminalization rates of ghettos.

3.  Graffiti artists at that time had been villainized for their expression of “attitudes, behavioral dispositions, and social processes” rather than look to for individual perspective on their environment (the ghetto) because “direct measurement is difficult”.

2. Conclusion

Big picture. Broadening subject and peaking the reader’s interest. What's happening NOW

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Graffiti in the 70's was used as a form of protest against segregation and the [ghettoization] of African American Communities. The suburban white public and their authorities responded to that protest by amplifying already established, and new negative stereotypes about African American communities.

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Authorities and public that think of graffiti as ugly amplify already established negative stereotypes about African American Communities.
^^ body paragraphs
ˇˇ conclusion
Graffiti artist are then taking that stereotype enhancing it and protesting with it.

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" GRAFFITI: GIVING VOICE TO THE INDIGENOUS.: Discovery Service For Cambridge School Of Weston ". 2018. Eds.A.Ebscohost.Com.
Accessed September 18 2018.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=85514770&site=eds-live.

"This effusive graffiti..."
"It is a visible and powerful form of protest..."
"history books are taken from..."

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Sign in with your credentials to access the EBSCOhost premium information resources provided by your subscribing institution.

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"Visions Of Protest: Graffiti". 2018. Openlearn. Accessed September 19 2018. http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/visions-protest-graffiti/content-section-5#.

Peter Ferrari, who is known across the US city of Atlanta as the artist PLF, argues that the distinction between street art (or murals) and tags is not clear cut, and sees a paradox in public attitudes towards graffiti: ‘People hate the tags, but they want the murals. […] I think there is a misunderstanding, and people don’t realize that it is all connected and all related. You can’t have the mural without the tag’

The question of whether a ‘good’ cause can justify the breaking of laws (for example, by spraying illicit graffiti onto public road surfaces) and the potential damage graffiti can cause to public or private property cannot be answered here and is highly dependent on specific circumstances and contexts, and on the techniques used.

The line between ‘art’ and ‘vandalism’ in interpretations of illicit graffiti can be very thin and very much depends on the background and point of view of the spectator and on the context within which it is displayed.

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visions of protest: graffiti: 5  graffiti as a form of communication

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This free course, Visions of protest: Graffiti, introduces students to contrasting understandings of graffiti. It draws on a wide range of graffiti examples, including mystery zebras in Hackney,...

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" URBAN GRAFFITI AS TERRITORIAL MARKERS.: Discovery Service For Cambridge School Of Weston ". 2018. Eds.A.Ebscohost.Com. Accessed September 18 2018.
"Graffiti might be regarded, perhaps,..."
"...today's graffiti are tomorrow's headlines"
"Graffiti have not traditionally..."
UNDER the "New Urban Epidemic"

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" American Graffiti: The Social Life Of Segregation Signs: Discovery Service For Cambridge School Of Weston ". 2018. Eds.A.Ebscohost.Com. Accessed September 18 2018. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsglr&AN=edsgcl.194963498&site=eds-live.

"critical interest in representations..."

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Parks, Michelle. 2009. "Writing On The Walls: Graffiti And Civic Identity". Ruor.Uottawa.Ca. Accessed September 18 2018.
"The results show that contrary to public opinion,..."

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Recherche uO Research: Writing on the walls: Graffiti and civic identity

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This exploratory study uses Westheimer and Kahne's (2004) conceptual model of the three planes of 'good' citizenship activity to consider the civic contribution of youth graffiti writers in the community of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

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"When New York Was Graffiti Central". 2018. BBC News. Accessed September 18 2018.
"Eric Felisbret, author..."
"He recalls a great sense..."
"But although Mailer was not alone..."
"'I remember in 1982 he brought everyone out..."
"...one of the outgrowths of the graffiti movement..."
"Graffiti has gone..."

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Forty years ago author Norman Mailer published an essay in which he declared the graffiti of the New York subway to be "The Great Art of the 70s". But what happened to the artists and why is there no subway graffiti any more?

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graffiti and the ghetto
reactions to graffiti
graffiti and the 70's
graffiti and authorities
graffiti and

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Graffiti was both a form of protest and an expression of negative stereotypes associated with ghettos

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Knorr, Lilian. 2016. "Divided Landscape: The Visual Culture of Urban Segregation." Landscape Journal 35, no. 1: 109-125. Business Source Index, EBSCOhost (accessed September 14, 2018)

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1. What did graffiti symbolize?

2. How did graffiti/street art influence stereotypes of African Americans and Ghettos?

3. What was graffiti’s effect/affect on the greater public and the authorities/governemnt?

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-- --graffiti/street art was used as a form of protest
-- --graffiti/street art was used by authorities to segregate housing
-- --graffiti was accepted by the greater public but not the government

# data[].attributes.body
Ghettos
stereotypes
government
protest
authorities
graffiti
street art
visual art
culture
urban
inner city
public art
murals
redlining
broken glass
discrimination
politics
racist graffiti

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SEGREGATION
Environment

youth

activism

US/United States/America/United States of America/USA/U.S./U.S.A.
Black/African American
Stereotypes

media

Transportation

scooter

buses

public

private

train

redlining

Infrastructure

bridges

roads

public work

tunnel

roadways

redlining

Recreation

Recreational Activities
Health

disability

illness

disease

Wellness
Food Access
Education

school

teacher

student

university

high school

higher education

public

private

redlining

Politics

Martin Luther King Jr.

MLK

youth

activism

redlining

Laws

redlining

Legislation

redlining

Housing

suburbia

ghettos

urban

inner city/ inner-city

redlining

Opposition
Redlining

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1970’s         --         Graffiti

Preliminary question: In the 70’s in the US, What roles did graffiti and street are play in the response to the de jure system of segregation?

1. Is graffiti a valid form of protest?

2. What is graffiti?

3. What is street art?

4. How are they different?

5. What did graffiti symbolize?

1. What groups did that symbol both resonate and conflict with?

2. How did those groups utilize the symbol of graffiti?

6. Where was graffiti most present?

7. What was graffiti’s effect/affect on the greater public?

8. What was graffiti’s effect/affect on the authorities?

9. How did the authorities manipulate the output of graffiti?

10. How did graffiti influence stereotypes of African Americans?

11. How did graffiti influence stereotypes of ghettos?

12. What role did graffiti play in the government? (How did graffiti influence the government?)

13. Is racist graffiti, graffiti?

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The expression of graffiti was used as both a form of protest and to create negative stereotypes about African Americans and the ghetto which effectively undermined that protest.

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"NY Daily News - Banksy’s latest work annoys Bronx residents". 2018. Nydailynews.Com. Accessed September 29 2018.

http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/bronx/banksy-ghetto-4-life-work-offends-article-1.1492198#