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Portfolio Learning Activity 4.1

Slavery refers to a system in which one person owns another, the owner controls the slave’s life, where they live, when they work, what they eat (What is Slavery). Slavery has existed in many civilizations throughout history and has been influenced by many factors such as race, location and money. Slavery in West Africa and Chattel slavery have many similarities, however there are some differences mainly pertaining to the treatment of the enslaved persons. White bonded labour while not being an attractive form of labour is even further away from chattel slavery than West African slavery.

In the seventeenth the near genocide of the first peoples and the growing sugar industry resulted a high demand for labour, hence the British colonizers turned to white bonded labour. In this system persons of lower social status in the United Kingdom and Ireland would migrate to the Caribbean on five to seven year contracts at the end of which they would be given land or a sum of money with which to make a living (Jerome S. Handler). Some of the labours were voluntary but those who were considered to be vagrants or felons were involuntarily forced to migrate. When white bonded labour proved to be unsuccessful chattel slavery was implemented as a more cost effective method. In this system slaves were purchased from West African countries and shipped to the Caribbean to work (Jerome S. Handler). These slaves were treated as property rather than persons as slaves claimed they did not have souls (What is Slavery). They were not paid or allowed to exercise any form of free will (What is Slavery). While white bonded labourers were also treated poorly, given that they were only required to work for the duration of their contracts and slaves were only freed if they were granted manumission and that slaves were not chosen based on social status white bonded labour and slavery cannot be equated.

Chattel slavery and West African slavery differed in many ways. In West Africa persons were enslaved as a form of payment of debts or the result of war while chattel slaves did not owe their European masters any debts (Slavery in Africa). Chattel slaves were also treated as soul-less beings whose children were born into slavery, in West Africa however slaves were treated well and children of enslaved were protected by the masters or born free (Slavery in Africa). West African slaves were also allowed to work in their owners’ household and run their own errands which chattel slaves were not allowed to do (Slavery in Africa).

Race was also an important factor within the Caribbean slave society. Christian slavers used the “Curse of Ham” to justify the enslavement of African people. Within the slave community however race was not an advantage for slaves as mixed race children, born through relationships between enslaved women and white men would have the same status as their mother (Master-Slave Relations).

White bonded labour, West African slavery and Chattel slavery while all involving deplorable treatment of persons, upon comparison of these systems it can be seen that they are not equivalent to each other and all involve very different treatment of labourers and slaves.

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Portfolio Learning Activity 5.2

In the nineteenth century immigration were used to find a new source of labour with the abolition of slavery and the unwillingness of ex-slaves to continue on working on the plantations on which they were imprisoned. Immigrants travelled to the West Indies from Africa, the United States of America and Asia (The Cambridge Survey of World Migration). There was also immigration within the Caribbean Islands, mainly to Trinidad as there was more land available there. The most successful immigration scheme in Guyana and Trinidad however was Indian indentureship. Although here were many push and pull factors that encouraged Indian immigration, one major push factor was the perceived opportunity for social mobility.

In nineteenth century India moving up the social ladder was an impossible task given the presence of the caste system. The caste system was used to assign social status based on birth rather than achievement (The Caste System). This meant that the rich would remain rich and the poor would remain poor, hence the opportunity to come to the Caribbean and achieve upward social mobility was appealing to the Indians. There was also the issues of overpopulation and the competition from English companies resulting in famine and lowered wages at the time (Immigration Schemes Part ii).

The agents sent by the English to recruit labour also gave the impression to the Indians that they would be well treated in the Caribbean. They were given assurances that they would be able to practice their culture and religion. They were promised a return to India after ten years in the colony or be able to attain land after their contracted period of work was completed (Mahase). The indentured labourers were also given assurances that they would be given free medical care and maintenance when ill (Mahase). All these factors gave the impression that migrating to the Caribbean would be a better alternative to staying in India.

Upon arrival in the Caribbean however the indentured labourers were not treated as promised, in fact they were treated closely to how slaves were treated and were not able to openly practise their religion (Immigration Schemes Part ii). With all factors considered however, given the social and economic situation in India at the time migration to the Caribbean for Indians was a great opportunity for social mobility of Indian people.

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Portfolio Learning Activity 7.1

British education in the Caribbean in the post-abolition British West Indies was primarily available to the upper class whites in society. Ex-slaves and indentured labourers only allowed limited opportunities to achieve a formal education (COATES). In many ways formal British education was used as a form of social and religious control, a way to convert ex-slaves and indentured labourers to their religion through denominational schools (Nandeed James,Seretta Singh). Education of ex-slaves was also seen by the British government as a way to maintain the prosperity of the colonies.

Denominational schools were establish first by the Roman Catholic and Anglican schools of Spain and England respectively (Nandeed James,Seretta Singh). In order to study at these schools studies were required to convert to the religion practised. There were nondenominational schools available however these school still evoked a protestant tone (Nandeed James,Seretta Singh). Since religion is so integral to a person’s lifestyle, it is simple to see how denominational schools were used as a form of social control.

Education was also seen by the British government as a way to maintain the prosperity of the British colony. This implies that the British government believed that the absence of education of the ex-slaves, they would not be able make meaningful contributions to the society established by the British colonizers. Hence education was used to impose British social customs on the ex-slaves (King).

Formal British education in the English-speaking Caribbean after the abolishment of slavery used as a form of social and religious control, implemented to ensure that non British citizen adopted British customs and built their societies on the back of these customs.

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Portfolio Learning Activity 8.1

Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago has been adopted from French culture and used by the ex-slaves after emancipation to celebrate their new found freedom. From the time Carnival was first celebrated on August 1st, Emancipation Day, 1833, it has evolved drastically from a celebration of freedom to an event integral to Trinidadian culture and identity enjoyed not by ex-slaves but also by all of Trinidad and the rest of the region. The evolution of Carnival also the ever evolving landscape of Caribbean culture and identity.

In the late eighteenth century between Christmas and lent the French and English marked the period by having feasts and balls (History of Carnival and its Elements). At this time non-whites were not allowed to participate in the festivities however, so they would have celebrations of their own. After emancipation the ex-slaves were free to participate in the Carnival activities freely (Carnival). Originally Carnival was kept over a three day period before Ash Wednesday however, sixty years of backlash from the upper class society behaviour of the participants, in 1943 Carnival on the street was limited to the Monday and Tuesday before Ash Wednesday (History of Carnival and its Elements).

In its early years Carnival was used as a form of rebellion against the whites who for years eroded and suppressed their own free will and culture. Over the years Carnival became a way for Africans from different tribes and cultures of their own to interact (Carnival). Carnival was postponed shortly during World War ii after which the festival show many changes occur (Carnival). The increased sense of nationality increased the meaning behind Carnival for Trinidad as a nation. Increased participation of by the Indian community as well as the increased popularity of new styles of music such as soca and chutney as oppose to the socially conscious calypso has resulted in a greater party atmosphere being associated with Carnival in present day (Isaac-Flavien). In many ways the evolution of Carnival can be paralleled to the evolution of Caribbean culture (Isaac-Flavien). Although Carnival was created by the European and was used as a form of rebellion, it has now become an important part of Trinidadian identity. In many ways although the European influence on the Caribbean, in particular the English- speaking Caribbean is very present and evident the Caribbean nations have also been able to establish their own individual and collective identities.

Carnival has moved away from being a method of rebellion for ex-slaves to an integral part of the culture of not just the African population but the entirety of the Trinidadian population. Carnival is enjoyed not only by Trinidadians but also the entire Caribbean and has also been adopted by other Caribbean cultures.

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Carnival. n.d. 4 July 2018. <https://www.nalis.gov.tt/Resources/Subject-Guide/Carnival>.

COATES, CHAD O. EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE BRITISH WEST INDIES:A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW. n.d. 3 July 2018. <https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED567093.pdf>.

History of Carnival and its Elements. n.d. 4 July 2018. <http://www.ncctt.org/new/index.php/carnival-history/history-of-carnival.html>.

Immigration Schemes Part ii. n.d. 4 July 2018. <https://www.pressreader.com/jamaica/jamaica-gleaner/20170321/282827895966334>.

Isaac-Flavien, Janice. The Translation of Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago: The Evolution of a Festival. n.d. 4 July 2018. <https://tusaaji.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/tusaaji/article/viewFile/37814/34274>.

Jerome S. Handler, Matthew C. Reilly. Contesting “White Slavery” in the Caribbean. n.d. 3 July 2018. <http://jeromehandler.org/wp-content/uploads/white-slaves.NWIG-2017.pdf>.

King, Ruby. EDUCATION IN THE BRITISH CARIBBEAN:THE LEGACY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. n.d. 3 July 2018. <http://www.educoas.org/Portal/bdigital/contenido/interamer/BkIACD/Interamer/Interamerhtml/Millerhtml/mil_king.htm>.

Mahase, Dr. Radica. A Brief Look at the Indian Indentureship System in Trinidad. 30 May 2015. 4 July 2018. <https://www.academia.edu/13335404/A_Brief_History_of_Indian_Indentureship_in_Trinidad>.

Master-Slave Relations. n.d. 3 July 2018. <https://www.bowdoin.edu/~prael/projects/gsonnen/page4.html>.

Nandeed James,Seretta Singh. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM “How Denominational Schools were Established. n.d. 3 July 2018. <http://curriculumhistory.org/Studies_in_Curriculum_History_and_Educational_Philosophy/Subjects_in_Trinidad_and_Tobagos_History_of_Education_files/Seretta%20Singh%20and%20Nandee%20James.pdf>.

Slavery in Africa. n.d. 3 July 2018. <http://www.discoveringbristol.org.uk/slavery/people-involved/enslaved-people/enslaved-africans/africa-slavery/>.

The Cambridge Survey of World Migration. Cambridge University Press, 1995. Google Books.

The Caste System. n.d. 4 July 2018. <http://www.ushistory.org/civ/8b.asp>.

What is Slavery. n.d. 3 July 2018. <http://abolition.e2bn.org/slavery_40.html>.

http://usslave.blogspot.com/2012/04/slavery-and-sugar.html

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/Dfldc3YjU40/hqdefault.jpg

https://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/trinidad.htm