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How To Make Laundry Detergent

INGREDIENTS

6 cups washing soda (where to buy washing soda, how to make your own)

Three bars of 4.5 – 5 ounce soap, finely grated (One made with coconut oil works best. Here’s how to make it, here’s where to buy it, and here’s another brand that also works well))

Optional – lemon essential oil (where to buy lemon essential oil)

ADDITIONAL ITEMS YOU’LL WANT TO HAVE ON HAND:

More on what to do with this stuff in the instructions below

non-GMO white vinegar

Powdered oxygen bleach without any additives (find it here)

Downy ball, optional (where to buy a Downy ball)

wool dryer balls (where to buy them, how to make your own)

food processor (this is the one I have)

TO MAKE:

1. Cut soap into small chunks. Add to the food processor along with the washing soda.

2. Blend until you have a fine powder. You may want to lay a dish towel over the top of your food processor to prevent a fine mist of powder from floating into the air. Also, let it settle a bit before opening the container or the powder will float onto your kitchen counter!

3. Pour into a clean container (keep the essential oil next to the jar and add 5 drops with each load)

TO USE:

These instructions are for a top loader. I don’t have any experience with front loaders, sorry!

1. Add 2-3 tablespoons laundry detergent per load ( If you are washing in cold water, dissolve it in hot water before adding it in. I prefer to start each load with a little hot water to dissolve and then put my laundry in)

2. If desired, add about five drops of lemon essential oil as a degreaser

3. If washing whites, add a scoop of powdered oxygen bleach or pour 1/2 cup peroxide in the bleach compartment

4. Add 1/2 cup vinegar to a Downy ball or the fabric softener compartment

5. For extra fabric softening goodness and a shorter drying time, toss some wool dryer balls in the dryer with your clothes.

IS THIS HE SAFE?

This soap is low-sudsing, so theoretically it should be fine for HE washers. A very similar recipe found on the Kirk’s Castile Soap website is said to be safe and offers the following information and tips:

“This powered recipe is great for High Efficiency washers because it is very low sudsing.

It is important that you grate the bar soap very finely for HE washers.”[i]

Special notes:

1.  As with other detergents, it is recommended that you cut the amount used in half for HE machines.

2. Be sure to check your owner’s manual – using certain types of products may void your warranty.

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The Teaching of Indian Traditional Medicine

Indian Traditional Medicine functions through two social streams:

1. The Classical Health Traditions (CHT) like Ayurveda and Siddha are highly organised, classified, and codified and have a sophisticated conceptual and theoretical foundation and philosophical explanations.

2. The other stream, Oral Health Traditions (OHT), is very rich and diverse, but is not organised or codified. It is a distilled knowledge from people’s experience and is prevalent in rural and tribal areas of India. This oral folk tradition is mainly based on plants and it holds a respectable position today, especially in developing countries where modern health care is limited. Safe, effective and inexpensive indigenous remedies are gaining popularity among the urban and rural populations especially in India and China.

Classic Health Tradition (Ayurveda, Siddha and Amchi)

Classic health traditions have developed from Vedic/classical texts and treatises like Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda, Charaka Samhita (text on ancient Indian medicine), Susruta Samhita (text on ancient Indian surgery), Ashtanga Samgraha, Ashtanga Hridaya (text on ancient Indian medicine and surgery), Kashyapa Samhita (text on gynaecology and child health), and other numerous related text books in both Sanskrit and regional languages.

Oral Health Tradition (Folk and Tribal)

Oral health traditions have developed from:

Traditionally trained folk healers/village physicians.

Folk healers/village physicians who are not traditionally trained but experienced in certain health practices (e.g. Dai, bone setters, specialists in treating poisons, jaundice, mental disorders.

Old individual or different ethnic communities including women treating the patients based on the knowledge acquired from their predecessors.

Individuals belonging to different professions (educated group) who acquired certain knowledge from their predecessors

Ancient copper plate/palm leaf writings.

Old and recent publications in regional language.

Traditional groups of tribes.

Organised groups of tribal communities/tribal physicians/old individuals.

Tribal physicians among the migrated groups of tribe settled in the plains.

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- confident with their health.
-new form of surgery procedures.
-minimizing bacteria.
-coming up with new technology.

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Modern medicine is also known as Western medicine, and is considered to be much more effective than traditional herbal and homeopathic treatments.

Advances in trauma treatment through modern medicine have life-saving implications. Through adequate training and practice, surgeons and nurses work together in emergency situations treating severe injuries caused by accidents such as automobile crashes or natural disasters.

Modern medicine treats symptoms in addition to the presenting illness in order to alleviate patient discomfort and speed the healing process. With symptoms under control, patients can resume daily activities while the illness is treated.

Advances in medical technology and tools allow doctors to quickly and precisely identify patient issues. For example, X-ray machines diagnose broken bones and determine that a cast is the appropriate treatment to allow the injury to heal.

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1. Prevent Blood Clotting

First Health Benefits of Sea Cucumber is for blood clotting. There is a study conducted by Brazilian scientist on a sea cucumber that published in Journal of Biological Chemistry. He found out that sea cucumber contains anti-coagulant activity comes from its chondroitin sulfate which will prevent blood clotting.

If we left it untreated, blood clotting could be very dangerous for our health since it will lead to pulmonary embolism, a condition where the blood clots accumulated in the lungs and thus, it will restrict the blood flow which is very fatal. So, consuming sea cucumber is one of the best way to protect you from blood clotting.

1. Wound Up Healing

Do you know that sea cucumber could be very beneficial to make your wound gone away so quickly? Some studies say that consuming sea cucumber and its extract can speed up the recovery against your wounds. Sea cucumber is widely known for its ability to regenerate its own body tissue when injured and some studies believed that this advantage will be very beneficial for human too if they are consuming sea cucumber.

In fact, a study conducted by “Marine Drug” evidence that the arachnodic acid that contained in a sea cucumber is one of the compound that has responsibility to speed up wound healing.

1. High Intake of Protein

This is one of the most important benefits for sea cucumber. This echinoderm would be very beneficial to boost your protein and some studies already prove that. A study on sea cucumber conducted by the Director of Institute for Traditional Medicine in Oregon shown that the protein that contained in sea cucumber is higher than any other foods, except egg whites.

Besides, a study conducted at the Harvard School of Public Health stated that the high intake of a protein will be very useful to protect people from cardiovascular diseases.

1. Prevent Arthritis

Some studies also believed that sea cucumber can cure diseases associated with arthritis and joint pain. Thanks to its compound called chondroitin sulfate. This chondroitin sulfate is one the most important component in cartilage.

When you have insufficient amounts of chondroitin sulfate in the body, you will be more likely to suffer from any diseases associated with arthritis and joint pain. A study conducted by H.Benedikt, D.C also evidences that you’re strongly suggested to consume sea cucumber to reduce the joint pain and arthritis.

1. Prevent Cancer

A study conducted by Chinese scientist that published in “Cancer, Biology, and Therapy” evidence that sea cucumber contains a compound called philipnoside E. which is very beneficial to inhibit the formation of blood vessel that transported the nutrients to the tumors.

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This is what happen

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Make it a habit to read the ingredient labels and see for yourself what is in your food and if there are harmful chemicals in foods.

Is Your Food Safe For Your Family?

If you dine out often or your larder is mostly stocked with instant or processed foods, then it's time for you to take a closer look at what you're eating. Is your food safe for you and your family's consumption?

See this list of harmful foods to avoid. Don't underestimate the dangers of these foods.

In the name of convenience, very often your meals may come in packages that you pop into the microwave oven and then served on your dining table. Or you could be using tasty sauces in most of your cooking. Or what about the snacks that your children eat between meals?

Do you know what's in your food?

Chemicals in Foods

There are thousands of chemicals that are found in the foods that we buy off the shelves. If they come processed, it is highly possible that they contain hydrogenated fats, preservatives, starches, sugars, salt, artificial flavoring and coloring, bulking agent, emulsifiers, etc.

These may not sound harmful to you but read on to find out what they really are. These chemicals are the culprits that are slowly robbing us of our health. If you value your health, and I know you do, it's time that you take a hard look at this list.

Preservatives In Food

Preservatives are used by the food industry to extend the shelf life of foods, in some cases for many years! The chemical characteristics that are supposed to kill bacteria and other organisms are also killing us.

These are some names of preservatives used to preserve canned and dried fruits and vegetables from yeast and bacterial growth.

Sulphur dioxide

Sodium sulphite

Sodium bisulphite

Potassium metabisulphite

Calcium sulphite

Calcium hydrogen sulphite

Sulphur dioxide has been linked to mutations of cells that cause cancer.

And the various sulphites above can cause asthma, blurred vision, dizziness, irregular breathing, stomach problems, nervous irritability, etc.

Sodium nitrites are found in cured meat products like sausage, bacon, ham, frankfurters, hot dogs, luncheon meat, etc. These are highly toxic and affect the red blood cells, cause breathing difficulties and headaches. When combined with certain chemicals in the digestive system, it forms nitrosamine which is a very potent cause of cancer.

Benzoic acid and sodium benzoate are used in pickles, sauces, margarine, packaged juices and carbonated drinks. These substances provoke allergies, cause asthma, skin reactions, hyperactivity in children, gastric problems, migraines and activates carcinogens in the body.

Watch this video:

Artificial Flavorings in Foods

On their own, these chemicals have no taste. But when combined with other foods, they become flavor enhancers.

Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is present in most packet soups, instant noodles, gravy mixes, sauces, canned foods, frozen foods, soy sauce, etc. Some of the health effects associated with MSG are asthma attacks, headaches, heart palpitations, muscle tightness, nausea, numbness in the back of the neck, depression and mood swings.

Don't be deceived with food flavorings like "orange flavor", "peppermint flavor", "strawberry flavor", "sour plum flavor" and the likes. Technology is so advanced that the cheaper alternative, synthetic chemicals, can be used to mimic this flavoring to be like the real thing. Most of the time, the ingredients do not include any of these mentioned fruits at all.

Some of these chemicals: benzyl acetate, ethyl acetate and amyl acetate are used as industrial cleaning agents. How do they end up in our "food"?

Read: These food additives cause Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD).

Artificial Colorings in Food

Colors are added to "food" to make them look appealing and attractive, especially to children. They give the illusion of fresh ingredients which are in fact artificial.

Colorings are used widely in commercially prepared foods like cereals, canned or packet drinks, biscuits, cakes, ice creams, candies, pasta, desserts, chips, etc.

Check the ingredient labels and you will often see these:

Tartrazine (Yellow No. 5)

Carmoisine or Azorubine (Red)

Erythrosine (Red No. 3)

Amaranth (Red)

Sunset Yellow (Yellow No. 6)

Ponceau 4R or Chochineal Red A (Red)

Allura Red (Red No. 40)

Indigo Carmine or Indigotine (Blue)

Brilliant Blue (Blue No. 1)

Brilliant Black

Most of these artificial colorings are coal-tar dye or synthetic dye that are registered as pesticides, or used in the textile industry. Do we really want these in our bodies?

These can trigger asthma, cause hyperactivity in children, cause skin rashes, migraine, headaches, blurred vision, reduce digestive enzymes leading to a host of digestive problems, thyroid tumors, mood swings, defects in embryos, reduce white blood cells count, damage kidneys and adrenal glands, damage genes and many many more !!

Watch this video:

Artificial Sweeteners

These were initially aimed at reaching the diabetics but are now widely used in a lot of products. They are now sold as "sugar free", or "zero calories" for the weight conscious.

As these artificial sweeteners are sweeter than normal sugar, very little is used thus providing more profit to the food manufacturers.

Saccharin is a synthetic coal tar which is 300 times sweeter than sugar but 20 times cheaper. It is used freely in diet soft drinks, chewing gums, sugar-free jams, yogurts, jellies and sweets.

Cyclamate is 30 times sweeter than sugar and is often used together with saccharin.

Aspartame is 200 times sweeter than sugar and is commonly used in carbonated drinks, sweets, chewing gums, sugar-free jams, cough drops, lozenges, etc.

Acesulphame K is 200 times sweeter than sugar and is often used together with aspartame and other sweeteners. Commonly used in diet soft drinks, table-top sweeteners, chewing gum, breath mints, puddings, non-dairy creamers and the like.

Artificial sweeteners are deadly and carcinogenic. They can cause damage to eyes, brain, liver and other body organs, birth defects, tumors, leukemia, chronic respiratory diseases, joint pains, vertigo, insomnia, slurred speech, depression, anxiety attacks, fatigue, hyperactivity, stomach disorders, rashes, ringing in the ears, and my goodness ... it's a long list !!

Bleaches in Food Products

Chlorine is used as a bleaching agent in food, much like Chlorox. These agents destroy whatever vitamins that may be left in the food. After which, some coal-tar-derived (carcinogenic-cancer causing) vitamins are added and sold to the unsuspecting public as "enriched".

Commonly found in commercially-prepared flour products like biscuits, bread, cakes, etc.

Chlorine, when ingested frequently, can corrode the skin and mucous membranes. It has also been linked to bladder cancer, birth defects and increased risk of cardiovascular diseases.

Effects of Food Additives on Children

If you have always wondered why your child is hyperactive, and why he always throws a tantrum, check the food he eats. Is he exposed to artificial chemicals in foods? What about when he was in your womb? Were you heavily exposed to these additives?

These chemicals upset a child's biochemistry. He may have difficulty concentrating (ADD), settling down to sleep or may have disruptive behavior. And he doesn't need more drugs to calm him down!

When these artificial foods are removed from his dietary and is given healthy, wholesome food instead, you most likely will see his behavior improve. Even though your child may not suffer from disruptive behavior, keeping him away from these food chemicals will also help him grow healthily.

Why Are Chemicals Allowed In Foods?

The food industry is big business and helps with the country's economy. They are cheap to produce and bring in mega profit that goes back into the economy.

Like prescription drugs or tobacco-we know that they are outright harmful for our health. Why does the government allow them to be sold? These are big businesses and they contribute hugely to the economy, but at whose expense? Yours and mine! The consumers! So we need to learn to be wise and make the right choices.

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This is What Happens To Your Insides When You Ingest Artificial Preservatives, Sweeteners And Colors

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Make it a habit to read the ingredient labels and see for yourself what is in your food and if there are harmful chemicals in foods. If you dine out often or your larder is mostly stocked with instant or processed foods, then it's time for you to take a closer look at what you're eating.

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Additives in food - Why are additives added to food?

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Additives in food - Why are additives added to food? Learn how chemicals are used to enhance the taste of food and drink. You've probably noticed a long list of strange ingredients on your packets of food and drink, and it's likely that many of them are additives.

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European Food Information Council (EUFIC)

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Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous or folk medicine) comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines traditional medicine as "the sum total of the knowledge, skills, and practices based on the theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness".[1]

In some Asian and African countries, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their primary health care needs. When adopted outside its traditional culture, traditional medicine is often called alternative medicine.[1] Practices known as traditional medicines include Ayurveda, Siddha medicine, Unani, ancient Iranian medicine, Iranian (Persian), Islamic medicine, traditional Chinese medicine, traditional Korean medicine, acupuncture, Muti, Ifá, and traditional African medicine. Core disciplines which study traditional medicine include herbalism, ethnomedicine, ethnobotany, and medical anthropology.

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Which food additives were involved in the study?

Sunset yellow (E110), carmoisine (E122), ponceau 4R (E124), tartrazine (E102) and allura red (E129) are all azo compounds, containing the Ar-N=N-Ar group. The delocalisation of electrons around both aryl rings is responsible for the compounds’ absorption of visible light, making characteristic bright colours. Like the remaining food colouring involved in the study, quinoline yellow (E104), they are all synthetic dyes not existing in nature. ’These additives give colour to foods but nothing else,’ says Deirdre Hutton, the chair of the FSA - which is why the agency felt it was sensible to remove them from food and drink products in the light of the study.

Sodium benzoate (E211), the sodium salt of benzoic acid, is a preservative which stops bacteria and fungi growing in food and drink. In acidic conditions, benzoic acid is absorbed into bacterial cells, and prevents anaerobic glucose fermentation, so blocking bacterial growth. The preservative is found in apples and some berries, and is widely added to drinks.

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Some food additives are worse than others. Here’s a list of the top food additives to avoid:

1. Artificial Sweeteners

Aspartame, (E951) more popularly known as Nutrasweet and Equal, is found in foods labeled "diet" or "sugar-free". Aspartame is believed to be carcinogenic and accounts for more reports of adverse reactions than all other foods and food additives combined. Aspartame is not your friend. Aspartame is a neurotoxin and carcinogen. Known to erode intelligence and affect short-term memory, the components of this toxic sweetener may lead to a wide variety of ailments including brain tumor, diseases like lymphoma, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, fibromyalgia, and chronic fatigue, emotional disorders like depression and anxiety attacks, dizziness, headaches, nausea, mental confusion, migraines and seizures. Acesulfame-K, a relatively new artificial sweetener found in baking goods, gum and gelatin, has not been thoroughly tested and has been linked to kidney tumors. Read more about the dangers of Aspartame here.

Found in diet or sugar-free sodas, diet coke, coke zero, jello (and other gelatins), desserts, sugar-free gum, drink mixes, baking goods, table top sweeteners, cereal, breath mints, pudding, kool-aid, ice tea, chewable vitamins, toothpaste.

2. High Fructose Corn Syrup

High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is a highly-refined artificial sweetener which has become the number one source of calories in America. It is found in almost all processed foods. HFCS packs on the pounds faster than any other ingredient, increases your LDL (“bad”) cholesterol levels, and contributes to the development of diabetes and tissue damage, among other harmful effects.

Found in most processed foods, bread, candy, flavored yogurts, salad dressings, canned vegetables, cereals.

3. Monosodium Glutamate (MSG / E621)

MSG is an amino acid used as a flavor enhancer in soups, salad dressings, chips, frozen entrees, and many restaurant foods. MSG is known as an excitotoxin, a substance which overexcites cells to the point of damage or death. Studies show that regular consumption of MSG may result in adverse side effects which include depression, disorientation, eye damage, fatigue, headaches, and obesity. MSG affects the neurological pathways of the brain and disengages the "I'm full" function which explains the effects of weight gain.

Found in Chinese food (Chinese Restaurant Syndrome ) many snacks, chips, cookies, seasonings, most Campbell Soup products, frozen dinners and lunch meats.

4. Trans Fat

Trans fat is used to enhance and extend the shelf life of food products and is among the most dangerous substances that you can consume. Found in deep-fried fast foods and certain processed foods made with margarine or partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, trans fats are formed by a process called hydrogenation. Numerous studies show that trans fat increase LDL cholesterol levels while decreasing HDL (“good”) cholesterol, increases the risk of heart attacks, heart disease, and strokes, and contributes to increased inflammation, diabetes, and other health problems. Oils and fat are now forbidden on the Danish market if they contain trans fatty acids exceeding 2 per cent, a move that effectively bans partially hydrogenated oils.

Found in margarine, chips and crackers, baked goods, fast foods.

5. Common Food Dyes

Studies show that artificial colorings which are found in soda, fruit juices, and salad dressings, may contribute to behavioral problems in children and lead to a significant reduction in IQ. Animal studies have linked some food colorings to cancer. Watch out for these ones:

Blue #1 and Blue #2 (E133)

Banned in Norway, Finland, and France. May cause chromosomal damage.

Found in candy, cereal, soft drinks, sports drinks and pet foods.

Red dye # 3 (also Red #40 – a more current dye) (E124)

Banned in 1990 after 8 years of debate from use in many foods and cosmetics. This dye continues to be on the market until supplies run out! Has been proven to cause thyroid cancer and chromosomal damage in laboratory animals, may also interfere with brain-nerve transmission.

Found in fruit cocktail, maraschino cherries, cherry pie mix, ice cream, candy, bakery products and more!

Yellow #6 (E110) and Yellow Tartrazine (E102)

Banned in Norway and Sweden. Increases the number of kidney and adrenal gland tumors in laboratory animals, may cause chromosomal damage.

Found in American cheese, macaroni and cheese, candy and carbonated beverages, lemonade and more!

6. Sodium Sulfite (E221)

Preservative used in wine-making and other processed foods. According to the FDA, approximately one in 100 people is sensitive to sulfites in food. The majority of these individuals are asthmatic, suggesting a link between asthma and sulfites. Individuals who are sulfite sensitive may experience headaches, breathing problems, and rashes. In severe cases, sulfites can actually cause death by closing down the airway altogether, leading to cardiac arrest.

Found in wine and dried fruit.

7. Sodium Nitrate/Sodium Nitrite

Sodium nitrate (or sodium nitrite) is used as a preservative, coloring, and flavoring in bacon, ham, hot dogs, lunch meats, corned beef, smoked fish and other processed meats. This ingredient, which sounds harmless, is actually highly carcinogenic once it enters the human digestive system. There, it forms a variety of nitrosamine compounds that enter the bloodstream and wreak havoc with a number of internal organs: the liver and pancreas in particular. Sodium nitrite is widely regarded as a toxic ingredient, and the USDA actually tried to ban this additive in the 1970's but was vetoed by food manufacturers who complained they had no alternative for preserving packaged meat products. Why does the industry still use it? Simple: this chemical just happens to turn meats bright red. It's actually a color fixer, and it makes old, dead meats appear fresh and vibrant.

Found in hotdogs, bacon, ham, lunch meat, cured meats, corned beef, smoked fish or any other type of processed meat.

8. BHA And BHT (E320)

Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) are preservatives found in cereals, chewing gum, potato chips, and vegetable oils. This common preservative keeps foods from changing color, changing the flavor or becoming rancid. Affects the neurological system of the brain, alters behavior and has a potential to cause cancer. BHA and BHT are oxidants which form cancer-causing reactive compounds in your body.

Found in potato chips, gum, cereal, frozen sausages, enriched rice, lard, shortening, candy, jello.

9. Sulfur Dioxide (E220)

Sulfur additives are toxic and in the United States of America, the Federal 🤬 Administration have prohibited their use on raw fruit and vegetables. Adverse reactions include bronchial problems particularly in those prone to asthma, hypotension (low blood pressure), flushing, tingling sensations or anaphylactic shock. It also destroys vitamins B1 and E. Not recommended for consumption by children. The International Labour Organization says to avoid E220 if you suffer from conjunctivitis, bronchitis, emphysema, bronchial asthma, or cardiovascular disease.

Found in beer, soft drinks, dried fruit, juices, cordials, wine, vinegar, and potato products.

10. Potassium Bromate

An additive used to increase volume in some white flour, bread, and rolls, potassium bromate is known to cause cancer in animals. Even small amounts in bread can create problems for humans.

Found in bread.

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Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance its taste, appearance, or other qualities. Some additives have been used for centuries; for example, preserving food by pickling (with vinegar), salting, as with bacon, preserving sweets or using sulfur dioxide as with wines. With the advent of processed foods in the second half of the twentieth century, many more additives have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin.

Food additives can be divided into several groups, although there is some overlap because some additives exert more than one effect. For example, salt is both a preservative as well as a flavor.[3][4]
Acidulents Confer sour or acid taste. Common acidulents include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, and lactic acid.
Acidity regulators Acidity regulators are used for controlling the pH of foods for stability or to affect activity of enzymes.
Anticaking agents Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking.
Antifoaming and foaming agents Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods. Foaming agents do the reverse.
Antioxidants Antioxidants such as vitamin C are preservatives by inhibiting the degradation of food by oxygen.
Bulking agents Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its taste.
Food coloring Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation or to make food look more attractive.
Fortifying agents Vitamins, minerals, and dietary supplements to increase the nutritional valueColor retention agents In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color.
Emulsifiers Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenized milk.
Flavors Flavors are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created artificially.
Flavor enhancers Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. A popular example is monosodium glutamate. Some flavor enhancers have their own flavors that are independent of the food.
Flour treatment agents Flour treatment agents are added to flour to improve its color or its use in baking.
Glazing agents Glazing agents provide a shiny appearance or protective coating to foods.Humectants Humectants prevent foods from drying out.
Tracer gas Tracer gas allow for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being exposed to atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life.
Preservatives Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms.
Stabilizers Stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for example) give foods a firmer texture. While they are not true emulsifiers, they help to stabilize emulsions.
Sweeteners Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects regarding diabetes mellitus, tooth decay, or diarrhea.
Thickeners Thickening agents are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The different forms of emulsifier lecithin - powder, two different concentration liquids, granular and powder lecithin

Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance taste, appearance, or other sensory qualities. Some additives have been used for centuries as part of an effort to preserve food, for example vinegar ( pickling), salt ( salting), smoke ( smoking), sugar ( crystallization), etc. This allows for longer-lasting foods such as bacon, sweets or wines. With the advent of ultra-processed foods in the second half of the twentieth century, many additives have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin. Food additives also include substances that may be introduced to food indirectly (called "indirect additives") in the manufacturing process, through packaging, or during storage or transport.[1][2]

To regulate these additives and inform consumers, each additive is assigned a unique number called an " E number", which is used in Europe for all approved additives. This numbering scheme has now been adopted and extended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission to internationally identify all additives,[3] regardless of whether they are approved for use.

E numbers are all prefixed by "E", but countries outside Europe use only the number, whether the additive is approved in Europe or not. For example, acetic acid is written as E260 on products sold in Europe, but is simply known as additive 260 in some countries. Additive 103, alkannin, is not approved for use in Europe so does not have an E number, although it is approved for use in Australia and New Zealand. Since 1987, Australia has had an approved system of labelling for additives in packaged foods. Each food additive has to be named or numbered. The numbers are the same as in Europe, but without the prefix "E".[citation needed ]

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lists these items as " generally recognized as safe" (GRAS);[4] they are listed under both their Chemical Abstracts Service number and FDA regulation under the United States Code of Federal Regulations.

Food additives can be divided into several groups, although there is some overlap because some additives exert more than one effect. For example, salt is both a preservative as well as a flavor.[5][1]

Acidulants

Acidulants confer sour or acid taste. Common acidulants include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, and lactic acid.

Acidity regulators

Acidity regulators are used for controlling the pH of foods for stability or to affect activity of enzymes.

Anticaking agents

Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking.

Antifoaming and foaming agents

Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods. Foaming agents do the reverse.

Antioxidants

Antioxidants such as vitamin C are preservatives by inhibiting the degradation of food by oxygen.

Bulking agents

Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its taste.

Food coloring

Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation or to make food look more attractive.

Fortifying agents

Vitamins, minerals, and dietary supplements to increase the nutritional value

Color retention agents

In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color.

Emulsifiers

Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenized milk.

Flavorings*

Flavorings are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created artificially.

*In EU, flavorings do not have an E-code and they are not considered as food additives.

Flavor enhancers

Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. A popular example is monosodium glutamate. Some flavor enhancers have their own flavors that are independent of the food.

Flour treatment agents

Flour treatment agents are added to flour to improve its color or its use in baking.

Glazing agents

Glazing agents provide a shiny appearance or protective coating to foods.

Humectants

Humectants prevent foods from drying out.

Tracer gas

Tracer gas allows for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being exposed to atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life.

Preservatives

Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms.

Stabilizers

Stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for example) give foods a firmer texture. While they are not true emulsifiers, they help to stabilize emulsions.

Sweeteners

Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects regarding diabetes mellitus, tooth decay, or diarrhea.

Thickeners

Thickening agents are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties.

Packaging

Bisphenols, phthalates, and perfluoroalkyl chemicals (PFCs) are indirect additives used in manufacturing or packaging. In July 2018 the American Academy of Pediatrics called for more careful study of those three substances, along with nitrates and food coloring, as they might harm children during development.[6]

With the increasing use of processed foods since the 19th century, food additives are more widely used. Many countries regulate their use. For example, boric acid was widely used as a food preservative from the 1870s to the 1920s,[7][8] but was banned after World War I due to its toxicity, as demonstrated in animal and human studies. During World War II, the urgent need for cheap, available food preservatives led to it being used again, but it was finally banned in the 1950s.[7] Such cases led to a general mistrust of food additives, and an application of the precautionary principle led to the conclusion that only additives that are known to be safe should be used in foods. In the United States, this led to the adoption of the Delaney clause, an amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, stating that no carcinogenic substances may be used as food additives.[9] However, after the banning of cyclamates in the United States and Britain in 1969, saccharin, the only remaining legal artificial sweetener at the time, was found to cause cancer in rats.[10] Widespread public outcry in the United States, partly communicated to Congress by postage-paid postcards supplied in the packaging of sweetened soft drinks, led to the retention of saccharin, despite its violation of the Delaney clause.[11] However, in 2000, saccharin was found to be carcinogenic in rats due only to their unique urine chemistry.[12][13]

In 2007, Food Standards Australia New Zealand published an official shoppers' guidance with which the concerns of food additives and their labeling are mediated.[14] In the EU it can take 10 years or more to obtain approval for a new food additive. This includes five years of safety testing, followed by two years for evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and another three years before the additive receives an EU-wide approval for use in every country in the European Union.[15] Apart from testing and analyzing food products during the whole production process to ensure safety and compliance with regulatory standards, Trading Standards officers (in the UK) protect the public from any illegal use or potentially dangerous mis-use of food additives by performing random testing of food products.[16]

There has been significant controversy associated with the risks and benefits of food additives.[17] Natural additives may be similarly harmful or be the cause of allergic reactions in certain individuals. For example, safrole was used to flavor root beer until it was shown to be carcinogenic. Due to the application of the Delaney clause, it may not be added to foods, even though it occurs naturally in sassafras and sweet basil.[18]

Periodically, concerns have been expressed about a linkage between additives and hyperactivity,[19] however "no clear evidence of ADHD was provided".[20]

In 2012, the EFSA proposed the tier approach to evaluate the potential toxicity of food additives. It is based on four dimensions: toxicokinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion); genotoxicity; subchronic (at least 90 data) and chronic toxicity and carcinogenity; reproductive and developmental toxicity.[21] Recent work has demonstrated that certain food additives such as carboxymethylcellulose may cause encroachment of microbes from the gastrointestinal tract into the protective mucus layer that lines the intestines.[22] Additional preclinical work suggests that emulsifiers may disrupt the gut microbiome, cause or exacerbate inflammation, and increase intestinal permeability.[23] Other food additives in processed foods, such as xanthan gum, have also been shown to influence the ecology of human gut microbiomes and may play a role in the divergence of gut microbiomes in industrialized societies as compared to pre-industrialized societies.[24] Although still controversial, some scientists hypothesize that these changes to human gut microbiomes may be a contributing factor to the rise in chronic inflammatory diseases in industrialized populations.[25]

A subset of food additives, micronutrients added in food fortification processes preserve nutrient value by providing vitamins and minerals to foods such as flour, cereal, margarine and milk which normally would not retain such high levels.[26] Added ingredients, such as air, bacteria, fungi, and yeast, also contribute manufacturing and flavor qualities, and reduce spoilage.[27]

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines a food additive as "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result directly or indirectly in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food".[28] In order for a novel food additive to be approved in the U.S., a food additive approval petition (FAP) must be submitted to the FDA.[29] The identity of the ingredient, the proposed use in the food system, the technical effect of the ingredient, a method of analysis for the ingredient in foods, information on the manufacturing process, and full safety reports must be defined in a FAP.[30] For FDA approval of a FAP, the FDA evaluates the chemical composition of the ingredient, the quantities that would be typically consumed, acute and chronic health impacts, and other safety factors.[28] The FDA reviews the petition prior to market approval of the additive.[citation needed ]

ISO has published a series of standards regarding the topic and these standards are covered by ICS 67.220.[31]

1. ^ "Food Additives & Ingredients - Overview of Food Ingredients, Additives & Colors". FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition.

2. ^ "Food Ingredients and Packaging Terms". FDA. January 4, 2018.

3. ^ Codex Alimentarius. "Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives.food additives" (PDF).

4. See also "^ Food Additives", Food and Drug Administration website

5. Erich Lück and Gert-Wolfhard von Rymon Lipinski "Foods, 3. Food Additives" in ^ Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_561

6. ^ Bucci, Luke (1995). Nutrition applied to injury rehabilitation and sports medicine. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 151. ISBN 0-8493-7913-X.

7. ^ Epstein, S (March 1973). "The Delaney Amendment". Preventive Medicine. 2 (1): 140-149. doi:10.1016/0091-7435(73)90016-9. PMID 4803324.

8. ^ Reuber, M D (August 1978). "Carcinogenicity of saccharin". Environmental Health Perspectives. 25: 173-200. doi:10.1289/ehp.7825173. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 1637197. PMID 363408.

9. ^ Assessment of technologies for determining cancer risks from the environment. Darby, Pennsylvania, USA: DIANE publishing. 1981. p. 177. ISBN 1-4289-2437-X.

10. ^ Whysner, J.; Williams, GM. (1996). "Saccharin mechanistic data and risk assessment: urine composition, enhanced cell proliferation, and tumor promotion". Pharmacol Ther. 71 (1-2): 225-52. doi:10.1016/0163-7258(96)00069-1. PMID 8910956.

11. ^ Dybing, E. (December 2002). "Development and implementation of the IPCS conceptual framework for evaluating mode of action of chemical carcinogens". Toxicology. 181-182: 121-5. doi:10.1016/S0300-483X(02)00266-4. PMID 12505296.

12. ^ Food Standards Australia New Zealand (2007). "Choosing the Right Stuff - the official shoppers' guide to food additives and labels, kilojoules and fat content". Archived from the original on 14 May 2009.

13. ^ Fennema, Owen R. (1996). Food chemistry. New York, N.Y: Marcel Dekker. pp. 827. ISBN 0-8247-9691-8.

14. ^ McCann, D; Barrett, A; Cooper, A; Crumpler, D; Dalen, L; Grimshaw, K; Kitchin, E; Lok, K; et al. (2007). "Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial". Lancet. 370 (9598): 1560-7. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61306-3. PMID 17825405. S2CID 10654579.

15. Amchova, Petra; Kotolova, Hana; Ruda-Kucerova, Jana "Health safety issues of synthetic food colorants" Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology (2015), 73(3), 914-922.^ doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.09.026

16. ^ Vettorazzi, Ariane; López De Cerain, Adela; Sanz-Serrano, Julen; Gil, Ana G.; Azqueta, Amaya (2020). "European Regulatory Framework and Safety Assessment of Food-Related Bioactive Compounds". Nutrients. 12 (3): 613. doi:10.3390/nu12030613. PMC 7146632. PMID 32110982.

17. ^ Chassaing, Benoit; Compher, Charlene; Bonhomme, Brittaney; Liu, Qing; Tian, Yuan; Walters, William; Nessel, Lisa; Delaroque, Clara; Hao, Fuhua; Gershuni, Victoria; Chau, Lillian; Ni, Josephine; Bewtra, Meenakshi; Albenberg, Lindsey; Bretin, Alexis; McKeever, Liam; Ley, Ruth E.; Patterson, Andrew D.; Wu, Gary D.; Gewirtz, Andrew T.; Lewis, James D. (March 2022). "Randomized Controlled-Feeding Study of Dietary Emulsifier Carboxymethylcellulose Reveals Detrimental Impacts on the Gut Microbiota and Metabolome". Gastroenterology. 162 (3): 743-756. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2021.11.006. PMC 9639366. PMID 34774538. S2CID 244050800.

18. ^ Chassaing, Benoit; Koren, Omry; Goodrich, Julia K.; Poole, Angela C.; Srinivasan, Shanthi; Ley, Ruth E.; Gewirtz, Andrew T. (5 March 2015). "Dietary emulsifiers impact the mouse gut microbiota promoting colitis and metabolic syndrome". Nature. 519 (7541): 92-96. Bibcode:2015Natur.519...92C. doi:10.1038/nature14232. PMC 4910713. PMID 25731162.

19. ^ Ostrowski, Matthew P.; La Rosa, Sabina Leanti; Kunath, Benoit J.; Robertson, Andrew; Pereira, Gabriel; Hagen, Live H.; Varghese, Neha J.; Qiu, Ling; Yao, Tianming; Flint, Gabrielle; Li, James; McDonald, Sean P.; Buttner, Duna; Pudlo, Nicholas A.; Schnizlein, Matthew K.; Young, Vincent B.; Brumer, Harry; Schmidt, Thomas M.; Terrapon, Nicolas; Lombard, Vincent; Henrissat, Bernard; Hamaker, Bruce; Eloe-Fadrosh, Emiley A.; Tripathi, Ashootosh; Pope, Phillip B.; Martens, Eric C. (April 2022). "Mechanistic insights into consumption of the food additive xanthan gum by the human gut microbiota". Nature Microbiology. 7 (4): 556-569. doi:10.1038/s41564-022-01093-0. hdl:11250/3003739. PMID 35365790. S2CID 247866305.

20. ^ Sonnenburg, Erica D.; Sonnenburg, Justin L. (June 2019). "The ancestral and industrialized gut microbiota and implications for human health". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 17 (6): 383-390. doi:10.1038/s41579-019-0191-8. PMID 31089293. S2CID 153314897.

21. ^ Weaver, Connie M; Dwyer, Johanna; Fulgoni, Victor L; King, Janet C; Leveille, Gilbert A; MacDonald, Ruth S; Ordovas, Jose; Schnakenberg, David (23 April 2014). "Processed foods: contributions to nutrition". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 99 (6): 1525-1542. doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.089284. ISSN 0002-9165. PMC 6410904. PMID 24760975.

22. ^ "Food processing: The advantages of processed foods". The European Food Information Council. 1 May 2010.

23. ^

24. ^ "PART 171-FOOD ADDITIVE PETITIONS", The CRC Master Keyword Guide for Food, CRC Press, pp. 596-601, 2003-11-25, doi:10.1201/9780203504529-50, ISBN 9780429211027

25. ^ Nutrition, Center for Food Safety and Applied (2021-09-17). "Guidance for Industry: Recommendations for Submission of Chemical and Technological Data for Direct Food Additive Petitions". U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

26. ^ International Organization for Standardization. "67.220: Spices and condiments. Food additives".

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (1991). Everything Added to Food in the United States. Boca Raton, Florida: C.K. Smoley (c/o CRC Press, Inc.).

The Food Labelling Regulations (1984)

Advanced Modular Science, Nelson, Food and Health, by John Adds, Erica Larkcom and Ruth Miller

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance taste, appearance, or other sensory qualities. Some additives have been used for centuries as part of an effort to preserve food, for example vinegar ( pickling), salt ( salting), smoke ( smoking), sugar ( crystallization), etc.

# data[].attributes.body
Function of Each Type of Modern Medicine
Analgesics
* Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of analgesics are
aspirin, paracetamol, and codeine. Analgesicsare sometimes called
painkillers.
* Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeineis
powerful painkillers.
* Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease.

http://profesionalmutadayyin.blogspot.my/p/modern-medicine_23.html?m=1

# data[].attributes.body
What is detergent?
"a water-soluble cleansing agent which combines with impurities and dirt to make them more soluble, and differs from soap in not forming a scum with the salts in hard water."

xoxo,
yayo <3

# data[].attributes.body
The Structure of a Detergent Molecule

1. The basic structure of the detergent molecule is similar in nature to a soaps. It will dissolve in water to produce sodium ion (Na⁺) and detergent ions.

2. A detergent ion consists of two parts which are known as the hydrophilic part and the hydrophilics part.

3. The hydrophilic part consist of the sulphate group (-OSO₃) or the sulphonate group (-SO₃) which is readily dissolves in water but does not dissolve in oil.

4. The tail is a long hydrocarbon chain which is hydrophobic in nature and does not dissolve in water but dissolves readily in oil.

Cleaning Action of Detergent

1. Like the ion of soap, detergent ions consist of two parts, the hydrophobic part and the hydrophilic part.

2. Therefore, detergent can also act as emulsifying agent and wetting agent as soap, in a cleaning action.

# data[].attributes.body
Nor Aqillah Aiman

# data[].attributes.headline
the functions of each type of modern medicineAnalgesics1.Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of analgesics are       aspirin, paraccetamol, and codeine. Analgesicsare sometimes called painkillers.2.Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeineis powerful  painkillers.3.Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease.4.Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory actiona)The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid. Aspirin contains two functional groups, a carboxylic acid group and the ester group. Thus, aspirin is acidic in nature.b)Uses of aspirin Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as relives pain. Aspirin is used to :(i)Reduce fever(ii)Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches(iii)Treat arthritis, a disease caused by inflammation of the joints(iv)Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the clotting of blood and reduce the risk of the heart attack andstrokes.5.Paracetamola)Paracetamol have the following structural formula. Thus, unlike aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in nature.b)Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is, reduces fever and relieves pain) but it does not reduce inflammation.c)Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms sucha s fever, bone aches and runny nose.6.Codeinea)Codeine is an organic compound that contains the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.b)Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive mirror tomoderate pain. Codeine is more powerful than morphine. Codeine and morphine are narcotic drugsc)Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs.Antibiotics : antibacterial medicine1.Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious microorganism.2.Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin.3.Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.4.Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections such as influenza, measles, or small pox.5.Penicillin a)Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium notatum.b)Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria, such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.c)Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.6.Streptomycinis the antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis.Psychotherapeutic medicines1.Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of 🤬 for treating mental or emotional illnesses.2.Psychotherapeutic 🤬 can be divided into a few groups as shown below :stimulants, ex: caffeine, amphetamine antidepresant, ex: prozacantipsychotic agents, ex: chloropomazin 3. Stimulantsa)Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic 🤬 that stimulate (excite) the activity of the brain and central nervous system.b)Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when it needs to prepare for demanding or energetic activities.c)Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic,less tired and more cheerful.d)Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines.Caffeine is a week, naturally occurring stimulant and isfound on coffee, tea and Cola drinks.e)Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants andincrease alertness and physical ability.f)Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates,as well as the blood pressure. As a result, it causes thebody to postpone the need of sleep and can reverse,partially and temporarily, the symptoms of fatigue.4.Antidepressantsa)Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depressionare caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain.b)People experiencing depression feel hopeless. Theyexperience a loss of interest in everyday activities suchas work or hobbies.c)There is a strong correlation between the amounts of special chemicals (called neurotransmitters) in the brainand a person’s mood. If these chemicals get too low, theperson may feel depressed.d)Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brain’slevel of neurotransmitters, thus improving mood.e)Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.5.Antipsychotic medicinesa)Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which peoplelose touch with reality. People with psychosis may,i. Hear voice and see things that are not really there(hallucinations)ii. Have belief that are not based on reality (delusions)b) In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that areclassified under ‘ psuchosis’, such as schizophrenias(madness), psychotic depression, mania and so on.c) Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Theirmood changes rapidly from high spirit to deepdepression.d) Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to helpthe person live a more normal life.

# data[].attributes.subject
the functions of each type of modern medicineAnalgesics1.Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of analgesics are       aspirin, paraccetamol, and codeine. Analgesicsare sometimes called painkillers.2.Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeineis powerful  painkillers.3.Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease.4.Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory actiona)The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid. Aspirin contains two functional groups, a carboxylic acid group and the ester group. Thus, aspirin is acidic in nature.b)Uses of aspirin Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as relives pain. Aspirin is used to :(i)Reduce fever(ii)Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches(iii)Treat arthritis, a disease caused by inflammation of the joints(iv)Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the clotting of blood and reduce the risk of the heart attack andstrokes.5.Paracetamola)Paracetamol have the following structural formula. Thus, unlike aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in nature.b)Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is, reduces fever and relieves pain) but it does not reduce inflammation.c)Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms sucha s fever, bone aches and runny nose.6.Codeinea)Codeine is an organic compound that contains the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.b)Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive mirror tomoderate pain. Codeine is more powerful than morphine. Codeine and morphine are narcotic drugsc)Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs.Antibiotics : antibacterial medicine1.Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious microorganism.2.Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin.3.Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.4.Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections such as influenza, measles, or small pox.5.Penicillin a)Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium notatum.b)Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria, such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.c)Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.6.Streptomycinis the antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis.Psychotherapeutic medicines1.Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of 🤬 for treating mental or emotional illnesses.2.Psychotherapeutic 🤬 can be divided into a few groups as shown below :stimulants, ex: caffeine, amphetamine antidepresant, ex: prozacantipsychotic agents, ex: chloropomazin 3. Stimulantsa)Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic 🤬 that stimulate (excite) the activity of the brain and central nervous system.b)Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when it needs to prepare for demanding or energetic activities.c)Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic,less tired and more cheerful.d)Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines.Caffeine is a week, naturally occurring stimulant and isfound on coffee, tea and Cola drinks.e)Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants andincrease alertness and physical ability.f)Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates,as well as the blood pressure. As a result, it causes thebody to postpone the need of sleep and can reverse,partially and temporarily, the symptoms of fatigue.4.Antidepressantsa)Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depressionare caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain.b)People experiencing depression feel hopeless. Theyexperience a loss of interest in everyday activities suchas work or hobbies.c)There is a strong correlation between the amounts of special chemicals (called neurotransmitters) in the brainand a person’s mood. If these chemicals get too low, theperson may feel depressed.d)Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brain’slevel of neurotransmitters, thus improving mood.e)Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.5.Antipsychotic medicinesa)Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which peoplelose touch with reality. People with psychosis may,i. Hear voice and see things that are not really there(hallucinations)ii. Have belief that are not based on reality (delusions)b) In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that areclassified under ‘ psuchosis’, such as schizophrenias(madness), psychotic depression, mania and so on.c) Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Theirmood changes rapidly from high spirit to deepdepression.d) Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to helpthe person live a more normal life.

# data[].attributes.headline
the functions of each type of modern medicine  Analgesics                                                 1.Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain.             Examples of analgesics are       aspirin, paraccetamol, and codeine. Analgesicsare sometimes called painkillers. 2.Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeineis powerful  painkillers                                    .3.Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease                                             .4.Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory actiona)The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid. Aspirin contains two functional groups, a carboxylic acid group and the ester group. Thus, aspirin is acidic in nature.b)Uses of aspirin Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as relives pain. Aspirin is used to :(i)Reduce fever(ii)Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches(iii)Treat arthritis, a disease caused by inflammation of the joints(iv)Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the clotting of blood and reduce the risk of the heart attack andstrokes. 5.Paracetamola)Paracetamol have the following structural formula. Thus, unlike aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in nature.b)Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is, reduces fever and relieves pain) but it does not reduce inflammation.c)Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms sucha s fever, bone aches and runny nose .6.Codeinea)Codeine is an organic compound that contains the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.b)Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive mirror tomoderate pain. Codeine is more powerful than morphine. Codeine and morphine are narcotic drugsc)Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs.Antibiotics : antibacterial medicine 1.Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious microorganism. 2.Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin. 3.Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria .4.Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections such as influenza, measles, or small pox.                              5.Penicillin a)Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium notatum.b)Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria, such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.c)Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.6.Streptomycinis the antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis.Psychotherapeutic medicines 1.Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of 🤬 for treating mental or emotional illnesses. 2.Psychotherapeutic 🤬 can be divided into a few groups as shown below :stimulants, ex: caffeine, amphetamine antidepresant, ex: prozacantipsychotic agents, ex: chloropomazin 3. Stimulantsa)Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic 🤬 that stimulate (excite) the activity of the brain and central nervous system.b)Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when it needs to prepare for demanding or energetic activities.c)Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic,less tired and more cheerful.d)Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines.Caffeine is a week, naturally occurring stimulant and isfound on coffee, tea and Cola drinks.e)Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants andincrease alertness and physical ability.f)Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates,as well as the blood pressure. As a result, it causes thebody to postpone the need of sleep and can reverse,partially and temporarily, the symptoms of fatigue.4.Antidepressantsa)Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depressionare caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain.b)People experiencing depression feel hopeless. Theyexperience a loss of interest in everyday activities suchas work or hobbies.c)There is a strong correlation between the amounts of special chemicals (called neurotransmitters) in the brainand a person’s mood. If these chemicals get too low, theperson may feel depressed.d)Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brain’slevel of neurotransmitters, thus improving mood.e)Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.5.Antipsychotic medicinesa)Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which peoplelose touch with reality. People with psychosis may,i. Hear voice and see things that are not really there(hallucinations)ii. Have belief that are not based on reality (delusions)b) In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that areclassified under ‘ psuchosis’, such as schizophrenias(madness), psychotic depression, mania and so on.c) Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Theirmood changes rapidly from high spirit to deepdepression.d) Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to helpthe person live a more normal life.

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the functions of each type of modern medicine  Analgesics                                                 1.Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain.             Examples of analgesics are       aspirin, paraccetamol, and codeine. Analgesicsare sometimes called painkillers. 2.Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeineis powerful  painkillers                                    .3.Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease                                             .4.Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory actiona)The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid. Aspirin contains two functional groups, a carboxylic acid group and the ester group. Thus, aspirin is acidic in nature.b)Uses of aspirin Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as relives pain. Aspirin is used to :(i)Reduce fever(ii)Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches(iii)Treat arthritis, a disease caused by inflammation of the joints(iv)Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the clotting of blood and reduce the risk of the heart attack andstrokes. 5.Paracetamola)Paracetamol have the following structural formula. Thus, unlike aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in nature.b)Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is, reduces fever and relieves pain) but it does not reduce inflammation.c)Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms sucha s fever, bone aches and runny nose .6.Codeinea)Codeine is an organic compound that contains the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.b)Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive mirror tomoderate pain. Codeine is more powerful than morphine. Codeine and morphine are narcotic drugsc)Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs.Antibiotics : antibacterial medicine 1.Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious microorganism. 2.Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin. 3.Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria .4.Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections such as influenza, measles, or small pox.                              5.Penicillin a)Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium notatum.b)Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria, such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.c)Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.6.Streptomycinis the antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis.Psychotherapeutic medicines 1.Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of 🤬 for treating mental or emotional illnesses. 2.Psychotherapeutic 🤬 can be divided into a few groups as shown below :stimulants, ex: caffeine, amphetamine antidepresant, ex: prozacantipsychotic agents, ex: chloropomazin 3. Stimulantsa)Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic 🤬 that stimulate (excite) the activity of the brain and central nervous system.b)Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when it needs to prepare for demanding or energetic activities.c)Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic,less tired and more cheerful.d)Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines.Caffeine is a week, naturally occurring stimulant and isfound on coffee, tea and Cola drinks.e)Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants andincrease alertness and physical ability.f)Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates,as well as the blood pressure. As a result, it causes thebody to postpone the need of sleep and can reverse,partially and temporarily, the symptoms of fatigue.4.Antidepressantsa)Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depressionare caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain.b)People experiencing depression feel hopeless. Theyexperience a loss of interest in everyday activities suchas work or hobbies.c)There is a strong correlation between the amounts of special chemicals (called neurotransmitters) in the brainand a person’s mood. If these chemicals get too low, theperson may feel depressed.d)Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brain’slevel of neurotransmitters, thus improving mood.e)Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.5.Antipsychotic medicinesa)Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which peoplelose touch with reality. People with psychosis may,i. Hear voice and see things that are not really there(hallucinations)ii. Have belief that are not based on reality (delusions)b) In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that areclassified under ‘ psuchosis’, such as schizophrenias(madness), psychotic depression, mania and so on.c) Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Theirmood changes rapidly from high spirit to deepdepression.d) Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to helpthe person live a more normal life.

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the functions of each type of modern medicineAnalgesics1.Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of analgesics are       aspirin, paraccetamol, and codeine. Analgesicsare sometimes called painkillers.2.Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeineis powerful  painkillers.3.Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease.4.Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory actiona)The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid. Aspirin contains two functional groups, a carboxylic acid group and the ester group. Thus, aspirin is acidic in nature.b)Uses of aspirin Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as relives pain. Aspirin is used to :(i)Reduce fever(ii)Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches(iii)Treat arthritis, a disease caused by inflammation of the joints(iv)Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the clotting of blood and reduce the risk of the heart attack andstrokes.5.Paracetamola)Paracetamol have the following structural formula. Thus, unlike aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in nature.b)Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is, reduces fever and relieves pain) but it does not reduce inflammation.c)Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms sucha s fever, bone aches and runny nose.6.Codeinea)Codeine is an organic compound that contains the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.b)Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive mirror tomoderate pain. Codeine is more powerful than morphine. Codeine and morphine are narcotic drugsc)Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs.Antibiotics : antibacterial medicine1.Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious microorganism.2.Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin.3.Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.4.Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections such as influenza, measles, or small pox.5.Penicillin a)Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium notatum.b)Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria, such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.c)Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.6.Streptomycinis the antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis.Psychotherapeutic medicines1.Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of 🤬 for treating mental or emotional illnesses.2.Psychotherapeutic 🤬 can be divided into a few groups as shown below :stimulants, ex: caffeine, amphetamine antidepresant, ex: prozacantipsychotic agents, ex: chloropomazin 3. Stimulantsa)Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic 🤬 that stimulate (excite) the activity of the brain and central nervous system.b)Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when it needs to prepare for demanding or energetic activities.c)Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic,less tired and more cheerful.d)Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines.Caffeine is a week, naturally occurring stimulant and isfound on coffee, tea and Cola drinks.e)Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants andincrease alertness and physical ability.f)Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates,as well as the blood pressure. As a result, it causes thebody to postpone the need of sleep and can reverse,partially and temporarily, the symptoms of fatigue.4.Antidepressantsa)Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depressionare caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain.b)People experiencing depression feel hopeless. Theyexperience a loss of interest in everyday activities suchas work or hobbies.c)There is a strong correlation between the amounts of special chemicals (called neurotransmitters) in the brainand a person’s mood. If these chemicals get too low, theperson may feel depressed.d)Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brain’slevel of neurotransmitters, thus improving mood.e)Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.5.Antipsychotic medicinesa)Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which peoplelose touch with reality. People with psychosis may,i. Hear voice and see things that are not really there(hallucinations)ii. Have belief that are not based on reality (delusions)b) In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that areclassified under ‘ psuchosis’, such as schizophrenias(madness), psychotic depression, mania and so on.c) Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Theirmood changes rapidly from high spirit to deepdepression.d) Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to helpthe person live a more normal life.

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the functions of each type of modern medicineAnalgesics1.Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of analgesics are       aspirin, paraccetamol, and codeine. Analgesicsare sometimes called painkillers.2.Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeineis powerful  painkillers.3.Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease.4.Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory actiona)The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid. Aspirin contains two functional groups, a carboxylic acid group and the ester group. Thus, aspirin is acidic in nature.b)Uses of aspirin Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as relives pain. Aspirin is used to :(i)Reduce fever(ii)Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches(iii)Treat arthritis, a disease caused by inflammation of the joints(iv)Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the clotting of blood and reduce the risk of the heart attack andstrokes.5.Paracetamola)Paracetamol have the following structural formula. Thus, unlike aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in nature.b)Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is, reduces fever and relieves pain) but it does not reduce inflammation.c)Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms sucha s fever, bone aches and runny nose.6.Codeinea)Codeine is an organic compound that contains the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.b)Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive mirror tomoderate pain. Codeine is more powerful than morphine. Codeine and morphine are narcotic drugsc)Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs.Antibiotics : antibacterial medicine1.Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious microorganism.2.Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin.3.Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.4.Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections such as influenza, measles, or small pox.5.Penicillin a)Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium notatum.b)Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria, such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.c)Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.6.Streptomycinis the antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis.Psychotherapeutic medicines1.Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of 🤬 for treating mental or emotional illnesses.2.Psychotherapeutic 🤬 can be divided into a few groups as shown below :stimulants, ex: caffeine, amphetamine antidepresant, ex: prozacantipsychotic agents, ex: chloropomazin 3. Stimulantsa)Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic 🤬 that stimulate (excite) the activity of the brain and central nervous system.b)Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when it needs to prepare for demanding or energetic activities.c)Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic,less tired and more cheerful.d)Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines.Caffeine is a week, naturally occurring stimulant and isfound on coffee, tea and Cola drinks.e)Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants andincrease alertness and physical ability.f)Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates,as well as the blood pressure. As a result, it causes thebody to postpone the need of sleep and can reverse,partially and temporarily, the symptoms of fatigue.4.Antidepressantsa)Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depressionare caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain.b)People experiencing depression feel hopeless. Theyexperience a loss of interest in everyday activities suchas work or hobbies.c)There is a strong correlation between the amounts of special chemicals (called neurotransmitters) in the brainand a person’s mood. If these chemicals get too low, theperson may feel depressed.d)Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brain’slevel of neurotransmitters, thus improving mood.e)Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.5.Antipsychotic medicinesa)Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which peoplelose touch with reality. People with psychosis may,i. Hear voice and see things that are not really there(hallucinations)ii. Have belief that are not based on reality (delusions)b) In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that areclassified under ‘ psuchosis’, such as schizophrenias(madness), psychotic depression, mania and so on.c) Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Theirmood changes rapidly from high spirit to deepdepression.d) Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to helpthe person live a more normal life.

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its additives and functionssss:

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WHAT ARE FOOD ADDITIVES?

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European Food Information Council (EUFIC)

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Additives in food - Why are additives added to food?

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Additives in food - Why are additives added to food? Learn how chemicals are used to enhance the taste of food and drink. You've probably noticed a long list of strange ingredients on your packets of food and drink, and it's likely that many of them are additives.

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The average family of four in UK does an average of 250 cycles per year, giving washing machines a 'life expectancy' of about only 4 years. Choosing the right laundry detergent will help you increase your washing machine's life considerably. But, which one is the best?

Currently, the two main types of laundry detergent are powders and liquids. Both share the same active ingredients, but what are the pros and cons of using one or the other?
Here are some of the pros and cons of using liquid soaps for your laundry:

Pro: The detergent is already dissolved (so no soap scum inside your washing machine).

Pro: It can be used to clean some stains before loading the washing machine.

Pro: It dissolves easily in cold water, saving on energy.

Con: They usually come on plastic packaging, not very eco-friendly...

Con: They are more expensive.

Here are some of the pros and cons of using powdered soaps for your laundry:

Pro: They are cheaper than liquid detergents.

Pro: They are usually packed in eco-friendly cardboard boxes.

Pro: Surfactants (the bit that actually cleans your clothes) are more stable in powders, so these detergents have a longer shelf life (they are more effective than liquid detergents for longer).

Con: If you use too much you can find soap residues on your clothes, meaning you will need to have another cycle to wash them off.

Con: In some cases they dissolve better in warm water, so no possibility of using a cold cycle, thus higher electricity bills.

Con: Sodium sulphate, used as a filler in powder detergents, can destroy septic systems.

Can you think of any more pros or cons? Your choice of detergent will depend on the way you use your washing machine. Keep checking our blog for clever ideas on how to use your laundry detergents!

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pros and cons of liquid and powder detergents

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Pros and Cons of liquid and powder laundry detergents

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The average family of four in UK does an average of 250 cycles per year, giving washing machines a 'life expectancy' of about only 4 years. Choosing the right laundry detergent will help you increase your washing machine's life considerably. But, which one is the best?

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What are food preservatives you may ask ?

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What are food preservatives you may ask ?

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Food preservatives are used to prevent or slow down the bacterial growth, so that food can be kept much longer.  Need a better understanding ?  Watch this video !

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Are food preservatives bad for you? - Eleanor Nelsen

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What is detergent ?
a water-soluble cleansing agent which combines with impurities and dirt to make them more soluble.

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Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to food to prevent the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in the air ~

wanna know more ?
click here  !
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h48IjPSZd8w

wanna know what food is good for you ?

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Which Food Has Most Antioxidants? You Won't Believe The Answer!

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here are the six types of food additives !

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Medical technology in today's society is often seen as a treatment or cure for human health issues. The term medical technology refers to the diagnostic or therapeutic application of science to improve the management of health. Unfortunately, the negative impacts of this technology are often left unexposed to the public until too late.

Medicine, such as drugs, is often perceived to be of benefit to humans as it is used to cure various diseases. On the other hand, medicine can also be highly damaging. Using medicine incorrectly; consuming it in small dosages, in excess, or using it abusively; can be injurious to peoples' health. Modern medical technology can also be damaging for human well-being but this effect is not restricted to health.

Throughout time people have become increasingly reliant on modern medicine. This is especially so in today's modern society. Medical intervention by use of technology has been able to help prolong many lives. An example of this is those who suffer from asthma. These sufferers may use air purifiers and/or nebulizers along with prescribed medication to help them live more comfortable and longer lives.

It can be deemed a miracle that we are able to help so many people overcome their illnesses with medical technology. The current technologies available are able to do incredible things but people must be constantly aware of other modern technologies that can interfere and put the patient at risk. An example of this is the pacemaker which has the ability to save a person's life and ultimately extend it. However, external factors can interfere with medical technology and ultimately put the patient at risk. For example, radiation from everyday items such as microwaves to wireless devices such as mobile phones can affect the operation of the pace maker. Thus medical technology has a negative impact on the user of this device as it places environmental limitations on where he or she can go. Users of such a device therefore need to be continuously wary of their environment.

In addition, the implementation of a pace maker prevents users from undertaking MRI scans as the process interferes with the function of the device. This is a prime example of medicine acting against itself,

All medical technology needs to be treated and used with caution. Respirators need to be constant monitored and the same applies for the simplest drips. Hospitals nowadays are equipped with technology that requires the operating knowledge of hospital staff and medical professionals. The medical technology that is used in hospitals needs to be carefully monitored. Misuse could lead to an accident that has the possibility to cause a long term negative effect for the patient. It is due to the above reason that today, proficient clinical settings require the consistent expertise of all medical staff in relation to the operation of medical technology.

Medical technology was invented for our health and well being. However there is always the risk of unforeseen consequences. An example of this is LASIK (Laser-Assisted In-Situ Keratomileusis) eye surgery, an operation where a patient has his or her vision corrected. Eyesight clinics advertised that the operation would improve a person's vision and give freedom to those who did not like wearing glasses or contacts all the time. Before user a laser to correct the vision the operation required the practitioner to cut open the patient's corner. During the trial stages of the operation, this procedure led to several unsuccessful results where the patients suffered from extremely dry eyes, milky vision and poorer eyesight than prior to the operation. Other disastrous results included foggy visions, starbursts around lights and double vision. These after effects negatively impacted the lives of the patients greatly as they now had worse vision than prior to the operation.

However, it is thanks to researchers that the medical technology in this field has advanced to a level where the risks are now minimal. These professionals are currently working on a new method of corrective eye surgery where it will not be necessary to cut open the cornea before lasik surgery is used. There will be even less of a chance that things will go wrong if the answer to this problem is found.

The Gamma Ray, used to eliminate cancerous cells around the brain without the use of open surgery, is another example where medical technology could have negative effects. Its intention was to cure people with cancerous cells in places of high risk or in places that could not be safely accessed by open surgery. The risk lies in the calculation of the amount of radiation that is directed at the cancer. If there is a miscalculation the laser may destroy the cancer and other cells around it, leading to brain damage.
From these two examples one can see that there is a limit to how medical technology can be used.

Drugs created by medical technology are intended to help humans recover from their illness or improve their condition, however they are harmful if taken in small dosages, in excess or if used in the wrong way.

For example if more that 400mg of vitamin E if is taken a day it will act as a blood thinner. Large doses of vitamin A causes heart problems. An overdose of cold and fly medications can lead to liver failure.

Medicine, such as antibiotics are often perceived to be of benefit to humans as it is commonly used to treat bacterial infectious diseases. On the other hand, antibiotics can have unpleasant consequences if taken in dosages that do not completely eradicate the pathogen, thereby contributing to resistance. Antibiotics can also be used abusively when physicians prescribe the drug unnecessarily or if patients become complacent and do not adhere to the necessary antibiotic therapy. From these examples it is easy to see that medicines can cause adverse effects if taken in excess, small dosages or if used in the wrong way.

Lack of funding for medical technology can cause negative effects on the genetic fitness of populations. It can bring about misleading information to the creation of a cure. As new diseases are constantly emerging, doctors, scientists and researchers need to know as much information about the sickness before they can find a cure. They need to know specific information such as the lifespan of the offending pathogen, if the disease is a virus, the exact signs and symptoms and the genetic make up before they can start research on the cure.

However, lack of funds means that research projects may be delayed or even stopped before a cure is found. Researchers need the money so that they will have access to proper equipment and resources. Without it, they may not be able to conclude a research project that has the potential to find information that will lead to a cure.

A major issue in medical technology is regulation. Ethical considerations need to be recognised and evaluated before research can continue.

Also the lack of funding also means that cures cannot be tested thoroughly. All cures, whether they are over the counter drugs or prescription medications to medical technology (electronic thermometers), need to be thoroughly tested before they can be passed onto the market or used safely by professionals. In addition, the testing regimes may incur societal backlash due to experimentation on animals. As a result, lack of funds can prevent cures from being formed and this negatively impacts the public.

Medical technology is very important for those with diseases and those who are ill or injured. For people with asthma a breathing machine may be essential for life, without it breathing may become difficult and even dangerous. Medical technology can add years to our lives and can make life better. It enables us to live past the normal expectancy of life.

Technology has so many benefits. Without it we would not be able to travel, contact others around the world, entertain, or educate as well as we do. Medical technology is perhaps the most important technology of all.

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Medical technology in today's society is often seen as a treatment or cure for human health issues. The term medical technology refers to the diagnostic or therapeutic application of science to improve the management of health. Unfortunately, the negative impacts of this technology are often left unexposed to the public until too late.

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Function and examples of modern medicines.

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Function and examples of modern medicines.

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Read Some History
*Before the 20th century, most medicines were extracted
from plants (herbal medicines). Since 1900. Thousands of
modern drugs have been synthesised from organic compound.
*Modern medicines can be classified as follows based on
their effects on the human body.
*Some examples of modern medicines are analgesics,antibiotics,
psycho therapeutic drugs. Modern drugs have a trade name and a
generic name. For example, the analgesic aspirin (generic name) is
sold under different brand names such as Caprin and Disprin.
Similarly,paracetamol (generic name) is sold under the trade name
of Panadol.
*Modern medicines usually contain a mixture of active ingredients
prepared in different forms, such as capsules, pills,solutions or
suspensions.
*For example, Alka-Seltzer (used asan antacid) contains sodium
bicarbonate (NaHCO3), citric acid and aspirin. It is the sodium
bicarbonate then neutralizes the excess stomach acid.

* Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of analgesics are
aspirin, paracetamol, and codeine. Analgesicsare sometimes called
painkillers.
* Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeineis
powerful painkillers.
* Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease.

Function of Each Type of Modern Medicine Analgesics

The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid . Aspirin contains two functional groups, a carboxylic acid group and the ester group . Thus, aspirin is acidic in nature.

Uses of aspirin. Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as relieves pain. Aspirin is used to :

1. Reduce fever

2. Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches

3. Treat arthritis, a disease caused by inflammation of the joints.

4. Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the clotting of blood and reduce the risk of the heart attack and strokes.

Paracetamol

Paracetamol have the following structural formula.Thus,unlike aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in nature.

Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is,reduces fever and relieves pain) but it does not reduce inflammation.

Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms such as fever, bone aches and runny nose.
Codeine

Codeine is an organic compound that contains the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

b)Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive mirror to moderate pain. Codeine is more powerful than morphine.Codeine and morphine are narcotic drugs

c)Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs.

Antibiotics : Antibacterial Medicine
1.Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious microorganism.
2.Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin .
3.Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.
4.Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections such as influenza, measles, or small pox.

Penicillin

Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium notatum.

Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria,such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.

Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.

Streptomycin

The antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis.
Psycho therapeutic medicines
1. Psycho therapeutic medicines are a group of drugs for treating mental or emotional illnesses.
2. Psycho therapeutic drugs can be divided into a few groups.
Types of psycho therapeutic drugs.
Example:

Stimulants Caffeine, amphetamine

Antidepressant Prozac

Antipsychotic agents Chloropromazin

Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic drugs that stimulate (excite) the activity of the brain and centralnervous system.

Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when itneeds to prepare for demanding or energetic activities.

Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic,less tired and more cheerful.

Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines.Caffeine is a week, naturally occurring stimulant and is found on coffee, tea and Cola drinks.

Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants and increase alertness and physical ability.

Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates,as well as the blood pressure. As a result, it causes the body to postpone the need of sleep and can reverse,partially and temporarily, the symptoms of fatigue.

Stimulants Antidepressants

Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depression are caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain.

People experiencing depression feel hopeless. They experience a loss of interest in everyday activities such as work or hobbies.

There is a strong correlation between the amounts of special chemicals (called neurotransmitters) in the brain and a person's mood. If these chemicals get too low, the person may feel depressed.

Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brain'slevel of neurotransmitters, thus improving mood.

Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.

Antipsychotic medicines

Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which people lose touch with reality. People with psychosis may:

* Hear voice and see things that are not really there(hallucinations)
* Have belief that are not based on reality (delusions)

In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that are classified under ' psuchosis', such as schizophrenias(madness), psychotic depression, mania and so on.

Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Their mood changes rapidly from high spirit to deep depression.

Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to help the person live a more normal life.

Hormone and Steroid
1. Treating mental or emotional illness

2. Steroid is natural lipid compound.

3. Steroid is divide to steroid anabolic and corticosteroid

Insulin - treating diabetes

Steroid anabolic- use to treating AIDS and cancer

Metandrostenolone (Dianabol)

Testosteronpropionat (Testex)

Corticosteroid- having anti inflammation characteristics and treating asthma and arthritis rheumatoid

Side Effects of Modern Medicines
Aspirin
-Can cause bleeding in the stomach because aspirin is very acidic.
-Can cause allergic reactions, skin rashes and asthmatic attacks

Amphetamines -People who abuse amphetamines are excitable and talkative.
-Psychologically additive and can cause heart attack.
-Can cause anxiety, sleeplessness, aggressive behavior and decrease appetite.
-Can cause enlarged pupils, heavy perspiration and trembling hands.

-Can cause addiction.

Codeine -Can cause allergic reactions.
-Can cause death for people who are allergic to it.
Penicillin
-Can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes and fever.
-Can cause loss of hearing following long-term use.

-Can cause addiction.Streptomycin

-Can cause addiction.
-Can cause headaches, grogginess and loss of appetite.
Stimulants
-Can cause dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, constipation.
-Can cause tremor and restlessness.
Antidepressants -Sedation (make people calmer, or to make people sleepy)

In taking any medicine, we should know why the medicine is prescribed, how the medicine should be used, what special precautions should be followed, what special diet should be followed, what are the side effects, and what storage conditions are needed.
In addition, we should note the following points :Antipsychotic drugs

Do not prescribe medicines for yourself (self-medication) or for other people. Discuss with your doctor and listen to him concerning the medicine to be taken

Follow the instructions given by your doctor or pharmacist concerning the dosage and method of taking the medicine.

Correct Ways of Using Medicines Medicines for adult should not be given to children and vice versa.

Visit the doctor immediately if there are symptoms of allergy or other effects of the drugs.

Like foods, medicines also have expiry date. Do not take medicines after their expiry dates. 1.Self-medication 2.Follow the instructions given 3.Medicines for adult and children 4.Side effects 5.Expiry date

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Read Some History *Before the 20th century, most medicines were extracted from plants (herbal medicines). Since 1900. Thousands of modern drugs have been synthesised from organic compound. *Modern medicines can be classified as follows based on their effects on the human body. *Some examples of modern medicines are analgesics,antibiotics, psycho therapeutic drugs.

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The history of medicine is both a study of medicine throughout history as well as a multidisciplinary field of study that seeks to explore and understand medical practices, both past and present, throughout human societies.

The history of medicine is the study and documentation of the evolution of medical treatments, practices, and knowledge over time. Medical historians often drawn from other humanities fields of study including economics, health sciences, sociology, and politics to better understand the institutions, practices, people, professions, and social systems that have shaped medicine. When a period which predates or lacks written sources regarding medicine, information is instead drawn from archaeological sources. This field tracks the evolution of human societies' approach to health, illness, and injury ranging from prehistory to the modern day, the events that shape these approaches, and their impact on populations.

Early medical traditions include those of Babylon, China, Egypt and India.

Invention of the microscope was a consequence of improved understanding, during the Renaissance. Prior to the 19th century, humorism (also known as humoralism) was thought to explain the cause of disease but it was gradually replaced by the germ theory of disease, leading to effective treatments and even cures for many infectious diseases. Military doctors advanced the methods of trauma treatment and surgery. Public health measures were developed especially in the 19th century as the rapid growth of cities required systematic sanitary measures. Advanced research centers opened in the early 20th century, often connected with major hospitals. The mid-20th century was characterized by new biological treatments, such as antibiotics. These advancements, along with developments in chemistry, genetics, and radiography led to modern medicine. Medicine was heavily professionalized in the 20th century, and new careers opened to women as nurses (from the 1870s) and as physicians (especially after 1970).

Yarrow, a medicinal plant found in human-occupied caves in the Upper Palaeolithic period.[3]

Prehistoric medicine is a field of study focused on understanding the use of medicinal plants, healing practices, illnesses, and wellness of humans before written records existed. Although styled prehistoric "medicine", prehistoric healthcare practices were vastly different from what we understand medicine to be in the present era and more accurately refers to studies and exploration of early healing practices.

This period extends across the first use of stone tools by early humans c. 3.3 million years ago to the beginning of writing systems and subsequent recorded history c. 5000 years ago.

Without written records, insights into prehistoric medicine comes indirectly from interpreting evidence left behind by prehistoric humans. One branch of this includes the archaeology of medicine; a discipline that utilises a range of archaeological techniques from observing illness in human remains, plant fossils, to excavations to uncover medical practices. There is evidence of healing practices within Neanderthals and other early human species. Prehistoric evidence of human engagement with medicine include the discovery of psychoactive plant sources such as psilocybin mushrooms in c. 6000 BCE Sahara to primitive dental care in c. 10,900 BCE (13,000 BP) Riparo Fredian (present-day Italy) and c. 7000 BCE Mehrgarh (present-day Pakistan).

Anthropology is another academic branch that contributes to understanding prehistoric medicine in uncovering the sociocultural relationships, meaning, and interpretation of prehistoric evidence. The overlap of medicine as both a root to healing the body as well as the spiritual throughout prehistoric periods highlights the multiple purposes that healing practices and plants could potentially have. From proto-religions to developed spiritual systems, relationships of humans and supernatural entities, from Gods to shamans, have played an interwoven part in prehistoric medicine.

Ancient history covers time between c. 3000 BCE to c. 500 CE, starting from evidenced development of writing systems to the end of the classical era and beginning of the post-classical period. This periodisation presents history as if it were the same everywhere, however it is important to note that socioculture and technological developments could differ locally from settlement to settlement as well as globally from one society to the next.

A cuneiform terracotta tablet describing a medicinal recipe for poisoning (c. 18th century BCE). Discovered in Nippur, Iraq.

The Mesopotamian region, covering much of present-day Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, Iran, and Turkey, was dominated by a series of civilisations including Sumer, the earliest known civilisation in the Fertile Crescent region, alongside the Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians). Overlapping ideas of what we now understand as medicine, science, magic, and religion characterised early Mesopotamian healing practices as a hybrid naturalistic and supernatural belief system.

The Sumerians, having developed one of the earliest known writing systems in the 3rd millennium BCE, created numerous cuneiform clay tablets regarding their civilisation included detailed accounts of drug prescriptions, operations, to exorcisms. These were administered and carried out by highly defined professionals including bârû (seers), (exorcists), and asû (physician-priests). An example of an early, prescription-like medication appeared in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur ( c. 2112 BCE - c. 2004 BCE).

Following the conquest of the Sumerian civilisation by the Akkadian Empire and the empire's eventual collapse from a number of social and environmental factors, the Babylonian civilisation began to dominate the region. Examples of Babylonian medicine include the extensive Babylonian medical text, the Diagnostic Handbook, written by the ummânū, or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa, in the middle of the 11th century BCE during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BCE).

This medical treatise presented great attention to the practice of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and remedies. The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis. Here, clearly developed rationales were developed to understand the causes of disease and injury, supported by agreed upon theories at-the-time of elements we might now understand as natural causes, supernatural magic and religious explanations.

A Neo-Assyrian cuneiform tablet fragment describing medical text (c. 9th to 7th century BCE).

Most known and recovered artefacts from the ancient Mesopotamian civilisations centre on the neo-Assyrian ( c. 900 - 600 BCE) and neo-Babylonian ( c. 600 - 500 BCE) periods, as the last empires ruled by native Mesopotamian rulers. These discoveries include a huge array of medical clay tablets from this period, although damage to the clay documents creates large gaps in our understanding of medical practices.

Throughout the civilisations of Mesopotamia there is a wide range of medical innovations including evidenced practices of prophylaxis, taking measures to prevent the spread of disease, accounts of stroke,[citation needed ] to an awareness of mental illnesses.

Ancient Egypt, a civilisation spanning across the river Nile (throughout parts of present-day Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan), existed from its unification in c. 3150 BCE to its collapse via Persian conquest in 525 BCE and ultimate downfall from the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE.

Throughout unique dynasties, golden eras, and intermediate periods of instability, ancient Egyptians developed a complex, experimental, and communicative medical tradition that has been uncovered through surviving documents, most made of papyrus, such as the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, the Ebers Papyrus, the London Medical Papyrus, to the Greek Magical Papyri.

Herodotus described the Egyptians as "the healthiest of all men, next to the Libyans", because of the dry climate and the notable public health system that they possessed. According to him, "the practice of medicine is so specialized among them that each physician is a healer of one disease and no more." Although Egyptian medicine, to a considerable extent, dealt with the supernatural, it eventually developed a practical use in the fields of anatomy, public health, and clinical diagnostics.

Medical information in the Edwin Smith Papyrus may date to a time as early as 3000 BCE. Imhotep in the 3rd dynasty is sometimes credited with being the founder of ancient Egyptian medicine and with being the original author of the Edwin Smith Papyrus, detailing cures, ailments and anatomical observations. The Edwin Smith Papyrus is regarded as a copy of several earlier works and was written c. 1600 BCE. It is an ancient textbook on surgery almost completely devoid of magical thinking and describes in exquisite detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments.

The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, written in the 17th century BCE, contains the earliest recorded reference to the brain. New York Academy of Medicine.

Medical institutions, referred to as Houses of Life are known to have been established in ancient Egypt as early as 2200 BCE.

The Ebers Papyrus is the oldest written text mentioning enemas. Many medications were administered by enemas and one of the many types of medical specialists was an Iri, the Shepherd of the Anus.

The earliest known physician is also credited to ancient Egypt: Hesy-Ra, "Chief of Dentists and Physicians" for King Djoser in the 27th century BCE. Also, the earliest known woman physician, Peseshet, practiced in Ancient Egypt at the time of the 4th dynasty. Her title was "Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians."

Medical and healing practices in early Chinese dynasties were heavily shaped by the practice of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Starting around the Zhou Dynasty, parts of this system were being developed and are demonstrated in early writings on herbs in Classic of Changes ( Yi Jing) and Classic of Poetry ( Shi Jing).

China also developed a large body of traditional medicine. Much of the philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine derived from empirical observations of disease and illness by Taoist physicians and reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. These causative principles, whether material, essential, or mystical, correlate as the expression of the natural order of the universe.

The foundational text of Chinese medicine is the Huangdi neijing, (or Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon), written 5th century to 3rd century BCE. Near the end of the 2nd century CE, during the Han dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing, wrote a Treatise on Cold Damage, which contains the earliest known reference to the Neijing Suwen. The Jin dynasty practitioner and advocate of acupuncture and moxibustion, Huangfu Mi (215-282), also quotes the Yellow Emperor in his Jiayi jing, c. 265. During the Tang dynasty, the Suwen was expanded and revised and is now the best extant representation of the foundational roots of traditional Chinese medicine. Traditional Chinese medicine that is based on the use of herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage and other forms of therapy has been practiced in China for thousands of years.

Portrait of Susruta, the author of the he Suśrutasamhitā which describes procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty,

The Atharvaveda, a sacred text of Hinduism dating from the Early Iron Age, is one of the first Indian texts dealing with medicine. The Atharvaveda also contains prescriptions of herbs for various ailments. The use of herbs to treat ailments would later form a large part of Ayurveda.

Ayurveda, meaning the "complete knowledge for long life" is another medical system of India. Its two most famous texts belong to the schools of Charaka and Sushruta. The earliest foundations of Ayurveda were built on a synthesis of traditional herbal practices together with a massive addition of theoretical conceptualizations, new nosologies and new therapies dating from about 600 BCE onwards, and coming out of the communities of thinkers which included the Buddha and others.

According to the compendium of Charaka, the Charakasamhitā, health and disease are not predetermined and life may be prolonged by human effort. The compendium of Suśruta, the Suśrutasamhitā defines the purpose of medicine to cure the diseases of the sick, protect the healthy, and to prolong life. Both these ancient compendia include details of the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments. The Suśrutasamhitā is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures. Most remarkable was Susruta's surgery specially the rhinoplasty for which he is called father of modern plastic surgery. Susruta also described more than 125 surgical instruments in detail. Also remarkable is Sushruta's penchant for scientific classification: His medical treatise consists of 184 chapters, 1,120 conditions are listed, including injuries and illnesses relating to aging and mental illness.

The Ayurvedic classics mention eight branches of medicine: kāyācikitsā ( internal medicine), śalyacikitsā (surgery including anatomy), śālākyacikitsā (eye, ear, nose, and throat diseases), kaumārabhṛtya (pediatrics with obstetrics and gynaecology), bhūtavidyā (spirit and psychiatric medicine), agada tantra ( toxicology with treatments of stings and bites), rasāyana (science of rejuvenation), and vājīkaraṇa ( aphrodisiac and fertility). Apart from learning these, the student of Āyurveda was expected to know ten arts that were indispensable in the preparation and application of his medicines: distillation, operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis. The teaching of various subjects was done during the instruction of relevant clinical subjects. For example, the teaching of anatomy was a part of the teaching of surgery, embryology was a part of training in pediatrics and obstetrics, and the knowledge of physiology and pathology was interwoven in the teaching of all the clinical disciplines. The normal length of the student's training appears to have been seven years. But the physician was to continue to learn.

Humors

The theory of humors was derived from ancient medical works, dominated Western medicine until the 19th century, and is credited to Greek philosopher and surgeon Galen of Pergamon (129- c. 216 CE). In Greek medicine, there are thought to be four humors, or bodily fluids that are linked to illness: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Early scientists believed that food is digested into blood, muscle, and bones, while the humors that weren't blood were then formed by indigestible materials that are left over. An excess or shortage of any one of the four humors is theorized to cause an imbalance that results in sickness; the aforementioned statement was hypothesized by sources before Hippocrates. Hippocrates ( c.  400 BCE) deduced that the four seasons of the year and four ages of man that affect the body in relation to the humors. The four ages of man are childhood, youth, prime age, and old age. The four humors as associated with the four seasons are black bile - autumn, yellow bile - summer, phlegm - winter and blood - spring.

In De temperamentis, Galen linked what he called temperaments, or personality characteristics, to a person's natural mixture of humors. He also said that the best place to check the balance of temperaments was in the palm of the hand. A person that is considered to be phlegmatic is said to be an introvert, even-tempered, calm, and peaceful. This person would have an excess of phlegm, which is described as a viscous substance or mucous. Similarly, a melancholic temperament related to being moody, anxious, depressed, introverted, and pessimistic. A melancholic temperament is caused by an excess of black bile, which is sedimentary and dark in color. Being extroverted, talkative, easygoing, carefree, and sociable coincides with a sanguine temperament, which is linked to too much blood. Finally, a choleric temperament is related to too much yellow bile, which is actually red in color and has the texture of foam; it is associated with being aggressive, excitable, impulsive, and also extroverted.

There are numerous ways to treat a disproportion of the humors. For example, if someone was suspected to have too much blood, then the physician would perform bloodletting as a treatment. Likewise, if a person that had too much phlegm would feel better after expectorating, and someone with too much yellow bile would purge. Another factor to be considered in the balance of humors is the quality of air in which one resides, such as the climate and elevation. Also, the standard of food and drink, balance of sleeping and waking, exercise and rest, retention and evacuation are important. Moods such as anger, sadness, joy, and love can affect the balance. During that time, the importance of balance was demonstrated by the fact that women lose blood monthly during menstruation, and have a lesser occurrence of gout, arthritis, and epilepsy then men do. Galen also hypothesized that there are three faculties. The natural faculty affects growth and reproduction and is produced in the liver. Animal or vital faculty controls respiration and emotion, coming from the heart. In the brain, the psychic faculty commands the senses and thought. The structure of bodily functions is related to the humors as well. Greek physicians understood that food was cooked in the stomach; this is where the nutrients are extracted. The best, most potent and pure nutrients from food are reserved for blood, which is produced in the liver and carried through veins to organs. Blood enhanced with pneuma, which means wind or breath, is carried by the arteries. The path that blood take is as follows: venous blood passes through the vena cava and is moved into the right ventricle of the heart; then, the pulmonary artery takes it to the lungs. Later, the pulmonary vein then mixes air from the lungs with blood to form arterial blood, which has different observable characteristics. After leaving the liver, half of the yellow bile that is produced travels to the blood, while the other half travels to the gallbladder. Similarly, half of the black bile produced gets mixed in with blood, and the other half is used by the spleen.

People

Around 800 BCE Homer in the gives descriptions of wound treatment by the two sons of Asklepios, the admirable physicians Podaleirius and Machaon and one acting doctor, Patroclus. Because Machaon is wounded and Podaleirius is in combat Eurypylus asks Patroclus to "cut out the arrow-head, and wash the dark blood from my thigh with warm water, and sprinkle soothing herbs with power to heal on my wound". Asklepios, like Imhotep, came to be associated as a god of healing over time.

View of the Askleipion of Kos, the best preserved instance of an Asklepieion.

Temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as Asclepieia ( Ancient Greek: Ἀσκληπιεῖα, sing. Ἀσκληπιεῖον , Asclepieion), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing. At these shrines, patients would enter a dream-like state of induced sleep known as enkoimesis (ἐγκοίμησις ) not unlike anesthesia, in which they either received guidance from the deity in a dream or were cured by surgery. Asclepeia provided carefully controlled spaces conducive to healing and fulfilled several of the requirements of institutions created for healing. In the Asclepeion of Epidaurus, three large marble boards dated to 350 BCE preserve the names, case histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 patients who came to the temple with a problem and shed it there. Some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place, but with the patient in a state of enkoimesis induced with the help of soporific substances such as opium. Alcmaeon of Croton wrote on medicine between 500 and 450 BCE. He argued that channels linked the sensory organs to the brain, and it is possible that he discovered one type of channel, the optic nerves, by dissection.

Hippocrates of Kos ( c. 460 - c. 370 BCE), considered the "father of modern medicine." The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of around seventy early medical works from ancient Greece strongly associated with Hippocrates and his students. Most famously, the Hippocratics invented the Hippocratic Oath for physicians. Contemporary physicians swear an oath of office which includes aspects found in early editions of the Hippocratic Oath.

Hippocrates and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. Though humorism (humoralism) as a medical system predates 5th-century Greek medicine, Hippocrates and his students systematized the thinking that illness can be explained by an imbalance of blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Hippocrates is given credit for the first description of clubbing of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic suppurative lung disease, lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease. For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers". Hippocrates was also the first physician to describe the Hippocratic face in Prognosis. Shakespeare famously alludes to this description when writing of Falstaff's death in Act II, Scene iii. of . Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence."

The Greek Galen (c. 129-216 CE) was one of the greatest physicians of the ancient world, as his theories dominated all medical studies for nearly 1500 years. His theories and experimentation laid the foundation for modern medicine surrounding the heart and blood. Galen's influence and innovations in medicine can be attributed to the experiments he conducted, which were unlike any other medical experiments of his time. Galen strongly believed that medical dissection was one of the essential procedures in truly understanding medicine. He began to dissect different animals that were anatomically similar to humans, which allowed him to learn more about the internal organs and extrapolate the surgical studies to the human body. In addition, he performed many audacious operations-including brain and eye surgeries-that were not tried again for almost two millennia. Through the dissections and surgical procedures, Galen concluded that blood is able to circulate throughout the human body, and the heart is most similar to the human soul. In Ars medica ("Arts of Medicine"), he further explains the mental properties in terms of specific mixtures of the bodily organs. While much of his work surrounded the physical anatomy, he also worked heavily in humoral physiology.

In 1523 Galen's On the Natural Faculties was published in London. In the 1530s Belgian anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius launched a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. Vesalius's most famous work, De humani corporis fabrica was greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form.
Herophilus and Erasistratus

The plinthios brochos as described by Greek physician Heraklas, a sling for binding a fractured jaw. These writings were preserved in one of Oribasius' collections.[79]

Two great Alexandrians laid the foundations for the scientific study of anatomy and physiology, Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos. Other Alexandrian surgeons gave us ligature (hemostasis), lithotomy, hernia operations, ophthalmic surgery, plastic surgery, methods of reduction of dislocations and fractures, tracheotomy, and mandrake as an anaesthetic. Some of what we know of them comes from Celsus and Galen of Pergamum.

The banned practice of human dissection was lifted during his time within the scholastic community. This brief moment in the history of Greek medicine allowed him to further study the brain, which he believed was the core of the nervous system. He also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse and the former do not. Thus, while working at the medical school of Alexandria, Herophilus placed intelligence in the brain based on his surgical exploration of the body, and he connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. In addition, he and his contemporary, Erasistratus of Chios, continued to research the role of veins and nerves. After conducting extensive research, the two Alexandrians mapped out the course of the veins and nerves across the human body. Erasistratus connected the increased complexity of the surface of the human brain compared to other animals to its superior intelligence. He sometimes employed experiments to further his research, at one time repeatedly weighing a caged bird, and noting its weight loss between feeding times. In Erasistratus' physiology, air enters the body, is then drawn by the lungs into the heart, where it is transformed into vital spirit, and is then pumped by the arteries throughout the body. Some of this vital spirit reaches the brain, where it is transformed into animal spirit, which is then distributed by the nerves.

The Romans invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women, as well as the surgical uses of forceps, scalpels, cautery, cross-bladed scissors, the surgical needle, the sound, and speculas. Romans also performed cataract surgery.

The Roman army physician Dioscorides ( c. 40-90 CE), was a Greek botanist and pharmacologist. He wrote the encyclopedia De Materia Medica describing over 600 herbal cures, forming an influential pharmacopoeia which was used extensively for the following 1,500 years.

Early Christians in the Roman Empire incorporated medicine into their theology, ritual practices, and metaphors.

Mandrake (written 'ΜΑΝΔΡΑΓΟΡΑ' in Greek capitals). Naples Dioscurides, 7th century

Byzantine medicine
Byzantine medicine encompasses the common medical practices of the Byzantine Empire from about 400 CE to 1453 CE. Byzantine medicine was notable for building upon the knowledge base developed by its Greco-Roman predecessors. In preserving medical practices from antiquity, Byzantine medicine influenced Islamic medicine as well as fostering the Western rebirth of medicine during the Renaissance.

Byzantine physicians often compiled and standardized medical knowledge into textbooks. Their records tended to include both diagnostic explanations and technical drawings. The Medical Compendium in Seven Books, written by the leading physician Paul of Aegina, survived as a particularly thorough source of medical knowledge. This compendium, written in the late seventh century, remained in use as a standard textbook for the following 800 years.

Late antiquity ushered in a revolution in medical science, and historical records often mention civilian hospitals (although battlefield medicine and wartime triage were recorded well before Imperial Rome). Constantinople stood out as a center of medicine during the Middle Ages, which was aided by its crossroads location, wealth, and accumulated knowledge.

The first ever known example of separating conjoined twins occurred in the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century. The next example of separating conjoined twins would be recorded many centuries later in Germany in 1689.

The Byzantine Empire's neighbors, the Persian Sassanid Empire, also made their noteworthy contributions mainly with the establishment of the Academy of Gondeshapur, which was "the most important medical center of the ancient world during the 6th and 7th centuries." In addition, Cyril Elgood, British physician and a historian of medicine in Persia, commented that thanks to medical centers like the Academy of Gondeshapur, "to a very large extent, the credit for the whole hospital system must be given to Persia."
Islamic medicine
The Islamic civilization rose to primacy in medical science as its physicians contributed significantly to the field of medicine, including anatomy, ophthalmology, pharmacology, pharmacy, physiology, and surgery. Islamic civilization's contribution to these fields within medicine was a gradual process that took hundreds of years. During the time of the first great Muslim dynasty, the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE), these fields that were in their very early stages of development, and not much progress was made. One reason for the limited advancement in medicine during the Umayyad Caliphate was the Caliphate's focus on expansion after the death of Prophet Muhammad (632 CE). The focus on expansionism redirected resources from other fields, such as medicine. The priority on these factors led a dense amount of the population to believe that God will provide cures for their illnesses and diseases because of the attention on spirituality.

There were also many other areas of interest during that time before there was a rising interest in the field of medicine. Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, the fifth caliph of the Umayyad, developed governmental administration, adopted Arabic as the main language, and focused on many other areas. However, this rising interest in Islamic medicine grew significantly when the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE) overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 CE. This change in dynasty from the Umayyad Caliphate to the Abbasid Caliphate served as a turning point towards scientific and medical developments. A big contributor to this is because, under Abbasid rule, there was a great part of the Greek legacy that was transmitted into Arabic which by then, was the main language of Islamic nations. Because of this, many Islamic physicians were heavily influenced by the works of Greek scholars of Alexandria and Egypt and were able to further expand on those texts to produce new medical pieces of knowledge. This period of time is also known as the Islamic Golden Age where there was a period of development for development and flourishments of technology, commerce, and sciences including medicine. Additionally, during this time the creation of the first Islamic Hospital in 805 CE by the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid in Baghdad was recounted as a glorious event of the Golden Age. This hospital in Baghdad contributed immensely to Baghdad's success and also provided educational opportunities for Islamic physicians. During the Islamic Golden Age, there were many famous Islamic physicians that paved the way for medical advancements and understandings. Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (965-1040 CE), sometimes referred to as the father of modern optics, is the author of the monumental Book of Optics and also was known for his work in differentiating smallpox from measles. However, this would not be possible without the influence from many different areas of the world that influenced the Arabs.

Arabic manuscript, Anatomy of the Eye, by al-Mutadibih, 1200 CE

The Arabs were influenced by ancient Indian, Persian, Greek, Roman and Byzantine medical practices, and helped them develop further. Galen & Hippocrates were pre-eminent authorities. The translation of 129 of Galen's works into Arabic by the Nestorian Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq and his assistants, and in particular Galen's insistence on a rational systematic approach to medicine, set the template for Islamic medicine, which rapidly spread throughout the Arab Empire. Its most famous physicians included the Persian polymaths Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi and Avicenna, who wrote more than 40 works on health, medicine, and well-being. Taking leads from Greece and Rome, Islamic scholars kept both the art and science of medicine alive and moving forward. Persian polymath Avicenna has also been called the "father of medicine". He wrote The Canon of Medicine which became a standard medical text at many medieval European universities, considered one of the most famous books in the history of medicine. The Canon of Medicine presents an overview of the contemporary medical knowledge of the medieval Islamic world, which had been influenced by earlier traditions including Greco-Roman medicine (particularly Galen), Persian medicine, Chinese medicine and Indian medicine. Persian physician al-Rāzi was one of the first to question the Greek theory of humorism, which nevertheless remained influential in both medieval Western and medieval Islamic medicine. Some volumes of al-Rāzi's work Al-Mansuri, namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in European universities. Additionally, he has been described as a doctor's doctor, the father of pediatrics, and a pioneer of ophthalmology. For example, he was the first to recognize the reaction of the eye's pupil to light.

In addition to contributions to humanity's understanding of human anatomy, Islamicate scientists and scholars, physicians specifically, played an invaluable role in the development of the modern hospital system, creating the foundations on which more contemporary medical professionals would build models of public health systems in Europe and elsewhere. During the time of the Safavid empire (16th-18th centuries) in Iran and the Mughal empire (16th-19th centuries) in India, Muslim scholars radically transformed the institution of the hospital, creating an environment in which rapidly developing medical knowledge of the time could be passed among students and teachers from a wide range of cultures. There were two main schools of thought with patient care at the time. These included humoral physiology from the Persians and Ayurvedic practice. After these theories were translated from Sanskrit to Persian and vice-versa, hospitals could have a mix of culture and techniques. This allowed for a sense of collaborative medicine. Hospitals became increasingly common during this period as wealthy patrons commonly founded them. Many features that are still in use today, such as an emphasis on hygiene, a staff fully dedicated to the care of patients, and separation of individual patients from each other were developed in Islamicate hospitals long before they came into practice in Europe. At the time, the patient care aspects of hospitals in Europe had not taken effect. European hospitals were places of religion rather than institutions of science. As was the case with much of the scientific work done by Islamicate scholars, many of these novel developments in medical practice were transmitted to European cultures hundreds of years after they had long been used throughout the Islamicate world. Although Islamicate scientists were responsible for discovering much of the knowledge that allows the hospital system to function safely today, European scholars who built on this work still receive the majority of the credit historically.

The hospital was a typical institution included in the majority of Muslim cities, and although they were often physically attached to religious institutions, they were not themselves places of religious practice. Rather, they served as facilities in which education and scientific innovation could flourish. If they had places of worship, they were secondary to the medical side of the hospital. Islamicate hospitals, along with observatories used for astronomical science, were some of the most important points of exchange for the spread of scientific knowledge. Undoubtedly, the hospital system developed in the Islamicate world played an invaluable role in the creation and evolution of the hospitals we as a society know and depend on today.

After 400 CE, the study and practice of medicine in the Western Roman Empire went into deep decline. Medical services were provided, especially for the poor, in the thousands of monastic hospitals that sprang up across Europe, but the care was rudimentary and mainly palliative. Most of the writings of Galen and Hippocrates were lost to the West, with the summaries and compendia of St. Isidore of Seville being the primary channel for transmitting Greek medical ideas. The Carolingian Renaissance brought increased contact with Byzantium and a greater awareness of ancient medicine, but only with the Renaissance of the 12th century and the new translations coming from Muslim and Jewish sources in Spain, and the fifteenth-century flood of resources after the fall of Constantinople did the West fully recover its acquaintance with classical antiquity.

Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned in ancient times, but in the Middle Ages it changed: medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and Mondino de Luzzi ( c.  1275-1326) produced the first known anatomy textbook based on human dissection.

Wallis identifies a prestige hierarchy with university educated physicians on top, followed by learned surgeons; craft-trained surgeons; barber surgeons; itinerant specialists such as dentist and oculists; empirics; and midwives.

The first medical schools were opened in the 9th century, most notably the Schola Medica Salernitana at Salerno in southern Italy. The cosmopolitan influences from Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew sources gave it an international reputation as the Hippocratic City. Students from wealthy families came for three years of preliminary studies and five of medical studies. The medicine, following the laws of Federico II, that he founded in 1224 the university and improved the Schola Salernitana, in the period between 1200 and 1400, it had in Sicily (so-called Sicilian Middle Ages) a particular development so much to create a true school of Jewish medicine.

As a result of which, after a legal examination, was conferred to a Jewish Sicilian woman, Virdimura, wife of another physician Pasquale of Catania, the historical record of before woman officially trained to exercise of the medical profession.

At the University of Bologna the training of physicians began in 1219. The Italian city attracted students from across Europe. Taddeo Alderotti built a tradition of medical education that established the characteristic features of Italian learned medicine and was copied by medical schools elsewhere. Turisanus (d. 1320) was his student.

The University of Padua was founded about 1220 by walkouts from the University of Bologna, and began teaching medicine in 1222. It played a leading role in the identification and treatment of diseases and ailments, specializing in autopsies and the inner workings of the body. Starting in 1595, Padua's famous anatomical theatre drew artists and scientists studying the human body during public dissections. The intensive study of Galen led to critiques of Galen modeled on his own writing, as in the first book of Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica. Andreas Vesalius held the chair of Surgery and Anatomy ( explicator chirurgiae) and in 1543 published his anatomical discoveries in De Humani Corporis Fabrica. He portrayed the human body as an interdependent system of organ groupings. The book triggered great public interest in dissections and caused many other European cities to establish anatomical theatres.

By the thirteenth century, the medical school at Montpellier began to eclipse the Salernitan school. In the 12th century, universities were founded in Italy, France, and England, which soon developed schools of medicine. The University of Montpellier in France and Italy's University of Padua and University of Bologna were leading schools. Nearly all the learning was from lectures and readings in Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna, and Aristotle. In later centuries, the importance of universities founded in the late Middle Ages gradually increased, e.g. Charles University in Prague (established in 1348), Jagiellonian University in Cracow (1364), University of Vienna (1365), Heidelberg University (1386) and University of Greifswald (1456).

In 1376, in Sicily, it was historically given, in relationship to the laws of Federico II that they foresaw an examination with a regal errand of physicists, the first qualification to the exercise of the medicine to a woman, Virdimura a Jewish woman of Catania, whose document is preserved in Palermo to the Italian national archives.

England

In England, there were but three small hospitals after 1550. Pelling and Webster estimate that in London in the 1580 to 1600 period, out of a population of nearly 200,000 people, there were about 500 medical practitioners. Nurses and midwives are not included. There were about 50 physicians, 100 licensed surgeons, 100 apothecaries, and 250 additional unlicensed practitioners. In the last category about 25% were women. All across England-and indeed all of the world-the vast majority of the people in city, town or countryside depended for medical care on local amateurs with no professional training but with a reputation as wise healers who could diagnose problems and advise sick people what to do-and perhaps set broken bones, pull a tooth, give some traditional herbs or brews or perform a little magic to cure what ailed them.

The Renaissance brought an intense focus on scholarship to Christian Europe. A major effort to translate the Arabic and Greek scientific works into Latin emerged. Europeans gradually became experts not only in the ancient writings of the Romans and Greeks, but in the contemporary writings of Islamic scientists. During the later centuries of the Renaissance came an increase in experimental investigation, particularly in the field of dissection and body examination, thus advancing our knowledge of human anatomy.

An experiment from William Harvey's de Motu Cordis, 1628

At the University of Bologna the curriculum was revised and strengthened in 1560-1590. A representative professor was Julius Caesar Aranzi (Arantius) (1530-1589). He became Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the University of Bologna in 1556, where he established anatomy as a major branch of medicine for the first time. Aranzi combined anatomy with a description of pathological processes, based largely on his own research, Galen, and the work of his contemporary Italians. Aranzi discovered the 'Nodules of Aranzio' in the semilunar valves of the heart and wrote the first description of the superior levator palpebral and the coracobrachialis muscles. His books (in Latin) covered surgical techniques for many conditions, including hydrocephalus, nasal polyp, goitre and tumours to phimosis, ascites, haemorrhoids, anal abscess and fistulae.

Women

Catholic women played large roles in health and healing in medieval and early modern Europe. A life as a nun was a prestigious role; wealthy families provided dowries for their daughters, and these funded the convents, while the nuns provided free nursing care for the poor.

The Catholic elites provided hospital services because of their theology of salvation that good works were the route to heaven. The Protestant reformers rejected the notion that rich men could gain God's grace through good works-and thereby escape purgatory-by providing cash endowments to charitable institutions. They also rejected the Catholic idea that the poor patients earned grace and salvation through their suffering. Protestants generally closed all the convents and most of the hospitals, sending women home to become housewives, often against their will. On the other hand, local officials recognized the public value of hospitals, and some were continued in Protestant lands, but without monks or nuns and in the control of local governments.

In London, the crown allowed two hospitals to continue their charitable work, under nonreligious control of city officials. The convents were all shut down but Harkness finds that women-some of them former nuns-were part of a new system that delivered essential medical services to people outside their family. They were employed by parishes and hospitals, as well as by private families, and provided nursing care as well as some medical, pharmaceutical, and surgical services.

Meanwhile, in Catholic lands such as France, rich families continued to fund convents and monasteries, and enrolled their daughters as nuns who provided free health services to the poor. Nursing was a religious role for the nurse, and there was little call for science.

In the 18th century, during the Qing dynasty, there was a proliferation of popular books as well as more advanced encyclopedias on traditional medicine. Jesuit missionaries introduced Western science and medicine to the royal court, although the Chinese physicians ignored them.

Unani medicine was developed in India throughout the medieval and early modern age. It progressed during the Indian Sultanate and Mughal periods. Unani medicine is very close to Ayurveda. Both are based on the theory of the presence of the elements (in Unani, they are considered to be fire, water, earth, and air) in the human body. According to followers of Unani medicine, these elements are present in different fluids and their balance leads to health and their imbalance leads to illness.

By the 18th century CE, Sanskrit medical wisdom still dominated. Muslim rulers built large hospitals in 1595 in Hyderabad, and in Delhi in 1719, and numerous commentaries on ancient texts were written.

European Age of Enlightenment

During the Age of Enlightenment, the 18th century, science was held in high esteem and physicians upgraded their social status by becoming more scientific. The health field was crowded with self-trained barber-surgeons, apothecaries, midwives, drug peddlers, and charlatans.

Across Europe medical schools relied primarily on lectures and readings. The final year student would have limited clinical experience by trailing the professor through the wards. Laboratory work was uncommon, and dissections were rarely done because of legal restrictions on cadavers. Most schools were small, and only Edinburgh Medical School, Scotland, with 11,000 alumni, produced large numbers of graduates.
Spain and the Spanish Empire

Depiction of smallpox in Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún's history of the conquest of Mexico, Book XII of the Florentine Codex, from the defeated Aztecs' point of view

In the Spanish Empire, the viceregal capital of Mexico City was a site of medical training for physicians and the creation of hospitals. Epidemic disease had decimated indigenous populations starting with the early sixteenth-century Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire, when a black auxiliary in the armed forces of conqueror Hernán Cortés, with an active case of smallpox, set off a virgin land epidemic among indigenous peoples, Spanish allies and enemies alike. Aztec emperor Cuitlahuac died of smallpox. Disease was a significant factor in the Spanish conquest elsewhere as well.

Medical education instituted at the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico chiefly served the needs of urban elites. Male and female curanderos or lay practitioners, attended to the ills of the popular classes. The Spanish crown began regulating the medical profession just a few years after the conquest, setting up the Royal Tribunal of the Protomedicato, a board for licensing medical personnel in 1527. Licensing became more systematic after 1646 with physicians, druggists, surgeons, and bleeders requiring a license before they could publicly practice. Crown regulation of medical practice became more general in the Spanish empire.

Spanish Quest for Medicinal Spices

Botanical medicines also became popular during the 16th, 17th, and 18th Centuries. Spanish pharmaceutical books during this time contain medicinal recipes consisting of spices, herbs, and other botanical products. For example, nutmeg oil was documented for curing stomach ailments and cardamom oil was believed to relieve intestinal ailments. During the rise of the global trade market, spices and herbs, along with many other goods, that were indigenous to different territories began to appear in different locations across the globe. Herbs and spices were especially popular for their utility in cooking and medicines. As a result of this popularity and increased demand for spices, some areas in Asia, like China and Indonesia, became hubs for spice cultivation and trade. The Spanish Empire also wanted to benefit from the international spice trade, so they looked towards their American colonies.

The Spanish American colonies became an area where the Spanish searched to discover new spices and indigenous American medicinal recipes. The Florentine Codex, a 16th-century ethnographic research study in Mesoamerica by the Spanish Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún, is a major contribution to the history of Nahua medicine. The Spanish did discover many spices and herbs new to them, some of which were reportedly similar to Asian spices. A Spanish physician by the name of Nicolás Monardes studied many of the American spices coming into Spain. He documented many of the new American spices and their medicinal properties in his survey Historia medicinal de las cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales. For example, Monardes describes the "Long Pepper" (Pimienta luenga), found along the coasts of the countries that are now known Panama and Colombia, as a pepper that was more flavorful, healthy, and spicy in comparison to the Eastern black pepper. The Spanish interest in American spices can first be seen in the commissioning of the Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis, which was a Spanish-American codex describing indigenous American spices and herbs and describing the ways that these were used in natural Aztec medicines. The codex was commissioned in the year 1552 by Francisco de Mendoza, the son of Antonio de Mendoza, who was the first Viceroy of New Spain. Francisco de Mendoza was interested in studying the properties of these herbs and spices, so that he would be able to profit from the trade of these herbs and the medicines that could be produced by them.

Francisco de Mendoza recruited the help of Monardez in studying the traditional medicines of the indigenous people living in what was then the Spanish colonies. Monardez researched these medicines and performed experiments to discover the possibilities of spice cultivation and medicine creation in the Spanish colonies. The Spanish transplanted some herbs from Asia, but only a few foreign crops were successfully grown in the Spanish Colonies. One notable crop brought from Asia and successfully grown in the Spanish colonies was ginger, as it was considered Hispaniola's number 1 crop at the end of the 16th Century. The Spanish Empire did profit from cultivating herbs and spices, but they also introduced pre-Columbian American medicinal knowledge to Europe. Other Europeans were inspired by the actions of Spain and decided to try to establish a botanical transplant system in colonies that they controlled, however, these subsequent attempts were not successful.

United Kingdom and the British Empire

18th-century medical remedies collected by a British Gentry family

The London Dispensary opened in 1696, the first clinic in the British Empire to dispense medicines to poor sick people. The innovation was slow to catch on, but new dispensaries were open in the 1770s. In the colonies, small hospitals opened in Philadelphia in 1752, New York in 1771, and Boston ( Massachusetts General Hospital) in 1811.

Guy's Hospital, the first great British hospital with a modern foundation opened in 1721 in London, with funding from businessman Thomas Guy. It had been preceded by St Bartholomew's Hospital and St Thomas's Hospital, both medieval foundations. In 1821 a bequest of £200,000 by William Hunt in 1829 funded expansion for an additional hundred beds at Guy's. Samuel Sharp (1709-78), a surgeon at Guy's Hospital from 1733 to 1757, was internationally famous; his A Treatise on the Operations of Surgery (1st ed., 1739), was the first British study focused exclusively on operative technique.

English physician Thomas Percival (1740-1804) wrote a comprehensive system of medical conduct, Medical Ethics; or, a Code of Institutes and Precepts, Adapted to the Professional Conduct of Physicians and Surgeons (1803) that set the standard for many textbooks.

In the 1830s in Italy, Agostino Bassi traced the silkworm disease muscardine to microorganisms. Meanwhile, in Germany, Theodor Schwann led research on alcoholic fermentation by yeast, proposing that living microorganisms were responsible. Leading chemists, such as Justus von Liebig, seeking solely physicochemical explanations, derided this claim and alleged that Schwann was regressing to vitalism.

In 1847 in Vienna, Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865), dramatically reduced the death rate of new mothers (due to childbed fever) by requiring physicians to clean their hands before attending childbirth, yet his principles were marginalized and attacked by professional peers. At that time most people still believed that infections were caused by foul odors called miasmas.

Louis Pasteur experimenting on bacteria, c. 1870

Statue of Robert Koch, father of medical bacteriology,[162] at Robert-Koch-Platz (Robert Koch square) in Berlin

French scientist Louis Pasteur confirmed Schwann's fermentation experiments in 1857 and afterwards supported the hypothesis that yeast were microorganisms. Moreover, he suggested that such a process might also explain contagious disease. In 1860, Pasteur's report on bacterial fermentation of butyric acid motivated fellow Frenchman Casimir Davaine to identify a similar species (which he called bacteridia) as the pathogen of the deadly disease anthrax. Others dismissed " bacteridia" as a mere byproduct of the disease. British surgeon Joseph Lister, however, took these findings seriously and subsequently introduced antisepsis to wound treatment in 1865.

German physician Robert Koch, noting fellow German Ferdinand Cohn's report of a spore stage of a certain bacterial species, traced the life cycle of Davaine's bacteridia, identified spores, inoculated laboratory animals with them, and reproduced anthrax-a breakthrough for experimental pathology and germ theory of disease. Pasteur's group added ecological investigations confirming spores' role in the natural setting, while Koch published a landmark treatise in 1878 on the bacterial pathology of wounds. In 1881, Koch reported discovery of the " tubercle bacillus", cementing germ theory and Koch's acclaim.

Upon the outbreak of a cholera epidemic in Alexandria, Egypt, two medical missions went to investigate and attend the sick, one was sent out by Pasteur and the other led by Koch. Koch's group returned in 1883, having successfully discovered the cholera pathogen. In Germany, however, Koch's bacteriologists had to vie against Max von Pettenkofer, Germany's leading proponent of miasmatic theory. Pettenkofer conceded bacteria's casual involvement, but maintained that other, environmental factors were required to turn it pathogenic, and opposed water treatment as a misdirected effort amid more important ways to improve public health. The massive cholera epidemic in Hamburg in 1892 devastated Pettenkoffer's position, and yielded German public health to "Koch's bacteriology".

On losing the 1883 rivalry in Alexandria, Pasteur switched research direction, and introduced his third vaccine- rabies vaccine-the first vaccine for humans since Jenner's for smallpox. From across the globe, donations poured in, funding the founding of Pasteur Institute, the globe's first biomedical institute, which opened in 1888. Along with Koch's bacteriologists, Pasteur's group-which preferred the term microbiology-led medicine into the new era of "scientific medicine" upon bacteriology and germ theory. Accepted from Jakob Henle, Koch's steps to confirm a species' pathogenicity became famed as " Koch's postulates". Although his proposed tuberculosis treatment, tuberculin, seemingly failed, it soon was used to test for infection with the involved species. In 1905, Koch was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and remains renowned as the founder of medical microbiology.

The breakthrough to professionalization based on knowledge of advanced medicine was led by Florence Nightingale in England. She resolved to provide more advanced training than she saw on the Continent. At Kaiserswerth, where the first German nursing schools were founded in 1836 by Theodor Fliedner, she said, "The nursing was nil and the hygiene horrible.") Britain's male doctors preferred the old system, but Nightingale won out and her Nightingale Training School opened in 1860 and became a model. The Nightingale solution depended on the patronage of upper-class women, and they proved eager to serve. Royalty became involved. In 1902 the wife of the British king took control of the nursing unit of the British army, became its president, and renamed it after herself as the Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps; when she died the next queen became president. Today its Colonel In Chief is Sophie, Countess of Wessex, the daughter-in-law of Queen Elizabeth II. In the United States, upper-middle-class women who already supported hospitals promoted nursing. The new profession proved highly attractive to women of all backgrounds, and schools of nursing opened in the late 19th century. They were soon a function of large hospitals[clarification needed ], where they provided a steady stream of low-paid idealistic workers. The International Red Cross began operations in numerous countries in the late 19th century, promoting nursing as an ideal profession for middle-class women.

"Diagram of the causes of mortality in the army in the East" by Florence Nightingale.

A major breakthrough in epidemiology came with the introduction of statistical maps and graphs. They allowed careful analysis of seasonality issues in disease incidents, and the maps allowed public health officials to identify critical loci for the dissemination of disease. John Snow in London developed the methods. In 1849, he observed that the symptoms of cholera, which had already claimed around 500 lives within a month, were vomiting and diarrhoea. He concluded that the source of contamination must be through ingestion, rather than inhalation as was previously thought. It was this insight that resulted in the removal of The Pump On Broad Street, after which deaths from cholera plummeted. English nurse Florence Nightingale pioneered analysis of large amounts of statistical data, using graphs and tables, regarding the condition of thousands of patients in the Crimean War to evaluate the efficacy of hospital services. Her methods proved convincing and led to reforms in military and civilian hospitals, usually with the full support of the government.

By the late 19th and early 20th century English statisticians led by Francis Galton, Karl Pearson and Ronald Fisher developed the mathematical tools such as correlations and hypothesis tests that made possible much more sophisticated analysis of statistical data.

During the U.S. Civil War the Sanitary Commission collected enormous amounts of statistical data, and opened up the problems of storing information for fast access and mechanically searching for data patterns. The pioneer was John Shaw Billings (1838-1913). A senior surgeon in the war, Billings built the Library of the Surgeon General's Office (now the National Library of Medicine), the centerpiece of modern medical information systems. Billings figured out how to mechanically analyze medical and demographic data by turning facts into numbers and punching the numbers onto cardboard cards that could be sorted and counted by machine. The applications were developed by his assistant Herman Hollerith; Hollerith invented the punch card and counter-sorter system that dominated statistical data manipulation until the 1970s. Hollerith's company became International Business Machines (IBM) in 1911.

The Quaker-run York Retreat, founded in 1796, gained international prominence as a centre for moral treatment and a model of asylum reform following the publication of Samuel Tuke's Description of the Retreat (1813).

Until the nineteenth century, the care of the insane was largely a communal and family responsibility rather than a medical one. The vast majority of the mentally ill were treated in domestic contexts with only the most unmanageable or burdensome likely to be institutionally confined. This situation was transformed radically from the late eighteenth century as, amid changing cultural conceptions of madness, a new-found optimism in the curability of insanity within the asylum setting emerged. Increasingly, lunacy was perceived less as a physiological condition than as a mental and moral one to which the correct response was persuasion, aimed at inculcating internal restraint, rather than external coercion. This new therapeutic sensibility, referred to as moral treatment, was epitomised in French physician Philippe Pinel's quasi-mythological unchaining of the lunatics of the Bicêtre Hospital in Paris and realised in an institutional setting with the foundation in 1796 of the Quaker-run York Retreat in England.

From the early nineteenth century, as lay-led lunacy reform movements gained in influence, ever more state governments in the West extended their authority and responsibility over the mentally ill. Small-scale asylums, conceived as instruments to reshape both the mind and behaviour of the disturbed, proliferated across these regions. By the 1830s, moral treatment, together with the asylum itself, became increasingly medicalised and asylum doctors began to establish a distinct medical identity with the establishment in the 1840s of associations for their members in France, Germany, the United Kingdom and America, together with the founding of medico-psychological journals. Medical optimism in the capacity of the asylum to cure insanity soured by the close of the nineteenth century as the growth of the asylum population far outstripped that of the general population. Processes of long-term institutional segregation, allowing for the psychiatric conceptualisation of the natural course of mental illness, supported the perspective that the insane were a distinct population, subject to mental pathologies stemming from specific medical causes. As degeneration theory grew in influence from the mid-nineteenth century, heredity was seen as the central causal element in chronic mental illness, and, with national asylum systems overcrowded and insanity apparently undergoing an inexorable rise, the focus of psychiatric therapeutics shifted from a concern with treating the individual to maintaining the racial and biological health of national populations.

Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) introduced new medical categories of mental illness, which eventually came into psychiatric usage despite their basis in behavior rather than pathology or underlying cause. Shell shock among frontline soldiers exposed to heavy artillery bombardment was first diagnosed by British Army doctors in 1915. By 1916, similar symptoms were also noted in soldiers not exposed to explosive shocks, leading to questions as to whether the disorder was physical or psychiatric. In the 1920s surrealist opposition to psychiatry was expressed in a number of surrealist publications. In the 1930s several controversial medical practices were introduced including inducing seizures (by electroshock, insulin or other drugs) or cutting parts of the brain apart ( leucotomy or lobotomy). Both came into widespread use by psychiatry, but there were grave concerns and much opposition on grounds of basic morality, harmful effects, or misuse.

In the 1950s new psychiatric drugs, notably the antipsychotic chlorpromazine, were designed in laboratories and slowly came into preferred use. Although often accepted as an advance in some ways, there was some opposition, due to serious adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia. Patients often opposed psychiatry and refused or stopped taking the drugs when not subject to psychiatric control. There was also increasing opposition to the use of psychiatric hospitals, and attempts to move people back into the community on a collaborative user-led group approach ("therapeutic communities") not controlled by psychiatry. Campaigns against masturbation were done in the Victorian era and elsewhere. Lobotomy was used until the 1970s to treat schizophrenia. This was denounced by the anti-psychiatric movement in the 1960s and later.

It was very difficult for women to become doctors in any field before the 1970s. Elizabeth Blackwell became the first woman to formally study and practice medicine in the United States. She was a leader in women's medical education. While Blackwell viewed medicine as a means for social and moral reform, her student Mary Putnam Jacobi (1842-1906) focused on curing disease. At a deeper level of disagreement, Blackwell felt that women would succeed in medicine because of their humane female values, but Jacobi believed that women should participate as the equals of men in all medical specialties using identical methods, values and insights. In the Soviet Union although the majority of medical doctors were women, they were paid less than the mostly male factory workers.

China

Finally in the 19th century, Western medicine was introduced at the local level by Christian medical missionaries from the London Missionary Society (Britain), the Methodist Church (Britain) and the Presbyterian Church (US). Benjamin Hobson (1816-1873) in 1839, set up a highly successful Wai Ai Clinic in Guangzhou, China. The Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese was founded in 1887 by the London Missionary Society, with its first graduate (in 1892) being Sun Yat-sen, who later led the Chinese Revolution (1911). The Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese was the forerunner of the School of Medicine of the University of Hong Kong, which started in 1911.

Because of the social custom that men and women should not be near to one another, the women of China were reluctant to be treated by male doctors. The missionaries sent women doctors such as Dr. Mary Hannah Fulton (1854-1927). Supported by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (US) she in 1902 founded the first medical college for women in China, the Hackett Medical College for Women, in Guangzhou.
Japan

A doctor checks a patient's pulse in Meiji-era Japan.

European ideas of modern medicine were spread widely through the world by medical missionaries, and the dissemination of textbooks. Japanese elites enthusiastically embraced Western medicine after the Meiji Restoration of the 1860s. However they had been prepared by their knowledge of the Dutch and German medicine, for they had some contact with Europe through the Dutch. Highly influential was the 1765 edition of Hendrik van Deventer's pioneer work Nieuw Ligt ("A New Light") on Japanese obstetrics, especially on Katakura Kakuryo's publication in 1799 of Sanka Hatsumo ("Enlightenment of Obstetrics"). A cadre of Japanese physicians began to interact with Dutch doctors, who introduced smallpox vaccinations. By 1820 Japanese ranpô medical practitioners not only translated Dutch medical texts, they integrated their readings with clinical diagnoses. These men became leaders of the modernization of medicine in their country. They broke from Japanese traditions of closed medical fraternities and adopted the European approach of an open community of collaboration based on expertise in the latest scientific methods.

Kitasato Shibasaburō (1853-1931) studied bacteriology in Germany under Robert Koch. In 1891 he founded the Institute of Infectious Diseases in Tokyo, which introduced the study of bacteriology to Japan. He and French researcher Alexandre Yersin went to Hong Kong in 1894, where; Kitasato confirmed Yersin's discovery that the bacterium Yersinia pestis is the agent of the plague. In 1897 he isolated and described the organism that caused dysentery. He became the first dean of medicine at Keio University, and the first president of the Japan Medical Association.

The practice of medicine changed in the face of rapid advances in science, as well as new approaches by physicians. Hospital doctors began much more systematic analysis of patients' symptoms in diagnosis. Among the more powerful new techniques were anaesthesia, and the development of both antiseptic and aseptic operating theatres. Effective cures were developed for certain endemic infectious diseases. However, the decline in many of the most lethal diseases was due more to improvements in public health and nutrition than to advances in medicine.[citation needed ]

Medicine was revolutionized in the 19th century and beyond by advances in chemistry, laboratory techniques, and equipment. Old ideas of infectious disease epidemiology were gradually replaced by advances in bacteriology and virology.

The Russian Orthodox Church sponsored seven orders of nursing sisters in the late 19th century. They ran hospitals, clinics, almshouses, pharmacies, and shelters as well as training schools for nurses. In the Soviet era (1917-1991), with the aristocratic sponsors gone, nursing became a low-prestige occupation based in poorly maintained hospitals.

Paris (France) and Vienna were the two leading medical centers on the Continent in the era 1750-1914.

In the 1770s-1850s Paris became a world center of medical research and teaching. The "Paris School" emphasized that teaching and research should be based in large hospitals and promoted the professionalization of the medical profession and the emphasis on sanitation and public health. A major reformer was Jean-Antoine Chaptal (1756-1832), a physician who was Minister of Internal Affairs. He created the Paris Hospital, health councils, and other bodies.

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) was one of the most important founders of medical microbiology. He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and preventions of diseases. His discoveries reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and he created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease. He was best known to the general public for inventing a method to treat milk and wine in order to prevent it from causing sickness, a process that came to be called pasteurization. He is regarded as one of the three main founders of microbiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch. He worked chiefly in Paris and in 1887 founded the Pasteur Institute there to perpetuate his commitment to basic research and its practical applications. As soon as his institute was created, Pasteur brought together scientists with various specialties. The first five departments were directed by Emile Duclaux (general microbiology research) and Charles Chamberland (microbe research applied to hygiene), as well as a biologist, Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (morphological microbe research) and two physicians, Jacques-Joseph Grancher ( rabies) and Emile Roux (technical microbe research). One year after the inauguration of the Institut Pasteur, Roux set up the first course of microbiology ever taught in the world, then entitled Cours de Microbie Technique (Course of microbe research techniques). It became the model for numerous research centers around the world named "Pasteur Institutes.

The First Viennese School of Medicine, 1750-1800, was led by the Dutchman Gerard van Swieten (1700-1772), who aimed to put medicine on new scientific foundations-promoting unprejudiced clinical observation, botanical and chemical research, and introducing simple but powerful remedies. When the Vienna General Hospital opened in 1784, it at once became the world's largest hospital and physicians acquired a facility that gradually developed into the most important research centre. Progress ended with the Napoleonic wars and the government shutdown in 1819 of all liberal journals and schools; this caused a general return to traditionalism and eclecticism in medicine.

Vienna was the capital of a diverse empire and attracted not just Germans but Czechs, Hungarians, Jews, Poles and others to its world-class medical facilities. After 1820 the Second Viennese School of Medicine emerged with the contributions of physicians such as Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky, Josef Škoda, Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, and Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis. Basic medical science expanded and specialization advanced. Furthermore, the first dermatology, eye, as well as ear, nose, and throat clinics in the world were founded in Vienna. The textbook of ophthalmologist Georg Joseph Beer (1763-1821) Lehre von den Augenkrankheiten combined practical research and philosophical speculations, and became the standard reference work for decades.

After 1871 Berlin, the capital of the new German Empire, became a leading center for medical research. Robert Koch (1843-1910) was a representative leader. He became famous for isolating Bacillus anthracis (1877), the Tuberculosis bacillus (1882) and Vibrio cholerae (1883) and for his development of Koch's postulates. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905 for his tuberculosis findings. Koch is one of the founders of microbiology, inspiring such major figures as Paul Ehrlich and Gerhard Domagk.

American Civil War

In the American Civil War (1861-65), as was typical of the 19th century, more soldiers died of disease than in battle, and even larger numbers were temporarily incapacitated by wounds, disease and accidents. Conditions were poor in the Confederacy, where doctors and medical supplies were in short supply. The war had a dramatic long-term impact on medicine in the U.S., from surgical technique to hospitals to nursing and to research facilities. Weapon development -particularly the appearance of Springfield Model 1861, mass-produced and much more accurate than muskets led to generals underestimating the risks of long range rifle fire; risks exemplified in the death of John Sedgwick and the disastrous Pickett's Charge. The rifles could shatter bone forcing amputation and longer ranges meant casualties were sometimes not quickly found. Evacuation of the wounded from Second Battle of Bull Run took a week. As in earlier wars, untreated casualties sometimes survived unexpectedly due to maggots debriding the wound -an observation which led to the surgical use of maggots -still a useful method in the absence of effective antibiotics.

The hygiene of the training and field camps was poor, especially at the beginning of the war when men who had seldom been far from home were brought together for training with thousands of strangers. First came epidemics of the childhood diseases of chicken pox, mumps, whooping cough, and, especially, measles. Operations in the South meant a dangerous and new disease environment, bringing diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever, and malaria. There were no antibiotics, so the surgeons prescribed coffee, whiskey, and quinine. Harsh weather, bad water, inadequate shelter in winter quarters, poor policing of camps, and dirty camp hospitals took their toll.

This was a common scenario in wars from time immemorial, and conditions faced by the Confederate army were even worse. The Union responded by building army hospitals in every state. What was different in the Union was the emergence of skilled, well-funded medical organizers who took proactive action, especially in the much enlarged United States Army Medical Department, and the United States Sanitary Commission, a new private agency. Numerous other new agencies also targeted the medical and morale needs of soldiers, including the United States Christian Commission as well as smaller private agencies.

The U.S. Army learned many lessons and in August 1886, it established the Hospital Corps.

Johns Hopkins Hospital, founded in 1889, originated several modern medical practices, including residency and rounds.

The ABO blood group system was discovered in 1901 by Karl Landsteiner at the University of Vienna. Landsteiner experimented on his staff, mixing their various blood components together, and found that some people's blood agglutinated (clumped together) with other blood, whilst some did not. This then lead him identifying three blood groups, ABC, which would later be renamed to ABO. The less frequently found blood group AB was discovered later in 1902 by Alfred Von Decastello and Adriano Sturli. In 1937 Landsteiner and Alexander S. Wiener further discovered the Rh factor (misnamed from early thinking that this blood group was similar to that found in rhesus monkeys) whose antigens further determine blood reaction between people. This was demonstrated in a 1939 case study by Phillip Levine and Rufus Stetson where a mother who had recently given birth had reacted to their partner's blood, highlighting the Rh factor.

Canadian physician Norman Bethune, M.D. developed a mobile blood-transfusion service for frontline operations in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), but ironically, he himself died of sepsis.

In 1958, Arne Larsson in Sweden became the first patient to depend on an artificial cardiac pacemaker. He died in 2001 at age 86, having outlived its inventor, the surgeon, and 26 pacemakers.

Cancer treatment has been developed with radiotherapy, chemotherapy and surgical oncology.

X-ray imaging was the first kind of medical imaging, and later ultrasonic imaging, CT scanning, MR scanning and other imaging methods became available.

A cochlear implant is a common kind of neural prosthesis, a device replacing part of the human nervous system.

Prosthetics have improved with lightweight materials as well as neural prosthetics emerging in the end of the 20th century.

Oral rehydration therapy has been extensively used since the 1970s to treat cholera and other diarrhea-inducing infections.

As infectious diseases have become less lethal, and the most common causes of death in developed countries are now tumors and cardiovascular diseases, these conditions have received increased attention in medical research.

Starting in World War II, DDT was used as insecticide to combat insect vectors carrying malaria, which was endemic in most tropical regions of the world. The first goal was to protect soldiers, but it was widely adopted as a public health device. In Liberia, for example, the United States had large military operations during the war and the U.S. Public Health Service began the use of DDT for indoor residual spraying (IRS) and as a larvicide, with the goal of controlling malaria in Monrovia, the Liberian capital. In the early 1950s, the project was expanded to nearby villages. In 1953, the World Health Organization (WHO) launched an antimalaria program in parts of Liberia as a pilot project to determine the feasibility of malaria eradication in tropical Africa. However these projects encountered a spate of difficulties that foreshadowed the general retreat from malaria eradication efforts across tropical Africa by the mid-1960s.

The 1918 influenza pandemic was a global pandemic in the early 20th century that occurred between 1918 and 1920. Sometimes known as Spanish Flu due to popular opinion at the time thinking the flu originated from Spain, this pandemic caused close to 50 million deaths around the world. Spreading at the end of World War I.

Public health measures became particularly important during the 1918 flu pandemic, which killed at least 50 million people around the world. It became an important case study in epidemiology. Bristow shows there was a gendered response of health caregivers to the pandemic in the United States. Male doctors were unable to cure the patients, and they felt like failures. Women nurses also saw their patients die, but they took pride in their success in fulfilling their professional role of caring for, ministering, comforting, and easing the last hours of their patients, and helping the families of the patients cope as well.

Evidence-based medicine is a modern concept, not introduced to literature until the 1990s.

The sexual revolution included taboo-breaking research in human sexuality such as the 1948 and 1953 Kinsey reports, invention of hormonal contraception, and the normalization of abortion and homosexuality in many countries. Family planning has promoted a demographic transition in most of the world. With threatening sexually transmitted infections, not least HIV, use of barrier contraception has become imperative. The struggle against HIV has improved antiretroviral treatments.

Tobacco smoking as a cause of lung cancer was first researched in the 1920s, but was not widely supported by publications until the 1950s.

Cardiac surgery was revolutionized in 1948 as open-heart surgery was introduced for the first time since 1925. In 1954 Joseph Murray, J. Hartwell Harrison and others accomplished the first kidney transplantation. Transplantations of other organs, such as heart, liver and pancreas, were also introduced during the later 20th century. The first partial face transplant was performed in 2005, and the first full one in 2010. By the end of the 20th century, microtechnology had been used to create tiny robotic devices to assist microsurgery using micro-video and fiber-optic cameras to view internal tissues during surgery with minimally invasive practices. Laparoscopic surgery was broadly introduced in the 1990s. Natural orifice surgery has followed.

During the 19th century, large-scale wars were attended with medics and mobile hospital units which developed advanced techniques for healing massive injuries and controlling infections rampant in battlefield conditions. During the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920), General Pancho Villa organized hospital trains for wounded soldiers. Boxcars marked Servicio Sanitario ("sanitary service") were re-purposed as surgical operating theaters and areas for recuperation, and staffed by up to 40 Mexican and U.S. physicians. Severely wounded soldiers were shuttled back to base hospitals.

Medicine during the First World War - Medical Transport.

Thousands of scarred troops provided the need for improved prosthetic limbs and expanded techniques in plastic surgery or reconstructive surgery. Those practices were combined to broaden cosmetic surgery and other forms of elective surgery.

The advances in medicine made a dramatic difference for Allied troops, while the Germans and especially the Japanese and Chinese suffered from a severe lack of newer medicines, techniques and facilities. Harrison finds that the chances of recovery for a badly wounded British infantryman were as much as 25 times better than in the First World War. The reason was that:

"By 1944 most casualties were receiving treatment within hours of wounding, due to the increased mobility of field hospitals and the extensive use of aeroplanes as ambulances. The care of the sick and wounded had also been revolutionized by new medical technologies, such as active immunization against tetanus, sulphonamide drugs, and penicillin."

During the second World War, Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with an irrigation, Dakin's solution, a germicide which helped prevent gangrene.

The War spurred the usage of Roentgen's X-ray, and the electrocardiograph, for the monitoring of internal bodily functions. This was followed in the inter-war period by the development of the first anti-bacterial agents such as the sulpha antibiotics.

Nazi and Japanese medical research

Unethical human subject research, and killing of patients with disabilities, peaked during the Nazi era, with Nazi human experimentation and Aktion T4 during the Holocaust as the most significant examples. Many of the details of these and related events were the focus of the Doctors' Trial. Subsequently, principles of medical ethics, such as the Nuremberg Code, were introduced to prevent a recurrence of such atrocities. After 1937, the Japanese Army established programs of biological warfare in China. In Unit 731, Japanese doctors and research scientists conducted large numbers of vivisections and experiments on human beings, mostly Chinese victims.

The World Health Organization was founded in 1948 as a United Nations agency to improve global health. In most of the world, life expectancy has improved since then, and was about 67 years as of 2010, and well above 80 years in some countries. Eradication of infectious diseases is an international effort, and several new vaccines have been developed during the post-war years, against infections such as measles, mumps, several strains of influenza and human papilloma virus. The long-known vaccine against Smallpox finally eradicated the disease in the 1970s, and Rinderpest was wiped out in 2011. Eradication of polio is underway. Tissue culture is important for development of vaccines. Though the early success of antiviral vaccines and antibacterial drugs, antiviral drugs were not introduced until the 1970s. Through the WHO, the international community has developed a response protocol against epidemics, displayed during the SARS epidemic in 2003, the Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 from 2004, the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa and onwards.

The discovery of penicillin in the 20th century by Alexander Fleming provided a vital line of defence against bacterical infections that, without them, often cause patients to suffer prelonged recovery periods and highly increased chances of death. Its discovery and application within medicine allowed previously impossible treatments to take place, including cancer treatments, organ transplants, to open heart surgery. Throughout the 20th century, though, their overprescribed use to humans, as well as to animals that need them due to the conditions of intensive animal farming, has led to the development of antibiotic resistant bacteria.

A Ukrainian monument to the HIV pandemic.

COVID-19 swab testing in Rwanda (2021).

The early 21st century, facilitated by extensive global connections, international travel, and unprecedented human disruption of ecological systems, has been defined by a number of noval as well as continuing global pandemics from the 20th century.

The SARS 2002 to 2004 outbreak affected a number of countries around the world and killed hundreds. This outbreak gave rise to a number of lessons learnt from viral infection control, including more effective isolation room protocols to better hand washing techniques for medical staff. A mutated strain of SARS would go on to develop into COVID-19, causing the future COVID-19 pandemic. A significant influenza strain, H1N1, caused a further pandemic between 2009 and 2010. Known as swine flu, due to its indirect source from pigs, it went on to infect over 700 million people.

The continuing HIV pandemic, starting in 1981, has infected and led to the deaths of millions of people around the world. Emerging and improved pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) treatments that aim to reduce the spread of the disease have proven effective in limiting the spread of HIV alongside combined use of safe sex methods, sexual health education, needle exchange programmes, and sexual health screenings. Efforts to find a HIV vaccine are ongoing whilst health inequities have left certain population groups, like trans women, as well as resource limited regions, like sub-Saharan Africa, at greater risk of contracting HIV compared with, for example, developed countries.

The outbreak of COVID-19, starting in 2019, and subsequent declaration of the COVID-19 pandemic by the WHO is a major pandemic event within the early 21st century. Causing global disruptions, millions of infections and deaths, the pandemic has caused suffering throughout communities. The pandemic has also seen some of the largest logistical organisations of goods, medical equipment, medical professionals, and military personnel since World War II that highlights its far-reaching impact.

The rise of personalised medicine in the 21st century has generated the possibility to develop diagnosis and treatments based on the individual characteristics of a person, rather than through generic practices that defined 20th century medicine. Areas like DNA sequencing, genetic mapping, gene therapy, imaging protocols, proteomics, stem cell therapy, and wireless health monitoring devices are all rising innovations that can help medical professionals fine tune treatment to the individual.

Remote surgery is another recent development, with the transatlantic Lindbergh operation in 2001 as a groundbreaking example.

Racism has a long history in how medicine has evolved and established itself, both in terms of racism experience upon patients, professionals, and wider systematic violence within medical institutions and systems. See: medical racism in the United States, race and health, and scientific racism.

Women have always served as healers and midwives since ancient times. However, the professionalization of medicine forced them increasingly to the sidelines. As hospitals multiplied they relied in Europe on orders of Roman Catholic nun-nurses, and German Protestant and Anglican deaconesses in the early 19th century. They were trained in traditional methods of physical care that involved little knowledge of medicine.

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The history of medicine is both a study of medicine throughout history as well as a multidisciplinary field of study that seeks to explore and understand medical practices, both past and present, throughout human societies. The history of medicine is the study and documentation of the evolution of medical treatments, practices, and knowledge over time.

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So, what is food additive ?
Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance its taste, appearance, or other qualities.
Source : Wikipedia

Examples of food additives :
1. Ascorbic acid - helps prevent food spoilage
2. Aspartame - as a sweetener without adding calories
3. Calcium Carbonate - leavening agent that promotes rising during baking
4. Calcium Chloride - firming agent for processed fruits and vegetables
5. Colour Additives - to add colour when food looses colour due to environmental exposures
Source : Delish.com

For a better understanding ,
https://youtu.be/Hy3-QHhzvPE

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Resdung adalah penyakit yang disebabkan oleh adanya inflamasi atau keradangan pada dinding sinus. Keradangan ini kerap disebabkan oleh jangkitan virus atau bakteria. Resdung biasa dipanggil sinusitis, meski sebetulnya terdapat perbezaan. Sinusitis adalah penyakit yang boleh menjangkiti semua orang pada segala umur. Punca utama dari kemunculan resdung yang paling umum ialah akibat jangkitan virus.

Tidak banyak orang yang sedar mengalami resdung pada awalnya sebab memang tandanya pun hanya berupa masalah kecil. Inilah beberapa tanda-tanda resdung yang perlu Anda tahu:

Di awal, akan muncul mukosa atau lendir berwarna kuning atau hijau daripada hidung.

Wajah akan terasa berat dan sakit di sekitar dahi, mata, dan dagu, terutama apabila ditekan.

Bersin-bersin, pilek, dan selsema. Merupakan jangkitan saluran pernafasan atas.

Demam dengan suhu 38 ° Celsius atau lebih.

Sakit gigi.

Sakit kepala.

Berkurangnya kemampuan dalam mencium sesuatu.

Hidung bernafas dan tersumbat.

Nafas bau.

Mata gatal.

Tidur mendengkur.

Rambut ada kelemumur.

Timbul jerawat.

Bertindakbalas pada makanan terperap dan suhu sejuk.

Tahukah Anda dimana letak sinus? Sinus berada pada empat bahagian di dalam kerangka kepala manusia, iaitu di belakang dahi, di belakang mata, di kedua-dua sisi dari batang hidung, dan di belakang tulang pipi. Sinus bertugas mengawal suhu dan kelembapan udara yang masuk ke paru-paru dan membuka lubang pada hidung.

Petua Hilangkan Resdung Tradisional

Bila resdung belum terlalu parah, maka Anda boleh cuba kaedah rawatan resdung tradisional yang cukup berkesan untuk menangani penyakit ini. Namun bila resdung yang dialami sudah parah, maka disaranakan agar menjumpai dan berkeluh pada doktor pakar telinga, hidung, dan tekak (THT). Doktor akan menggunakan CT scan untuk mencari punca utama dari resdung yang terjadi.

Merawat dengan ubat resdung mungkin tidak begitu perlu sebab sekitar 60% penghidap resdung yang menderita akibat virus akan hilang dengan sendirinya. Waktu yang diperlukan agar resdung pulih sepenuhnya ialah memakan tempoh dua hingga tiga minggu. Bila anda mengalami resdung ringan, bukan kronik, maka ubat-ubatan pereda rasa sakit dan dekongestan boleh membantu mengurangkan gejala yang ada.

Minum banyak air mineral tanpa diberi gula. Cecair ini akan bekerja membantu mendorong lendir keluar dengan cara mengencerkannya. Elakkan minum alkohol, kafein, minuman, manis, dan jangan merokok. Semua zat pada minuman itu boleh menyebabkan lendir menebal dan menyumbat pada saluran pernafasan sehingga mencetuskan keradangan lebih teruk.

Petua hilangkan resdung pertama ialah dengan menghirup wap air hangat.

1. Pertama, rebus air sebanyak satu gayung, lalu campurkan dengan air garam.

2. Matikan api selepas air bergejolak.

3. Letakkan kepala anda 30 cm di atas air, lalu hirup wap hangat sembari rileks.

4. Bila ingin lebih berkesan, Anda boleh menyelubungkan kepala dengan tuala yang menutup wap air panas hingga terkumpul.

5. Hirup selama 15 minit. Lakukan tiga kali dalam sehari hingga resdung reda.

3. Memampatkan Muka Dengan Air Hangat

Bila tidak kuat dengan menghirup wap, Anda boleh cuba petua kedua iaitu memampatkan bahagian pipi dengan air hangat.

1. Panaskan air, lalu diamkan hingga hangat.

2. Celupkan tuala ke dalam air, lalu peras airnya.

3. Letakkan tuala untuk menutupi wajah Anda.

Cara ini dapat membantu menggalakkan rambut silian agar mengeluarkan lendir yang terkumpul di bahagian bawah mata dan kawasan sekitaran hidung.

Mungkin sepanjang ini kita hanya tahu khasiat lidah buaya untuk merawat rambut. Namun faktanya, lidah buaya boleh dipakai untuk mengubati resdung sebab mengandungi sifat antiseptik. Cara pakainya adalah dengan menitiskan lendir atau gel lidah buaya pada hidung. Agar lebih berkesan, minumlah rebusan lidah buaya secara teratur.

5. Limau Nipis dan Daun Pandan

Petua hilangkan resdung tradisional selanjutnya ialah memakai campuran limau nipis dan daun pandan.

Siapkan 8 buah limau nipis dan 10 helai daun pandan.

Hiris halus-halus daun pandan.

Peras buah limau hingga menghasilkan air limau yang banyak, saring air untuk memisahkan bijinya.

Campurkan air perasan limau denga daun pandan.

Ramas daun pandan beberapa minit sehingga air berubah menjadi kehijauan.

Tapiskan sampai tertinggal air saja.

Basuh atau cuci muka terlebih dahulu.

Basuhkan air tadi ke wajah Anda, elakkan terkena mata atau bibir.

Tunggu wajah kering lalu sapukan lagi.

Lakukan setiap 3 jam untuk hasil yang lebih baik.

Selepas berakhir, cuci wajah Anda dengan air biasa.

Cara ini tidak sesuai untuk kanak-kanak. Anda harus tahan sebab berkesan pedih yang maksimum namun terkawal. Juga ada kesan berbeza pada setiap individu dan keadaan resdung anda. Bila tidak berani cuba petua ini, maka sila rujuk pakar terlebih dahulu.

Kedua rempah ini biasa dijumpai di India dan beberapa negara di Timur Tengah. Pada kunyit terkandung sifat anti-inflamasi semulajadi dan antioksidan. Apabila digabungkan dengan halia yang dibancuh bersama teh, maka minuman hangat ini dapat membantu mencairkan mukus pada hidung serta membantu mengurangkan tekanan di kawasan wajah akibat sinus. Kesan positif lain dari halia adalah menenangkan perut.

Petua menghilangkan resdung semulajadi selanjutnya adalah memakai cuka epal dan madu.

Ambil tiga sudu makan cuka epal, masukkan ke secawan air panas atau teh.

Tambah limau dan madu secukupnya, lalu minum tiga kali sehari.

Neti Pot mirip dengan teko kecil yang biasa dipakai untuk minum teh. Yang berbeza adalah pada hujung corongnya berukuran lebih kecil lubangnya, sebab neti pot memang dibuat khusus untuk mengubati masalah pada hidung seperti sinus. Biasanya menggunakan larutan garam.

Siapkan neti pot.

Ambil dua gelas air hangat, lalu masukkan satu sudu teh garam, aduk.

Campuran air garam anda masukkan ke dalam neti pot.

Letakkan hujung muncung neti pot pada satu lubang hidung.

Sebaiknya anda minta dipandu oleh orang yang sudah pernah pakai neti pot, sebab cukup berisiko.

Bersegeralah untuk menemui doktor bila dalam satu minggu tidak ada perubahan pada tanda-tanda sinus yang Anda terima, bahkan bila bertambah teruk semakin hari. Dalam kes semacam ini, umumnya doktor akan menetapkan antibiotik dan steroid semburan atau titisan pada pesakit. Untuk kes resdung yang lebih teruk, ada kemungkinan pesakit dikehendaki menjalani pembedahan untuk meningkatkan fungsi sinus dan juga fungsi drainase-nya.

Petua hilangkan resdung tradisional tadi boleh Anda cuba salah satunya. Mintalah pendapat dari orang yang pernah menderita, mungkin anda mendapat maklumat terbaik. Jangan abaikan masalah resdung, sebab ada komplikasi pada resdung akut seperti asma berulang, terjadinya resdung kronik atau jangka panjang, jangkitan akan merebak ke dinding otak yang akan menyebabkan meningitis, merosakkan organ penglihatan, serta menyebabkan berlaku jangkitan telinga.

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Petua Hilangkan Resdung Dengan Rawatan Tradisional - Daily Rakyat

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Resdung adalah penyakit yang disebabkan oleh adanya inflamasi atau keradangan pada dinding sinus. Keradangan ini kerap disebabkan oleh jangkitan virus atau bakteria. Resdung biasa dipanggil sinusitis, meski sebetulnya terdapat perbezaan. Sinusitis adalah penyakit yang boleh menjangkiti semua orang pada segala umur. Punca utama dari kemunculan resdung yang paling umum ialah akibat jangkitan virus.

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Aspartame, who ?
Aspartame (APM) is an artificial non-saccharide sweetener used as a sugar substitute in some foods and beverages.
Source : Wikipedia

https://youtu.be/TB6L9S_jc5E

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Kita hanya mampu berusaha namun Allah juga yang menentukan segalanya

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1.A medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce pain and suffering due to illnesses.

2.Traditional medicines are medicines derived from natural sources such as plants and animals without being processed chemically.

3.Since ancients, mankind had used various types of plants and roots, animals and animal part to cure diseases.

4.Medicines obtained from plants are known as herbal medicines. The sources and uses of some herbal medicines are shown below :

Plant : Garlic

Part of the plant used : Rhizome( horizontalunderground stem)and leaves

Part of the plant used : Bark of Chinchonatree

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examples of traditional medicine, their sources and uses

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1.A medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce pain and suffering due to illnesses. 2.Traditional medicines are medicines derived from natural sources such as plants and animals without being processed chemically. 3.Since ancients, mankind had used various types of plants and roots, animals and animal part to cure diseases.

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Garlic (Allium sativum) has been used for both culinary and medicinal purposes in many cultures for thousands of years and to prevent and treat a wide range of conditions and diseases. There have been lots of claims about using garlic as a remedy for many conditions including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, coronary heart disease, heart attack, atherosclerosis and various types of cancer. Most of the health benefits of garlic come from the sulphur containing compounds it contains - the most notable is allicin. Some of these uses are supported by science, but even science itself has sometimes conflicting results or mixed evidence. Some studies are better than others, or larger and more comprehensive than others, and some studies have been conducted on animals but not on humans.

Even when researching the medicinal benefits of garlic, I encountered many medical websites whose claims regarding the medicinal properties of garlic were not exactly the same. Some of them used the words "possibly effective" or "more evidence is needed", but still there are medical areas in which garlic shows a promise potential:
Cancer prevention
Daily intake of garlic has been found to lower risk of many types of cancer. Some people use garlic to prevent colon cancer, rectal cancer, stomach cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, bladder cancer and lung cancer. Some findings require further studies to be carried out. And indeed garlic is one of the top 14 foods that protects against cancer development. You can also read more about the research published in the journal Cancer Prevention Research that found that garlic intake can reduce the risk for lung cancer.
Fungal skin infections
Several studies report that a garlic gel applied to the skin, may treat ringworm, jock itch, and athlete's foot. To Make your own garlic topical application, mince a clove of garlic and mix it with aloe vera, coconut oil or olive oil and apply to the affected area. Don't apply neat (undiluted) garlic as it can burn the skin.
Antiseptic properties
Garlic is most well-known for its antibacterial and antiviral properties that help control bacterial, viral, fungal, yeast and worm infections. There is some evidence that fresh garlic is thought to play a role in preventing food poisoning by killing bacteria like E. coli, Salmonella enteritidis, etc. It is also used for building the immune system.

According to a study published in the Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, a compound in garlic called diallyl sulfide was 100 times more effective than two popular antibiotics in fighting one of the most common bacteria of intestinal infections, showing that this compound has the potential to reduce disease-causing bacteria in the environment and in our food supply. In studies, garlic has been found to be almost as effective as penicillin. You can also read my previous article about these 6 common mistakes when using garlic ss an Antibiotic.
Cardiovascular protection
There is a mixed evidence about garlic to prevent heart disease and hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis), but some studies suggest that garlic may help prevent heart disease, may slow atherosclerosis and slightly lower blood pressure. Garlic also seems to be a blood thinner, and thus may help prevent heart attacks and strokes by helping in preventing the formation of blood clots in the body. As for lowering cholesterol and triglycerides, most recent high quality studies didn't find evidence that garlic can significantly lower cholesterol or triglycerides. Read here about other foods to prevent clogged arteries.
Common cold
There is some early evidence that garlic consumption may decrease the frequency of colds in adults. Those who took garlic had fewer colds than those who took placebo, and when they did get a cold, their symptoms went away faster than those who took placebo.
How to consume garlic and how much to take
Consuming more garlic is one of the 70 habits featured in my e-book 70 Powerful Habits For A Great Health which will guide you how to take positive steps to improve your wellness and overall health. The University of Maryland Medical Center website mentions the amount of 2-4 grams per day of fresh, minced garlic clove (a clove of garlic may weigh up to 5 grams, but of course this all depends on the size). The garlic has to be cut or minced in order to release the allicin which is the active component of garlic.

It is best to consume raw garlic, as obviously cooking fresh garlic can destroy some of the healthy sulphurous compounds. But if eating raw garlic is not your cup of tea - all is not lost. During the cooking process other sulphur containing compounds are formed that still have health benefits. But don't microwave garlic - microwaving garlic will completely kill the allicin and its therapeutic effects.

Here is a great tip when cooking garlic to preserve its maximum healing benefits: crush the garlic and then wait 10 minutes before cooking to maximize health benefits. Allowing the crushed garlic to stand for 10 minutes before cooking further enhances formation of allicin, ensures the maximum synthesis of allicin, and also makes it more stable and resistant to the heat of cooking. Then cook it on low or medium heat for a short period of time (up to 15 minutes).

If you consume garlic supplement, there is a lot of variation among garlic products sold for medicinal purposes. The amount of allicin depends on the method of preparation, and not all garlic supplements contain the same amount of active ingredients, so it is important to read the label carefully.

Garlic is a true superfood that is also featured in my e-book about superfoods which is part of the Natural Health Revolution Program. This program will help you to achieve your health, nutrition or weight loss goals.

If you are interested to learn more about garlic, as well as other herbs, and on how to use herbal medicine to effectively to heal disease and illness then you should check my e-book The Herbal Remedies Guide.

Read my other related posts:
1. 6 Common Mistakes When Using Garlic As an Antibiotic
2. Natural Garlic syrup for chest infections
3. Reduce the risk for lung cancer with garlic

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Jenny Hills, Medical Writer and Researcher

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Eat Only 1 Clove of Garlic and These 5 Amazing Things Will Happen To You

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Garlic (Allium sativum) has been used for both culinary and medicinal purposes in many cultures for thousands of years and to prevent and treat a wide range of conditions and diseases. There have been lots of claims about using garlic as a remedy for many conditions including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, coronary heart disease, heart attack, atherosclerosis and various types of cancer.

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Garlic is used for many conditions related to the heart and blood system. These conditions include high blood pressure, low blood pressure, high cholesterol, inherited high cholesterol, coronary heart disease, heart attack, reduced blood flow due to narrowed arteries, and "hardening of the arteries" (atherosclerosis).

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Health Benefits of Vishnukranta

1. It is one of the psychotropic 🤬 that cures nervous debility and dementia.

2. It treats disorders of nervous system.

3. It gives relief in anxiety, depression, pain, insomnia, epilepsy and fits.

4. It reduces stress.

5. It detoxifies body.

6. It helps in digestive impairment due to nervousness.

7. It has laxative action.

8. It has aphrodisiac action and strengthens reproductive system.

9. It is one of the best herbs used as a general tonic and rejuvenative

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Aloe vera is a popular medicinal plant that has been used for thousands of years.

It is best known for treating skin injuries, but also has several other beneficial effects on health.

This is a list of the benefits of aloe vera:

1. Contains healthful plant compounds

Aloe vera is a thick, short-stemmed plant that stores water in its leaves.

It is widely used in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries, and has an estimated annual market value of $13 billion globally ( 1).

Aloe vera is well recognized by its thick, pointed and fleshy green leaves, which can grow to about 12-19 inches (30-50 cm) in length.

Each leaf is full of a slimy tissue that stores water, which makes the leaves thick. This slimy, water-filled tissue is the "gel" we associate with Aloe vera products.

The gel contains most of the bioactive compounds in the plant, including vitamins, minerals, amino acids and antioxidants.

Summary: Aloe vera is a popular medicinal plant that is used in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries. Its leaves are full of a gel-like substance that contains numerous beneficial compounds.

2. Antioxidant and antibacterial properties

Antioxidants are important for health.

Aloe vera gel contains powerful antioxidants, which belong to a large family of substances known as polyphenols ( 2).

These polyphenols, along with several other compounds in Aloe vera, can help inhibit the growth of certain bacteria that can cause infections in humans ( 2).

Summary: Aloe vera contains various powerful antioxidant compounds. Some of these compounds can help inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria.

3. Accelerates the healing of burns

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Aloe vera is most commonly used as a topical medication, rubbed onto the skin rather than eaten.

It has long been known as a treatment for sores, particularly burns, including sunburns.

In fact, the FDA first approved Aloe vera ointment as an over-the-counter medication for skin burns back in 1959.

Studies suggest that it is an effective topical treatment for first- and second-degree burns.

A review of 4 experimental studies found that Aloe vera could reduce the healing time of burns by around 9 days compared to conventional medication ( 3).

The evidence for Aloe vera helping to heal other types of wounds is inconclusive ( 4).

Summary: Applying Aloe vera to burn wounds appears to accelerate the healing process. The evidence is inconclusive for other wound types.

4. Reduces dental plaque

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Tooth decay and diseases of the gum are very common health problems.

One of the best ways to prevent this from happening is to reduce the buildup of plaque (bacterial biofilms) on the teeth.

In a mouth rinse study of 300 healthy people, 100% pure Aloe vera juice was compared to the standard mouthwash ingredient chlorhexidine.

After 4 days of use, the Aloe vera mouth rinse was found to be just as effective as chlorhexidine in reducing dental plaque ( 5).

Another study found similar benefits of Aloe vera mouth rinse when used over a 15- to 30-day period ( 6).

Aloe vera does this by killing the plaque-producing bacterium Streptococcus mutans in the mouth, as well as the yeast Candida albicans ( 7).

Summary: When used as a mouth rinse, pure Aloe vera juice is just as effective at reducing dental plaque buildup as regular mouthwash.

5. Helps treat canker sores

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Many people have experienced mouth ulcers, or canker sores, at some point in their lives.

They usually form underneath the lip, inside the mouth, and last for about 7-10 days.

Studies have convincingly shown that Aloe vera treatment can accelerate the healing of mouth ulcers.

In a 7-day study of 180 people with recurrent mouth ulcers, an Aloe vera patch applied to the area was effective in reducing the size of the ulcers ( 8).

However, it did not outperform the conventional ulcer treatment, which is corticosteroids.

In another study, Aloe vera gel not only accelerated the healing of mouth ulcers, it also reduced the pain associated with them ( 9).

Summary: Application of Aloe vera, either as a patch or gel, has been shown to aid in the recovery of mouth ulcers (canker sores).

6. Reduces constipation

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Aloe vera has often be used to treat constipation.

This time it is not the gel, but the latex, that provides the benefits.

The latex is a sticky yellow residue found just under the skin of the leaf.

The key compound responsible for this effect is called aloin, or barbaloin, which has well-established laxative effects ( 10, 11, 12).

However, some concerns have been raised about safety issues with frequent use. For this reason, Aloe latex has not been available in the US as an over-the-counter medication since 2002.

Contrary to popular belief, Aloe vera does not appear to be effective against other digestive disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) ( 13, 14, 15).

Summary: Aloe vera latex has strong laxative effects, making it useful to treat constipation. It does not appear to be beneficial for other diseases of the digestive tract.

7. May improve skin and prevent wrinkles

There is some preliminary evidence that topical Aloe vera gel can slow aging of the skin.

In one study of 30 women over the age of 45, topical application of the gel was shown to increase collagen production and improve skin elasticity over a 90-day period ( 16).

Another study found that Aloe vera reduced erythema (redness of the skin), but was also found to dehydrate skin cells ( 17).

There is very little evidence that Aloe vera can treat skin conditions like psoriasis and radiation dermatitis ( 18).

Summary: Early evidence suggests that Aloe vera may have anti-aging effects on the skin, but more research is needed.

8. Lowers blood sugar levels

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Aloe vera has sometimes been used as a traditional diabetes remedy ( 19, 20).

It is said to enhance insulin sensitivity and help improve blood sugar management.

Several animal and human studies in type 2 diabetics have actually found promising results from consuming Aloe vera extract ( 21, 22, 23).

However, the quality of these studies was fairly poor, so it is definitely premature to recommend Aloe vera for this purpose.

Additionally, there have been some cases of liver damage reported with long-term ingestion of Aloe vera supplements ( 24).

Summary: Early evidence suggests that Aloe vera may help with blood sugar management, but more research is needed. Ingesting Aloe vera supplements in the long term could also be hazardous.

The bottom line

Aloe vera definitely has some unique therapeutic properties, especially when applied as an ointment for the skin and gums.

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Aloe vera is a popular medicinal plant that has been used for thousands of years. It is best known for treating skin injuries, but also has several other beneficial effects on health. This is a list of the benefits of aloe vera: Aloe vera is a thick, short-stemmed plant that stores water in its leaves.

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insect bites

It is also an effective insect repellent. It can repel various insects such as ants and mosquitoes. Lemongrass is a natural repellent because it has high geraniol and citral content. You can rub its diluted form on your skin. Spray its more concentrated form around your home.

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Medicinal Uses of Ginger - Step To Health

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Find out about the many medicinal uses of ginger in this article!

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List the type of modern medicines.

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List the type of food additives and their function

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What are examples of traditional medicines used in your daily life