# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
50+ Simple Social-Emotional Learning Activities for All Ages

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Teach self-control, emotional awareness, and more by incorporating these easy social-emotional learning activities into your daily routine.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This article explores the link between effective learning and children's dispositions and habits. The authors provide examples that teachers may use to help strengthen children's independence, creativity, motivation, and resilience.

Early childhood teachers guide young children's learning in ways that support their development. Traditionally, foremost in teachers' minds is what knowledge and skills children should acquire. Today, however, many teachers are becoming aware of the pivotal role of dispositions in the education of children.

This article examines types of dispositions, their link to children's effective learning, and classroom practices/environments that support them. We emphasize that dispositions and learning experiences are equally important and that teachers can encourage certain dispositions.

Defining dispositions

Dispositions are frequent and voluntary habits of thinking and doing. These habits of mind are not to be confused with mindless habits, such as stopping at a red light (Katz 1993a). Lilian Katz has pondered, spoken, and written about the role of dispositions in children's education for nearly 30 years. She defines "a disposition as a pattern of behavior exhibited frequently ... in the absence of coercion ... constituting a habit of mind under some conscious and voluntary control ... intentional and oriented to broad goals" (1993b, 16).

Another important characteristic of children's dispositions is that they are environmentally sensitive-meaning they are acquired, supported, or weakened by interactive experiences in an environment with significant adults and peers (Bertram & Pascal 2002). These significant adults obviously include teachers in early childhood settings. For example, in Reggio Emilia-inspired schools, teachers purposely integrate materials from nature into activities. A large, ordinary tree branch can become the core for cooperative ribbon weaving. The project's centerpiece supports children's dispositions, such as cooperation, creativity, problem solving, and inventiveness.

Educators can further delineate dispositions as desirable or undesirable. Children's desirable dispositions, such as resourcefulness, curiosity, and persistence, can be strengthened. Conversely, teachers can help diminish undesirable dispositions, such as selfishness, impatience, and intolerance. No doubt we all could list dispositions we would like to personally strengthen or diminish and foster in the children we teach.

Katz and Raths (1985) provide clarity to the concept of dispositions by contrasting it with the concepts of attitudes, habits, and traits. Briefly, attitudes can be thought of as "pre-dispositions to act positively or negatively with respect to a particular phenomenon" (Katz 1993a, 10). Having a particular attitude does not necessarily result in the display of an accompanying behavior-for example, a child may have a particular discriminatory attitude about children who are obese but may not exhibit discriminatory behavior. Habits and traits are behavioral patterns performed without conscious attention (Passmore 1972), as seen in some children who approach an art activity with great enthusiasm and vigor while other children approach the same activity tentatively and with considerable forethought.

Three types of dispositions

Inborn dispositions. Innate curiosity is one disposition that parents and teachers can readily see in typically developing babies' need to explore and learn. The ability to bond is another inborn disposition.

Social dispositions. We value some social dispositions, including "the tendency to be accepting, friendly, empathetic, generous, or cooperative" (Katz & McClellan 1997, 7). Conversely, adults tend to view bossiness as an undesirable social disposition.

Intellectual dispositions. These dispositions include making and checking predictions, solving problems, surmising about cause-and-effect relationships, to name a few. In a science center in a kindergarten classroom, a poster features a portrait of Albert Einstein. "Being a Scientist" is its bold heading, followed by a list of ideal dispositions for science: being curious, investigating, collecting and recording precise data, cooperation, communication, seeking answers, asking new questions, and persistence.

Classroom practices/environments that support dispositions

In a public preschool, a four-year-old approaches his teacher with six sheets of paper stapled together in a book-like fashion. Each sheet contains recognizable letters written with a different colored marker. When the teacher asks the preschooler to share a story, he eagerly reads six stories, one on each page. The child not only displays emergent literacy skills but, just as important, the disposition to read and to write.

This teacher, a knowledgeable, thoughtful, and conscientious educator, however, feels as if she isn't effective in her teaching, that she isn't doing enough early literacy instruction. Her school district's assessment tool measures four-year-olds' abilities to make sound and letter associations as well as to recognize letters. But although the children are gaining knowledge and skills, she believes their dispositions are equally important.

All the children in her classroom-half of whom are English-language learners-engage in meaningful activities that support integrated learning of concepts and skills. The children invent play scenarios at a blanket-covered table labeled Cave for Hibernating Bears. They expand their creativity in the art center, investigate how body fat keeps bears warm by using a lard-covered rubber glove and a pail of ice in the science center, and read books depicting classmates engaged in classroom and field trip activities in the library center. All these activities demonstrate how this teacher is encouraging dispositions to explore, make predictions and check predictions, and communicate with others, which assessment does not measure.

When program expectations focus primarily on knowledge and skill acquisition, important dispositions are often ignored. When a teacher relies on drill and decontextualized activities to achieve mandated learning outcomes instead of fostering skill development through meaningful integrated learning, the dispositions that children need to use their skills will likely diminish (Hatch 2002). A prime example of decontextualized activities is the often inane letter-of-the-week task, such as having children glue rice on the letter R. More meaningful, effective activities include using children's names as a springboard to learn letters and promote early literacy (Kirk & Clark 2005; McNair 2007).

Practices that undermine the development of positive dispositions jeopardize the likelihood that children will become lifelong learners (Bertram & Pascal 2002). To be effective, teachers need to pay more attention to nurturing children's dispositions.

The link between dispositions and effective learning

Bertram and Pascal identify three core elements of effective learners: "dispositions to learn, social competence and self-concept, and social and emotional well-being" (2002, 246). The researchers argue that a primary focus "on subject knowledge, particularly language and mathematics competency" (p. 241) is insufficient, and they urge teachers to focus on wider outcomes to sustain the development of young minds.

Four dispositions are indicative of the effective learner, according to Bertram and Pascal (2002). Below, an explanation of each disposition is followed by an example (from one coauthor's classroom or program) showing what a teacher can do to nurture the disposition.

1. Independence -the "ability to be self-sufficient, to self-organize, and [to] self-manage" (p. 248).

After a month of modeling daily classroom routines, procedures, and tasks, Sally begins assigning chores to the four-year-olds. The children have witnessed her daily upkeep of their room and are eager to help. Nicholas says, "Mrs. Haughey, we are the teachers now." Helping children feel responsible allows them to become self-sufficient.

2. Creativity -"characterized by those children who show curiosity and interest in their world. . . The creative child is imaginative, spontaneous, and innovative" (p. 248).

Sally avoids cookie-cutter art projects and instead encourages open-ended art activities. She periodically provides different media and schedules time for children to fully explore each art material and to complete their projects. As a result, children make their own decisions in the creative process.

3. Self-motivation -enabling "children, independently, to become deeply involved and engrossed in activities and challenges" (p. 249). Motivated children expend the necessary energy to achieve their goals.

Instead of worrying about Hector spending too much time with blocks, his teacher provides additional materials to support his continued exploration and elaborate block constructions. Hector is an English-language learner, and his block-building talent enables him to bridge the language barrier and invite his peers to join in his play. His teacher, Sally, knows that blocks are rich with opportunities to enhance social, cognitive, language, and physical development. She encourages individual interests and wants the children to experience the deep satisfaction of achieving a goal.

4. Resilience -evidenced by children's ability to bounce back "after setback, hindrance, or frustration and retain temperament, personality, and spirit" (p. 249).

When teachers approach each day as a fresh opportunity and see children in a new light instead of dwelling on the previous day's events, the children can feel comfortable in the classroom environment. In Sally's room, Jimmy, a four-year-old whose hands, feet, and eyes constantly go in all directions, has little sense of boundaries. At times he is a danger to himself and others. He darts here and there as the children walk down the hall and during outdoor play. Cognitively, Jimmy doesn't understand what it means to be part of a group; he has to physically experience being a group member.

Sally accepts this spirited boy and gives him opportunities to learn how to be part of the class. During transitions, she often gives him something to carry or offers him her hand. She also works with his family to establish limits at home. In this culture of acceptance, Jimmy relaxes and develops the social skills needed to participate in the classroom community.

With an understanding of what children need to be successful learners, teachers can set the stage for learning. This knowledge of needs compels those involved in the education of children, and future teachers alike, to advocate for broadening the goals of desired child outcomes.

Supporting desirable dispositions

When people describe good teachers, they mention dispositions such as being accepting, stimulating, and encouraging. Conversely, they describe poor teachers "in terms of such dispositions as impatience, remoteness, being rejecting, cold, and so forth" (Katz & Raths 1985, 305). One teacher educator routinely asks preservice teachers to reflect on their education experiences and describe their teachers' positive and negative characteristics. Inevitably, the students describe such dispositions as caring, welcoming, considerate,and engaged versus aloof and impatient.

In children

Effective early childhood teachers recognize their roles in strengthening desirable dispositions in children. They know their actions and attitudes send implicit messages. When teachers display curiosity and creativity and value the same dispositions in children, these are likely to flourish in the classroom.

Good teachers acknowledge and appreciate children's efforts. They provide specific feedback, such as "You used a lot of colors," instead of making general statements, such as "Good job." They refrain from using extrinsic rewards like prizes or food. In addition, the teacher who establishes a classroom ethos that values cooperation instead of competition creates the conditions that support and encourage children to get along as they play and work together.

Through families

Teachers can influence parents' perceptions of their children's dispositions. For example, during parent-teacher conferences, a teacher might reframe parental concerns in terms of dispositions. One mother worried that her daughter exhibited characteristics not typical of four-year-olds. Amanda was unusually sensitive to the emotions of her classmates. When Amanda began preschool, she often overreacted to children's responses to her by sulking, withdrawing, and refusing to participate. In response to these negative behaviors, Sally offered Amanda various art media, which she turned into flowery, tiny books that conveyed emotion. Next, Sally wrote Amanda's words in the books. In so doing, she could use the books to share her emotions in safe ways.

Sally allayed the mother's fears by pointing out that Amanda was a perceptive observer of her environment and sensitive to others' emotions. What Amanda's mother considered abnormal and worrisome, Sally viewed as strengths. Her affirming alternative viewpoint highlighted Amanda's positive dispositions: her deep curiosity about the world around her and her uncanny ability to accurately perceive others' emotions. She said Amanda's insights continually amazed her, and that with guidance and encouragement, Amanda now felt safe sharing herself and her feelings with her classmates. Many times she organized and began special projects such as building huge block constructions.

Sally vividly recalled when Zack, a shy boy, transferred to her morning class midyear. Zack would not participate in any play activities and often hid under a table. On the first day that Amanda joined the morning session instead of the afternoon class, she invited Zack, who was hiding under the table, to "come play with me. You are my new best friend." Zack emerged, and in response to Amanda's "I'm the mom," he spoke for the first time, declaring, "I'm the dad."

Instead of comparing Amanda with her peers, her mother began seeing her as resourceful, insightful, intuitive, observant, articulate, curious, and creative. She left the conference feeling relieved and empowered to support her daughter's dispositions.

By using good practice

Teachers sometimes inadvertently weaken children's positive dispositions. The increased emphasis on early literacy in some schools has resulted in the use of inappropriate teaching strategies and a decrease in children's eagerness to be readers and writers (Neuman & Roskos 2005). Katz (1995) calls this situation the damaged disposition hypothesis. For example, when a teacher asks a four-year-old to write the alphabet on lined paper, odds are the child will not enjoy writing because many children, especially boys, have not developed the fine motor control to complete this task.

Regrettably, educators have paid scant attention to the damaging of children's desirable dispositions. Katz and Chard (2000) propose two reasons for this lack of attention: first, dispositions are rarely assessed in early childhood programs; and second, direct instruction in reading readiness activities yields better outcomes on some standardized tests-no matter that heavy reliance on formal instruction methods can harm young children (Hart et al. 1993). Overreliance on drill can increase test scores at the expense of dispositions.

With children our focus

The National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), the teaching profession's accrediting body, now requires documentation of how preservice teachers use, nurture, and assess children's dispositions. Evidence of dispositions is required in three of the six NCATE standards (NCATE 2006). Clearly, the field is giving more attention to the nature and role of dispositions in children's learning.

Conclusion

Teachers can diligently plan learning experiences that help children acquire skills and the disposition to use those skills. Our university preservice students, who sometimes are mothers of elementary school children, often tell us in exasperation that their children have stopped reading for pleasure. This anecdotal evidence may indicate that some educators, while trying to create proficient readers, damage children's disposition to read. The unintended outcome is aliterate children-that is, children who can read but don't want to or avoid reading (Noyes 2000). Knowledge and skills and the disposition to use them are inextricably connected.

Early on, Lilian Katz cautioned, "Dispositions are always more or less influenced by experiences in early childhood education programs, whether by intention or by default" (1977, 66). Does placing too much emphasis on conformity and uniformity undermine the disposition to be creative? How does insisting that children change learning centers every 15 minutes affect children's dispositions to become deeply absorbed in an activity?

Effective early childhood teachers consider whether their behaviors empower or undermine children's dispositions, then alter their practices accordingly. We have the power to open up the world for children and their families. Let's not miss opportunities to reframe children's behaviors into positive dispositions.

References

Bertram, T., & C. Pascal. 2002. What counts in early learning. In Contemporary perspectives in early childhood curriculum, eds. O.N. Saracho & B. Spodek, 241-56. Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

Hart, C.H., R. Charlesworth, D.C. Berts, & M. DeWolf, 1993. The relationship of attendance in developmentally appropriate or inappropriate kindergarten classrooms in first and second grade behavior. Paper presented at the March biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development in New Orleans.

Hatch, J. A. 2002. Accountability shovedown: Resisting the standards movement in early childhood education. Phi Delta Kappan (February):457-62.

Katz, L.G. 1977. Dispositions: Definitions and implications. In Talks with teachers: Reflections on early childhood education, ed. L.G. Katz,51-69. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Katz, L.G. 1993a. Dispositions as educational goals. ERIC EDO-PS-93-10. Online: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED363454.pdf

Katz, L.G. 1993b. Dispositions: Definitions and implications for early childhood practices. Catalog No. 211 Perspectives from ERIC/EECE: Monograph series no. 4. Online https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED360104.

Katz, L.G. 1995. Talks with teachers of young children: A collection. Stamford, CT: Ablex.

Katz, L.G., & S. Chard. 2000. Engaging children's minds: The project approach. 2nd ed. Stamford, CT: Ablex.

Katz, L.G., & J.H. Helm. 2001. Young investigators: The project approach in early years. New York: Teachers College Press; and Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Katz, L.G., & D. McClellan. 1997. Fostering children's social competence: The teacher's role. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Katz,. L.G., & J. Raths. 1985. Dispositions as goals for education. Teaching and Teacher Education 1 (4): 301-07.

Kirk, E.W., & P. Clark. 2005. Beginning with names: Using children's names to facilitate early literacy learning. Childhood Education 81 (3): 139-44.

NCATE (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education). 2006. Standards, procedures and policies for the accreditation of professional educational units. Washington, DC: Author.

McNair, J.C. 2007. Say my name, say my name! Using children's names to enhance early literacy development. Young Children 62 (5): 84-89.

Neuman, S.B., & K. Roskos. 2005. Whatever happened to developmentally appropriate practice in early literacy? Young Children 60 (4): 22-26.

Noyes, D. 2000. Developing the disposition to be a reader: The educator's role. Clearinghouse on Early Education and Parenting. Online: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.543.1190&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

Copyright © 2007 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Why Children's Dispositions Should Matter to All Teachers | ECLKC

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Why Children's Dispositions Should Matter to All Teachers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
ClassDojo helps teachers, parents, and students build amazing classroom communities.

# data[].attributes.headline
Social-Emotional Learning and Development Stages

# data[].attributes.subject
Social-Emotional Learning and Development Stages

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What Kids Learn in Kindergarten

The Basics
Most kindergarteners want to learn all about the world and how it works. Kindergarten teachers often build on this enthusiasm by offering projects that encourage children to delve deeper into the areas that interest them. Children may make life-size tracings of themselves as they learn about the human body, or study animal habitats by researching information about the class pet.

Many kindergarten classrooms offer more formal learning and traditional school experiences than preschool. But kindergarten is still intended to stimulate children's curiosity to learn more about the world around them. It's the job of the kindergarten teacher to help children become comfortable working in a classroom setting and to introduce some basic literacy and math-related skills in the midst of their important discoveries.

Language & Literacy
Kindergarten children notice that words are all around - in books, at the supermarket, at the bus stop and in their homes. They play with language by creating silly rhymes and nonsense words. While this is usually great fun, it is also a very important step in learning to read.

Teachers read a variety of poems, stories, and non-fiction books aloud to children. Kindergarten children learn that letters and sounds go together to form words, and how to identify alphabet letters and their sounds. Many kindergarten children are expected to read words by the end of the year.

Parents may receive their child's first poem, as kindergartners will be asked to do more writing than preschoolers. Your kindergartener's journal may look like a combination of letter strings and scribbles to most people, but it carries a most important message - that he can write to create his own stories, to tell about his experiences, and to share information.

Math
Counting cubes, number rods, and other math materials help kindergartners work with a larger set of numbers. Children also begin to use physical materials to solve simple addition and subtraction problems, like how many cookies they'll have left after they've shared some with a friend. They'll learn about time, using tools like clocks and calendars regularly in the classroom. While they're not fully able to tell time or even realize exactly what a month or a second is, they'll begin to understand that one measures a longer amount of time, and the other a short amount.

Science
In kindergarten, children learn about plants and animals and explore the weather and seasons. Teachers use simple science experiments to introduce children to the process of scientific inquiry. Kindergarteners are now capable of remembering more information and using it to make connections between things. They can separate toy animals into groups, such as those that are found on the land, sea, or sky; or animals that hatch from eggs and animals that do not.

Social Studies
Kindergarteners are ready to expand their world beyond their homes and classrooms to the larger neighborhood or community. They learn more about the rules that help people get along with each other. They may begin to form opinions on issues and understand that others may have different points of view - noticing that a classmate didn't get a turn during a game and letting the teacher know by saying, "That's not fair!"

How Kids Learn in Kindergarten

Growing & Changing
Kindergarteners have grown a lot since their preschool days. They've grown bigger and are becoming more graceful and coordinated. They've grown intellectually and can focus on tasks for longer periods of time. They've grown socially and have a better handle on the skills needed to make friends and work in a group. They've become complex thinkers and are better able to understand detailed answers to the many "why" questions they have about the world.

A Sense of Wonder
Kindergarteners learn best by active, hands-on exploration and discovery. They make sense of the world by experiencing it physically.

"Rachel Carson may have said it best," says Nancy Roser, Ed. D., Professor of Education at the University of Texas at Austin. "Carson described children as learning from a 'sense of wonder.' This sense of wonder allows kindergarteners to become absorbed in the puzzles that surround them. They attempt to figure out those puzzles by exploring, constructing explanations, and asking more questions."

Follow & Focus
Kindergarten children often wonder about complex abstract concepts that they may not be ready to fully comprehend. They may look at a globe and wonder why people don't fall off the bottom of the Earth, because they aren't able to really understand gravity. They may imagine that it's possible to stand on a cloud, even though they know that it's made up of water droplets.

Children in kindergarten are becoming more mature in both their thoughts and actions. Your kindergartener can usually follow directions from his teacher and focus on tasks. While a preschool teacher may have let children play freely at the block center, a kindergarten teacher knows that she can ask children to complete a related assignment, such as recreating on paper a pattern that they've begun with blocks. Experiences like this help kindergarten children gain basic skills. They'll use these basic skills later in their school life when they're asked to solve a math problem, conduct a science experiment, read a book, or write a story.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Basics Most kindergarteners want to learn all about the world and how it works. Kindergarten teachers often build on this enthusiasm by offering projects that encourage children to delve deeper into the areas that interest them. Children may make life-size tracings of themselves as they learn about the human body, or study animal habitats by researching information about the class pet.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
AMLE - Association for Middle Level Education

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Early adolescence is a distinct period of human growth and development situated between childhood and adolescence. During this remarkable stage of the life cycle, young adolescents, 10- to 15-year-olds, experience rapid and significant developmental change. Understanding and responding to the unique developmental characteristics of young adolescents is central among the tenets of middle level education.
Tenets of This We Believe addressed:

Educators who value working with this age group and are prepared to do so

Curriculum that is relevant, challenging, integrative, and exploratory

Organizational structures that support meaningful relationships and learning

During the 20th century, early adolescence gained acceptance as a distinctive period of development. Notably, G. Stanley Hall (1904), American psychologist, identified early adolescence (i.e., preadolescence) as a unique growth stage. Hall's study of adolescence captured not only the interest of scholars, but also the public (Arnett, 2010). Other notable psychologists and theorists (Flavell, 1963; Havighurst, 1968; Piaget, 1952, 1960) advanced the credibility of early adolescence and developmental stage theory. Researchers and academics (Kagan & Coles, 1972; Tanner, 1973; Thornburg, 1983) increased awareness through the dissemination of articles and books. Donald Eichhorn (1966), a founder of the middle school, highlighted the importance of considering young adolescents' developmental characteristics when planning curriculum, instruction, and assessment and organizing the environment of the school. Professional organizations (Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1975; National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1989; National Middle School Association, 1982, 1995, 2003, 2010) authored position statements and offered recommendations about the educational programs and practices that would address young adolescents' development. Joan Lipsitz (1984), a distinguished middle grades researcher, emphasized that schools for young adolescents "must be responsive to their developmental needs" (p. 6).

Research suggests distinctive characteristics of young adolescents with regard to their physical, cognitive, moral, psychological, and social-emotional development, as well as spiritual development (Scales, 2010). While examining these developmental characteristics of young adolescents, two cautions warrant consideration. First, developmental characteristics are overlapping and interrelated; each affects another characteristic. These categorizations vary and are relatively arbitrary (Scales, 2010). Second, developmental characteristics may be oversimplified or described in generalities (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Many factors-race, ethnicity, gender, culture, family, community, environment and the like-influence development. Cognizant of these cautions, a summary of developmental characteristics follows.

Physical Developmental Characteristics

Physical development refers to bodily changes including growth, improved gross and fine motor skills, and biological maturity. In early adolescence, the young adolescent body undergoes more developmental change than at any other time except from birth to two years old. Young adolescents' growth is accelerated and uneven (California State Department of Education, 1987; Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Manning, 2002; Scales, 1991, 2010; Wiles, Bondi, & Wiles, 2006). Developmental growth includes significant increases in height, weight, and internal organ size as well as changes in skeletal and muscular systems (Kellough & Kellough, 2008) with growth spurts occurring about two years earlier in girls than boys (Brighton, 2007; Tanner, 1973). Because bones are growing faster than muscles, young adolescents often experience coordination issues. Actual growing pains result when muscles and tendons do not adequately protect bones (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Wiles et al., 2006). Fluctuations in basal metabolism cause these youth to experience periods of restlessness and lassitude (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Young adolescents, particularly European-American youth, are often physically vulnerable due to improper nutrition, poor physical fitness, and health habits (Scales, 2010) as well as high-risk behaviors such as alcohol or drug use (Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2011) and sexual activity.

Puberty, a phase of physiological change triggered by the release of hormones, begins in early adolescence (Manning & Bucher, 2012). The onset of puberty is an intense developmental period with hormones signaling the development of primary sex characteristics (genitalia) and secondary sex characteristics (e.g., breast development in girls; facial hair in boys). Girls tend to mature one to two years earlier than boys (Caissy, 2002). The increased adrenal hormone production affects skeletal growth, hair production, and skin changes (Dahl, 2004). These highly visible changes and disparate rates of maturity cause many young adolescents to feel uncomfortable about differences in their physical development (Simmons & Blyth, 2008).

The young adolescent brain undergoes remarkable physical development. While brain size remains relatively unchanged, researchers report significant changes within the brain (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006; Casey, Giedd, & Thomas, 2000; Dahl, 2004). During early adolescence, synaptic pruning is actively restructuring the brain's neural circuitry (Giedd, 2004; Nagel, 2010). The prefrontal cortex-an area of the brain that handles executive functions such as planning, reasoning, anticipating consequences, sustaining attention, and making decisions-continues to develop. Additionally, gender-specific differences are evident in young adolescent brains (see Caskey & Ruben, 2007.)

Physical development often affects young adolescents' emotional/ psychological and social development. Practitioners (e.g., teachers or guidance counselors) and parents can alleviate young adolescents' concerns about physical development by explaining that these changes are natural and common (Strahan, L'Esperance, & Van Hoose, 2009; Wiles et al., 2006). Adults can provide accurate information, respond to questions, and encourage young adolescents to consult credible resources (Scales, 2010).

Schools can support physical development by offering responsive educational opportunities for young adolescents. Among these opportunities are health and science curricula that describe and explain physical changes (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Schools also need to provide (a) programs that encourage adequate exercise and healthy lifestyles, (b) access to plenty of water and nutritious food during the school day, (c) appropriate instruction concerning the risks of alcohol and drug use, teenage pregnancy, and sexually transmitted diseases. Young adolescents must be afforded opportunities for physical movement and periods of rest (George & Alexander, 1993). When young adolescents avoid physical activity due to concerns about body image (Milgram, 1992), teachers can incorporate movement in classroom activities, minimize peer competition, and interrupt comparisons between early and late maturing youth.

Intellectual Development

Intellectual development refers to the increased ability of people to understand and reason. In young adolescents, intellectual development is not as visible as physical development, but it is just as intense (Stevenson, 2002; Strahan et al., 2009). During early adolescence, youth exhibit a wide range of individual intellectual development (California State Department of Education, 1987; Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Manning, 2002; Scales, 2010), including metacognition and independent thought. They tend to be curious and display wide-ranging interests (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Scales, 2010). Typically, young adolescents are eager to learn about topics they find interesting and useful-ones that are personally relevant (Brighton, 2007). They also favor active over passive learning experiences and prefer interactions with peers during educational activities (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

During early adolescence, youth develop the capacity for abstract thought processes (Elkind, 1981; Flavell, 2011; Piaget, 1952, 1960) though the transition to higher levels of cognitive function varies considerably across individuals. Young adolescents typically progress from concrete logical operations to acquiring the ability to develop and test hypotheses, analyze and synthesize data, grapple with complex concepts, and think reflectively (Manning, 2002). As they mature, young adolescents start to understand the nuances of metaphors, derive meaning from traditional wisdom, and experience metacognition (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Similarly, they are increasingly able to think through ideological topics, argue a position, and challenge adult directives (Brighton, 2007; Stevenson, 2002). They form impressions of themselves through introspection and "possess keen powers of perception" (Brighton, 2007, p. 11). Additionally, they appreciate more sophisticated levels of humor (Stevenson, 2002).

To make sense of the world around them, young adolescents, as learners, build upon their individual experiences and prior knowledge (Piaget, 1960). Experience plays a central role in developing the brain and induces learners to construct meaning based upon what they already believe and understand (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). During early adolescence, youth are more interested in real life experiences and authentic learning opportunities; they are less interested in traditional academic subjects (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Intellectually, young adolescents seek opportunities to explore the varied facets of their environment (Brighton, 2007). They also tend to be inquisitive about adults and are often keen observers of adult behavior (Scales, 2010). Moreover, they have an enhanced ability to think about the future, anticipate their own needs, and develop personal goals (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

Implications for Practice
Teachers need to consider the intellectual developmental differences of young adolescents when planning learning experiences. To address this diversity, teachers need to provide an assortment of educational approaches and materials that are appropriate for their students' wide-ranging cognitive abilities. For example, the concrete thinkers require more structured learning experiences, while the abstract thinkers need more challenging activities (Manning & Butcher, 2012). In addition, young adolescents need teachers who understand and know how they think (Stevenson, 2002). Teachers need to plan curricula around real life concepts (Kellough & Kellough, 2008) and supply authentic educative activities (e.g., experimentation, analysis and synthesis of data) that are meaningful for young adolescents (Scales, 2010). Because young adolescents' interests are evolving, they require opportunities for exploration throughout their educational program (Manning & Butcher). To foster intellectual development, these youth need to interact directly with their world-through discourse and hands-on experience with peers and adults (Stevenson, 2002). Similarly, young adolescents need to learn and engage in democratic principles (Brighton, 2007). Teachers can also provide forums for them to examine the reasons for school, home, and societal rules. As adult role models, teachers can guide young adolescents to connect intellectual thought and moral reasoning.

Moral Development

Moral development is defined as an individuals' ability to make principled choices and how to treat one another. During early adolescence, many of the attitudes, beliefs, and values that young adolescents develop remain with them for life (Brighton, 2007). They move away from blanket acceptance of adult moral judgment to the development of their own personal values; however, they usually embrace the values of parents or key adults (Scales, 2010). As noted, the increased capacity of young adolescents for analytical thought, reflection, and introspection characterizes the connection between their intellectual and moral development. Young adolescents also tend to be idealistic and possess a strong sense of fairness (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Scales, 2010). As they progress into the interpersonal conformity stage of moral development (Kohlberg, 1983), young adolescents begin to reconcile their understanding of people who care about them with their own egocentricity (Roney, 2005). They transition from a self-centered perspective to considering the rights and feelings of others (Scales, 2010). Gender affects how adolescents approach moral dilemmas-males view moral issues through a justice lens and females use an interpersonal care lens (Gilligan, 1982).

Young adolescents often pose broad, unanswerable questions about life and refuse to accept trivial responses from adults (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). They also begin to view moral issues in shades of gray rather than only in black and white. While young adolescents start to consider complex moral and ethical questions, they tend to be unprepared to cope with them. Consequently, young adolescents struggle with making sound moral and ethical choices (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

Implications for Practice
Teachers need to be aware of the relationship between young adolescents' intellectual development and their moral reasoning (Scales, 2010). They can organize instructional experiences that foster critical thinking skills and higher levels of moral reasoning. For example, teachers plan assignments that help students to incorporate their thoughts and feelings in writing (Scales, 2010). Teachers can engage young adolescents with activities that require consensus building and application of democratic principles; teacher advisory programs and service learning can foster teamwork and build community (Brighton, 2007). In addition, teachers can design experiences for students to examine moral dilemmas and contemplate responses (Scales, 2010). Such experiences can help young adolescents to develop values, resolve problems, and set their own behavior standards (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Young adolescents can also be afforded opportunities to examine their own choices and the consequences of these choices (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Further, teachers can develop scenarios that prompt young adolescents to examine concepts of fairness, justice, and equity. School programs or curricula can include a focus on societal issues such as the environment, poverty, or racial discrimination.

Spiritual Development

Spiritual development is defined as a developmental process for making meaning of one's life (Lingley, 2013). Acknowledged as a legitimate domain of human development, spiritual development is rarely referenced in education. Understandably, concerns about the separation of church and state and First Amendment rights prompts educators to avoid this aspect of human development (Brighton, 2007). Nevertheless, the exclusion of spiritual domain limits the prospect of developmentally responsive education (Lingley, 2013). Increasingly, scholars are studying the spiritual development of children and adolescents (Roehlkepartain, Benson, King, & Wagener, 2006), which may lead to broader recognition of this developmental domain. Acceptance of the spiritual domain in middle level education is important. Young adolescents often want to explore spiritual matters, develop connections between self and others, and gain a sense of themselves and the world (Scales, 2010). Implications for practice will depend on commitments to educating the whole child.

Psychological Development

During early adolescence, psychological development is characterized by identity formation and the quest for independence. Young adolescents experience two stages of identity formation: (a) industry versus inferiority when 10- to 11-year-olds identify themselves by the tasks and skills they perform well, and (b) identity versus identity when 12- to 15-year-olds explore and experiment with various roles and experiences (Erikson, 1968). Identity development depends on the degree of exploration and commitment to an identity (see Marcia, 1980). During these years, young adolescents seek their own sense of individuality and uniqueness (Brown & Knowles, 2007). They may experience an increased awareness of their ethnic identity as well (Scales, 2010). As young adolescents search for an adult identity and adult acceptance, they strive to maintain peer approval (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). As young adolescents expand their affiliations to include family and peers, feelings of conflict may arise due to competing allegiances (Wiles et al., 2006). The search for identity and self-discovery may intensify feelings of vulnerability, as they become attuned to the differences between self and others (Scales, 2010).

Typically, early adolescence is intense and unpredictable (Scales, 2010). Young adolescents have a tendency to be moody, restless, and may exhibit erratic and inconsistent behavior including anxiety, bravado, and fluctuations between superiority and inferiority (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Scales, 2010; Wiles et al., 2006). They are often self-conscious and highly sensitive to criticism of their perceived personal shortcomings (Scales, 2010). Young adolescents' self-esteem levels are generally adequate and improve over time, while self-competence in academic subjects, sports, and creative activities decline (Scales, 2010). Emotionally-charged situations may trigger young adolescents to resort to childish behaviors, exaggerate simple events, and vocalize naive opinions or one-sided arguments. Their emotional variability makes young adolescents at risk of making decisions with negative consequences (Milgram, 1992) and believing that their experiences, feelings, and problems are unique (Scales, 2010).

Implications for Practice
Teachers need to support young adolescents' quest for identity formation through curricular experiences, instructional approaches, and opportunities for exploration. Young adolescents need frequent opportunities to explore and experiment with various roles and experiences within the classroom context. Teachers can provide educative experiences such as role-playing, drama, and reading that foster identity formation. These experiences can help young adolescents realize that their challenges are not unique (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). In addition, teachers can incorporate opportunities for student choice and self-assessment. Teachers can also describe how self-esteem affects many aspects of their development and design experiences that build young adolescents' self-esteem. Likewise, teachers can acknowledge the importance of friendships and explain that shifting peer allegiances are normal (Scales, 2010).

To foster successful experiences for every young adolescent, schools need to provide organizational structures such as teaming and advisory programs. These structures help to ensure that every young adolescent is known well by at least one adult and has regular occasions to experience positive relationships with peers. Young adolescents need opportunities to form relationships with adults who understand them and who are willing to support their development. Educational programs and practices can be used to promote an atmosphere of friendliness, concern, and group cohesiveness (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Young adolescents deserve school environments that are free from harsh criticism, humiliation, and sarcasm.

Social-Emotional Development

Social-emotional development concerns a person's capacity for mature interactions with individuals and groups. In early adolescence, social-emotional maturity often lags behind physical and intellectual development. Young adolescents have a strong need to belong to a group-with peer approval becoming more important and adult approval decreasing in importance (Scales, 2010). As young adolescents mature socially and emotionally, they may experience conflicting loyalties to peer group and family (Wiles et al., 2006). Because young adolescents are fiercely loyal to their peer group (Kellough & Kellough, 2008), they search for social stature within the peer group. Young adolescents often experiment with new behaviors as they seek social position and personal identity (Scales, 2010). They are also torn between their desire to conform to the peer group norms and their aspiration to be distinctive and independent (Brighton, 2007). Young adolescents experience a variety of peer associations-positive and negative. During early adolescence, youth typically widen their circle of friends (Brighton, 2007) and may experience feelings of romantic or sexual attraction (Scales, 2010). Issues of sexual orientation and identity can also arise at this time (Brighton, 2007). Negative peer associations, particularly bullying, also become more prevalent in the middle school years. Young adolescents are also socially and emotionally vulnerable due to influences of media (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Scales, 2010).

Young adolescents tend to emulate their esteemed peers and non-parent adults. While they prefer to make their own choices, the family remains a critical factor in final decision-making (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Young adolescents may be rebellious toward their parents and adults, yet tend to depend on them (Scales, 2010). Young adolescents also frequently test the limits of acceptable behavior and challenge adult authority. They may overreact to social situations, ridicule others, and feel embarrassment (Scales, 2010). When experiencing adult rejection, young adolescents may seek the seemingly secure social environment of their peer group (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Importantly, teachers report that addressing young adolescents' social and emotional needs may improve their learning and academic achievement (Raphael & Burke, 2012)

Implications for Practice
Because of young adolescents' need for affiliation and belonging, they must have opportunities to form affirming and healthy relationships with peers. Teachers must recognize the importance of peer relationships and friendship (Scales, 2010) and provide occasions for positive peer interactions (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Teachers can design cooperative learning activities and collaborative experiences for young adolescents to interact productively with peers (Scales, 2010).Teachers can also plan activities that engage students in argumentation or debate in academic settings as well as those that simulate social situations through role-plays or simulations (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

Schools play a key role in providing young adolescents with educative programs that promote freedom and independence within a safe space. Organizational structures such as teaming and service learning advance positive places for young adolescent's growth. School districts need to support programs that interrupt negative peer interactions, particularly bullying, that impedes the healthy development of youth. Schools can also ensure young adolescents'access to student government, service clubs, or other leadership groups that allow them to develop their own projects and guidelines for behavior (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

Conclusion

Young adolescents warrant educational experiences and schools that are organized to address their physical, intellectual, emotional/psychological, moral/ethical, spiritual, and social developmental characteristics. Practitioners, parents, and others who work with young adolescents need to be aware of both subtle and obvious changes in developmental characteristics. Such changes can give adults insights into the challenges facing young adolescents and illuminate possible reasons for shifts in their abilities and behaviors.

The middle school founders (e.g., William Alexander, Donald Eichhorn, John Lounsbury, Gordon Vars) emphasized the need to consider young adolescents when developing education environmental and organizational structures. The desire for developmental responsiveness was what set the middle school apart from its predecessor, the junior high. Today's educators and policymakers need to continue their support of initiatives that afford young adolescents with developmentally appropriate learning experiences and environments.

References

Arnett, J. J. (2010). Adolescence and emerging adulthood: A cultural approach (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (1975). The middle school we need. Washington, DC: Author.

Blakemore, S., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3/4), 296-312.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed.). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Brighton, K. L. (2007). Coming of age: The education and development of young adolescents. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

Brown, D., & Knowles, T. (2007). What every middle school teacher should know (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Caissy, G. A. (2002). Early adolescents: Understanding the 10 to 15 year olds (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Da Capo Press.

California State Department of Education. (1987). Caught in the middle: Educational reform for young adolescents in California public schools. Sacramento, CA: Author.

Casey, B. J., Giedd, J. N., & Thomas, K. M. (2000). Structural and functional brain development and its relation to cognitive development. Biological Psychology, 54, 241-257.

Caskey, M. M., & Ruben, B. (2007). Under construction: The young adolescent brain. In S. B. Mertens, V. A. Anfara, Jr., & M. M. Caskey (Eds.), The young adolescent and the middle school (pp. 47-72). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.

Dahl, R. E. (2004). Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities. Keynote address. In R. E. Dahl & L. P. Spear (Eds.), Annals of The New York Academy of Sciences: Vol. 1021. Adolescent brain development: Period of vulnerabilities and opportunities (pp. 1-22). New York, NY: The New York Academy of Sciences.

Eichhorn, D. (1966). The middle school. New York, NY: Center for Applied Research in Education.

Elkind, D. (1981). Children and adolescents: Interpretative essay on Jean Piaget (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.

Flavell, J. H. (2011). The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget. Whitefish, MT: Literary Licensing.

George, P., & Alexander, W. (1993). The exemplary middle school (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston.

Giedd, J. (2004). Structural magnetic resonance imaging of the adolescent brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 77-85.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Havighurst, R. J. (1968). The middle school child in contemporary society. Theory into Practice, 7, 120-122.

Hall, G. S. (1904). Adolescence: Its psychology and its relation to physiology, anthropology, sociology, sex, crime, religion, and education. New York, NY: Appleton & Company.

Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Monitoring the future national results on adolescent drug use: Overview of key findings, 2011. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan. Retrieved from http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/mtf-overview2011.pdf

Kagan, J., & Coles, R. (Eds). (1972). Twelve to sixteen: Early adolescence. New York, NY: Norton.

Kellough, R. D., & Kellough, N. G. (2008). Teaching young adolescents: Methods and resources for middle grades teaching (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Kohlberg, L. (1983). The psychology of moral development. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Lingley, A. (2013). Seeing crucibles: Legitimizing spiritual development in the middle grades through critical historiography. (Order No. 3587267, Portland State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 367. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1426638524?accountid=13265 (1426638524).

Lipsitz, J. (1984). Successful schools for young adolescents. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

Manning, M. L. (2002). Developmentally appropriate middle level schools (2nd ed.). Olney, MD: Association for Childhood Education International.

Manning, M. L., & Bucher, K. T. (2012). Teaching in the middle school (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Marcia, J. (1980). Identity development. In J. Adleson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 561-565). New York, NY: Wiley.

Milgram, J. (1992). A portrait of diversity: The middle level student. In J. Irvin, (Ed.), Transforming middle level education: Perspectives and possibilities (pp. 16-27). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Nagel, M. C. (2010). The middle years learner's brain. In D. Pendergast & N. Bahr (Eds.) Teaching middle years: Rethinking curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment (pp. 86-100). Crows Next, Australia: Allen & Unwin.

National Association of Secondary School Principals. (1989). Middle level educators' responsibilities for intellectual development. Reston, VA: Author.

National Middle School Association. (1982). This we believe. Columbus, OH: Author.

National Middle School Association. (1995). This we believe: Developmentally responsive middle level schools. Columbus, OH: Author.

National Middle School Association. (2003). This we believe: Successful schools for young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author.

National Middle School Association. (2010). This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author.

Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York, NY: International University Press.

Piaget, J. (1960). The child's conception of the world. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.

Raphael, L., & Burke, M. (2012). Academic, social, and emotional needs in a middle grades reform initiative. Research in Middle Level Education Online, 35(6), 1-13.

Roehlkepartain, E. C., Benson, P. L., King, P. E., & Wagener, L. (2006). Spiritual development in childhood and adolescence: Moving to the scientific mainstream. In E. C. Roehlkepartain, P. E. King, L. Wagener, & P. L. Benson (Eds.), Handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence (pp. 1-15). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Roney, K. (2005). Young adolescent development. In V. A. Anfara, Jr., G. Andrews, & S. B. Mertens, (Eds.), The encyclopedia of middle grades education (pp. 397-401). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

Scales, P. C. (1991). A portrait of young adolescents in the 1990s: Implications for promoting healthy growth and development. Carrboro, NC: Center for Early Adolescence, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Scales, P. C. (2010). Characteristics of young adolescents. In This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents (pp. 63-62). Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

Simmons, R., & Blyth, D. (2008). Moving into adolescence: The impact of pubertal change and the school context. New York, NY: Aldine Transaction.

Stevenson, C. (2002). Teaching ten to fourteen year olds (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Strahan, D., L'Esperance, M., & Van Hoose, J. (2009). Promoting harmony: Young adolescent development and classroom practices. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

Tanner, J. M. (1973). Growing up. Scientific American, 229(3), 35-43.

Thornburg, H. (1983). Is early adolescence really a stage of development? Theory into Practice, 22, 79-84.

Wiles, J., Bondi, J., & Wiles, M. T. (2006). The essential middle school (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Annotated References

Brighton, K. L. (2007). Coming of age: The education and development of young adolescents. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

In this concise book for practitioners and parents, Brighton describes the uniqueness of early adolescence-citing not only the salient middle grades literature, but also his own personal and professional experience. In the first section of the book, he explains the domains of young adolescent development: intellectual, social, physical, emotional, and moral, religious, and character. Then, in the second section, he illuminates the contexts-family and society-in which young adolescents function. In the final section, Brighton focuses on the well-being of young adolescents, specifically health and wellness issues and positive interventions. Throughout the text, he communicates his position that the coming of age years-early adolescence-are a pivotal life stage warranting the support from teachers and parents alike.

Kellough, R. D., & Kellough, N. G. (2008). Teaching young adolescents: Methods and resources for middle grades teaching (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Everything educators of young adolescents need to know is covered thoroughly and presented clearly in a manner that emphasizes the practical and the theoretical. Kellough and Kellough encourage educators to actively engage students in learning and afford students with an equal chance to participate, learn, grow, and succeed. They provide a wealth of examples and exercises for each of the book's chapters. Topics include the characteristics of young adolescents; and planning, implementing, and assessing learning based on these developmental qualities. This book is intended for teacher candidates, but seasoned teachers and administrators will find this book very useful as they continue to develop their skills in working with young adolescents.

Stevenson, C. (2002). Teaching ten to fourteen year olds (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

In Teaching Ten to Fourteen Year Olds, Stevenson offers his readers a succinct overview of the social, physical, and emotional development of the young adolescent. In addition to its usefulness to educators, parents of young adolescents will find this book helpful because it explains young adolescent development. In Part One, Stevenson: (a) describes the underpinnings of middle level education and establishes the context for the reader's personal and professional development as a teacher of young adolescents, (b) guides the reader in using shadowing and inquiry techniques as methods for observing and learning from and about young adolescents, and (c) presents the domains of development (i.e., social, physical, and emotional) that are characterized as "interactive." In Part Two, the book focuses on conceptualizing, organizing, presenting, and assessing the effectiveness of schooling that will complement the developmental characteristics of young adolescents. In the final section, Part Three, Stevenson highlights the teacher's personal context including the specific roles and functions of middle grades teachers that distinguish their work from teaching in other school levels.

Recommended Resources

Anfara, V. A., Jr., Andrews, G., & Mertens, S. B. (Eds.) (2005). The encyclopedia of middle grades education. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

Association for Middle Level Education. (2012). This we believe in action: Implementing successful middle level schools (2nd ed.). Westerville, OH: Author.

Kellough, R. D., & Kellough, N. G. (2008). Teaching young adolescents: Methods and resources for middle grades teaching (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Mertens, S. B., Anfara, V. A., Jr., & Caskey, M. M. (Eds.). (2007). The young adolescent and the middle school. Charlotte, NC: Information Age.

National Middle School Association. (2010). This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author.

Office of Adolescent Health. (2014). Adolescent Development E-Learning Module. Retrieved from oah.gov@hhs.gov

Scales, P. C., Sesma, A., Jr., & Bolstrom, B. (2003). Coming into their own: How developmental assets promote positive growth in middle childhood. Minneapolis, MN: Search Institute.

Author Information

Micki M. Caskey is associate dean for academic affairs in the Graduate School of Education at Portland State University. She is a co-series editor of The Handbook of Research in Middle Level Education, past chair of AMLE's Research Advisory Committee, and past editor of Research in Middle Level Education Online.

Vincent A. Anfara, Jr. (deceased) was professor of educational administration and supervision at The University of Tennessee. He was the founding series editor for The Handbook of Research in Middle Level Education, past chair of NMSA's Research Advisory Committee, and column editor for "What Research Says" in Middle School Journal.
Published October 2014

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Early adolescence is a distinct period of human growth and development situated between childhood and adolescence. During this remarkable stage of the life cycle, young adolescents, 10- to 15-year-olds, experience rapid and significant developmental change. Understanding and responding to the unique developmental characteristics of young adolescents is central among the tenets of middle level education.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
All Posts

No single teaching approach will engage each student at once, but building a strategy to consistently deliver culturally-responsive teaching lessons will help you appeal to diverse learners with distinct backgrounds.

Rooted in differentiated instruction principles, culturally-responsive pedagogy aims to link content - from delivery to assessment - with students' ancestral and contemporary cultures.

To augment their understanding and responsiveness, this involves:

Empowering students to share thoughts

Integrating diverse work and study practices

Understanding student learning needs and styles

Emulating culturally-significant instruction styles, such as oral storytelling

To help you plan and deliver lessons that resonate with a diverse classroom, we'll explain what culturally responsive teaching is and how it is implemented.

We also put together 15 culturally-responsive teaching strategies and examples that will resonate with diverse students and foster an inclusive classroom environment.

These strategies are available as a downloadable list below for quick reference so you can reference them during classroom instruction.

Let's start with some simple explanation of what culturally responsive teaching actually means.

What is culturally responsive teaching?

Culturally responsive teaching (CRT) is a pedagogy that acknowledges and embraces students' cultures, languages and experiences - and relates them to classroom learning.

Culturally responsive teachers are actively aware of the various cultural backgrounds present in their classrooms, and act as a facilitator of lessons that can resonate with each.

It is not an easy task - creating this learning environment requires not only a high level of cultural competence, but also an intentional effort to learn about students' backgrounds and cultures.

It can be majorly beneficial to closing achievement gaps between students of different backgrounds and addressing inequities in the classroom. You can also create stronger partnerships with your students by fostering a learning environment where they are represented clearly.

Conditions for creating a culturally-responsive classroom

Reflected in the 15 strategies and examples in the next section, there are four conditions any teacher must fulfill to establish a culturally-responsive classroom, according to an authoritative academic book about the subject called Diversity and Motivation.

As you prepare and deliver any lesson, strive to:

Establish inclusion

This starts by highlighting how the topic you're teaching may relate or apply to students. For example, many societies and cultures have fireworks festivals.

While such a festival runs, you could teach how to calculate speed using fireworks in sample questions. Establishing inclusion also involves regularly grouping students with different classmates, encouraging discussion to solve problems. In doing so, they can share unique perspectives and diverse background knowledge.

Develop positive attitudes

This further focuses on relating content to students. A popular method is allowing them to choose between activities and assessments that let them showcase their values, strengths and experiences.

For example, while providing clear learning goals and evaluation criteria, encourage students to submit their own project ideas.

Enhance meaning

You can bolster lesson content by drawing connections with real-world issues, asking students to use opinions and existing knowledge to address them.

For example, when teaching about government, you could contextualize concepts through municipal political issues. When appropriate, use student jargon to clarify these issues or improve communication in general.

Foster confidence

Make the assessment process less intimidating by offering different ways to demonstrate skills and understanding. For example, avoid handing out quizzes that are purely multiple choice or fill-in-the-blank.

Among other question types, mix in problems that involve writing short- and long-form answers. After, give students time to assess their own progress and performance, helping them focus on growth.

Meeting these four conditions largely relies on using specific approaches, such as the 15 explored below.

15 Culturally-responsive teaching strategies and examples

1. Learn about your students

At the start of the year or semester, demonstrating a desire to adapt your teaching style to students can help them feel valued. Because open communication should uncover their learning needs and preferences, try:

Distributing questionnaires, asking about interests

Handing out surveys, gathering information about learning styles

Holding open discussions, allowing students to talk about positive experiences from past classes

Once you've gathered enough information, tell the class you'll focus on adjusting your teaching approach to help them learn as best as they can. Students should quickly warm up to you.

2. Interview students

You'll build a stronger understanding of students' values and habits - as well as strengths and weaknesses - by individually asking them questions. While running a large-group exercise, pull each student aside for a few minutes. Ask about:

Hobbies

Their favourite lessons and activities

Which kinds of exercises help them remember lessons and improve skills

Note what each student says to identify themes and different preferences. Then, when possible, relate content to their interests and deliver lessons that appeal to shared strengths.

3. Integrate relevant word problems

Many students will take a greater interest in math if you use word problems to contextualize equations. Working with 41 7th grade students throughout an academic year, a study published by the Canadian Center of Science and Education used such contextual learning strategies to increase test scores by more than 44%. Create culturally-relevant word problems by:

Including student names to make subject matter relatable

Linking to student interests, such as by measuring the shot distance of a famous soccer player

Referencing diverse cultures, such as by determining the diameter of a specific ethnic food platter

Using these word problem tips will not only help you establish a culturally-responsive classroom, but engage students more than by using abstract questions.

4. Present new concepts by using student vocabulary

Delivering relatable content goes beyond math class. In any subject, you can grab and keep student attention by using their vocabulary to build understanding before moving to academic diction. Let's say many of your students are sports fans with family from soccer-crazed nations. Use a soccer example to demonstrate metaphors in language arts class:
Andrea Pirlo is an eagle on the pitch, armed with vision sharp enough to detect the smallest openings and recognize opportunities his opposition can't.
This kind of culturally-responsive language should open the door to presenting challenging skills and concepts, engaging students while doing so.

5. Bring in guest speakers

Guest speakers can bring context and passion to history, geography and social studies lessons, capturing student interest.

A war veteran could deliver a vivid narrative of his or her experiences. A mountaineer could give a striking recount of scaling Lhotse. Both could answer questions many teachers would struggle with, while engaging students much more effectively than a slideshow.

Plus, according to a study by the Economics of Education Review, students are often encouraged to work harder when they share a background with an educator. So, diverse guest speakers may inherently engage and motivate students who share a culture with them.

6. Deliver different forms of content through learning stations

Whether due to culture, socialization, preference or learning needs, students respond differently to different types of content. You can provide a range of material to each student by setting up learning stations. Each station should use a unique method of teaching a skill or concept related to your lesson.

For example, students can rotate between stations that involve:

Playing a game

Creating artwork

Watching a video

Reading an article

Completing puzzles

Listening to you teach

After going through each station, you can help students further process the material by holding a class discussion or assigning questions to answer.

7. Gamify lessons

Want another way to consistently diversify content and its delivery, appealing to different learning styles? Gamify some lesson elements. Easy-to-implement practices include:

Offering rewards, such as badges, for completing specific tasks or achieving certain scores

Setting a clear learning goal for the lesson, charting progress throughout the class to motivate students

Creating an "instruction manual" for a project, which contains the rubric and best practices for earning a high grade

Plus, gamifying your lessons is a way of making connections with contemporary gaming culture - helping students within this culture process and demonstrate understanding of content.

8. Call on each student

Call-and-response - the practice of asking students frequent questions while giving lessons - usually keeps them engaged, but also enables them to share thoughts and opinions. Involve everyone by:

Encouraging the sharing of personal perspectives, when a question allows for it

Calling on students without their hands up, acclimatizing them to speaking amongst peers

Asking a question after each new point or thought, having a student teach back the concept you just spoke about

By lesson's end, this call-and-response approach should allow each student to speak at least once.

9. Use media that positively depict a range of cultures

Children process content more effectively when their cultures and languages have places in the curriculum, according to an oft-cited academic book about teaching in multiracial schools.

Using media, such as books and movies, that positively depict a range of cultures and are relevant to your syllabus can partially address this need. Finding options through databases such as IMDB or American Literature isn't a tough task.

As a bonus, using different media should boost engagement levels.

10. Offer different types of free study time

Free study time typically appeals to students who prefer solo learning, but many cultures prioritize learning in group settings. You can meet both preferences by dividing your class into clearly-sectioned team and individual activities, such as the following:

Provide audiobooks, which play material relevant to your lessons

Create a station for group games that teach curriculum-aligned skills

Keep a dedicated quiet space for students to take notes and complete work

Allow some students to work in groups while taking notes and completing work, away from the dedicated quiet space

Presented with these options, free study time should appeal to a wider range of learners.

11. Encourage students to propose ideas for projects

By asking students to submit ideas for their own projects, the benefits of choice extend beyond free study time. Specifically, they should build confidence by showcasing their strengths and existing background knowledge.

So, encourage them to pitch ideas for taking a project from concept to completion. A student must show how the product will meet academic standards in his or her pitch. If the idea falls short, give the student ideas to refine it. If the student can't refine the idea, he or she can choose a project from a list of options you provide.

Not only will you be pleasantly surprised by some pitches, but you may generate ideas for future culturally-responsive exercises and assessments.

12. Experiment with peer teaching

There'll almost always be some student vocabulary and communal practices you never pick up on. But you can fill these gaps through peer teaching. Relatively-simple exercises include:

Students who read and discuss story passages with peers recall more content and score higher on assessments, according an Ohio University pilot study. And, according to a science education study, students who work in pairs and groups typically perform better on tests that involve reasoning and critical thinking.

Such results are largely achieved due to students discussing and rationalizing concepts in their own words, many of which belong to contemporary cultural lexicon and are not academic.

13. Establish cooperative base groups

Cooperative base groups - which come from collaborative learning pedagogy - allow students to regularly learn and process content together.

Your role consists of creating groups of three or four, scheduling meeting times and detailing agendas for them. Filling knowledge gaps and encouraging communication is also involved. Students' roles focus on supporting each other while striving to meet learning goals over the year.

While working in base groups, students can:

Review lessons

Take on guided research

Address each other's questions

Complete in-class assessments

The connection to culturally-responsive teaching is the same as peer learning: cooperative base groups encourage students to make sense of concepts you've taught by using their own words and thoughts.

14. Run problem-based learning scenarios

The flexibility of problem-based learning lends itself to culturally-responsive teaching. This is because, when presenting a relatable real-world problem for your students to solve, two cultural connections will typically occur.

1. First, there will likely be a cultural link in the question, whether it's explicit or students make it themselves.

2. Second, because they can apply different approaches toward problem-solving, they may use unique cultural perspectives.

But if you want to create a scenario with explicit cultural ties, consider:

Encouraging students to take historical, sociological and anthropological viewpoints

Framing the problem using ethnic events - for instance, solving logistical challenges of running a heritage festival - in the area

Regardless, the student-centred nature of problem-based learning will allow your class to use culturally-relevant examples and information when appropriate.

15. Involve parents by using take-home letters

Involving parents in their child's learning is a core part of almost any culturally-responsive teaching approach -- they act as the main educators in many societies and can provide cultural context. When starting a new unit or trying out an education tool for the first time, consider sending a letter home to parents.

For reference, here's the letter Prodigy provides to its teachers. This opens the door to parent participation. While not all parents will be subject matter experts, most should be able to provide guidance.

Downloadable list of culturally-responsive teaching strategies and examples

Click here to download and print a simplified list of the 15 culturally-responsive teaching strategies and examples to keep at your desk.

Interested in other teaching strategies to deploy in your classroom?

Culturally-responsive teaching strategies overlap in important ways with many other pedagogical approaches. Consider researching other teaching and instructional strategies to help bolster your approach, or combine different elements of each strategy!

Active learning strategies empower, engage, and stimulate your students as they put them at the center of the learning process.

Experiential learning activities, in contrast to traditional learning activities,aim to develop knowledge and skills through direct, firsthand experience.

Project-based learning involves an open-ended approach that sees students work alone or collectively to work on engaging, intricate curriculum-related questions or challenges..

Inquiry-based learning is broken down into four categories, all of which emphasize student questions, ideas and analyses.

Adaptive learning focuses on changing - or "adapting" - content for each student on an individual basis, especially with the help of technology.

Social emotional learning activities help students build social skills, establish healthy relationships and manage their emotions.

Final thoughts about culturally-relevant pedagogy

Delivering culturally-responsive lessons can not only help you engage students, but allow them to make personal connections with content.

Student populations across your school district are comprised of different races, backgrounds, cultural identities and socioeconomic statuses - it's important that teaching practices reflect and embrace these differences.

Greater student investment should lead to other benefits, such as more rigor and motivation. A happier, focused classroom is the ideal outcome.

Prodigy is a digital game-based learning platform that delivers a range of culturally-relevant math content through engaging word and scenario-based problems. Standards-aligned, it's used by millions of teachers and students across the world.

Create your free teacher account

Create your free teacher account

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Culturally Responsive Teaching: Examples, Strategies & Activities for Success

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
All Posts No single teaching approach will engage each student at once, but building a strategy to consistently deliver culturally-responsive teaching lessons will help you appeal to diverse learners with distinct backgrounds. Rooted in differentiated instruction principles, culturally-responsive pedagogy aims to link content - from delivery to assessment - with students' ancestral and contemporary cultures.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This unit contains detailed directions and ideas in which students learn about and create a "pocket book" about George Washington and Abraham Lincoln, including information about the two famous Presidents, a time line, writing activities, art projects, and bookmaking ideas.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Resources >> Browse Articles >> Class Management

Elissa Miller

Hustle & Flow: Classroom Style

The words hustle and flow describe one basic word to me: activity.

I want my classroom to be full of activity. Productive activity. You may not agree with some of the things I'm writing, but remember, I'm suggesting these for the long-term effect they will have on the student culture and classroom atmosphere.

The following are some ways to keep the hustle and flow going in your classroom and to help create a positive learning environment.

1. Address students by name. Our names are our identity and we should use them as much as possible. Learn your students names, and the correct pronunciation immediately!

2. Use "please" and "thank you". We take these words for granted but we need to keep in mind how important giving respect is in order to earn respect. Put these words to daily use on tests, homework, worksheets, presentations, etc. Saying "thank you" for an answer shows you hear them and appreciate them, even if the answer is wrong.

3. Listen. Students crave our attention and focus. We should be extremely careful that in listening we are NOT physically turning away, sighing, frowning, rolling our eyes, talking to someone else, or looking away. We show people they matter by our body language, whether we mean it or not. Body language can create a division in the classroom.

4. Don't allow bullying/teasing/put downs. Students need to know that they are entering a safe environment. They need to be comfortable and know they fit in before they can learn and take risks in their learning. This needs to be implemented from the very beginning. No bullying from students or from teachers! We are responsible for what we allow in the classroom. For every put down, require two put ups (that person now has to say two nice things.) The put ups don't mean anything; what matters is your consistency in protecting life and creating a level playing field for everyone.

5. Make Eye Contact. Making quick eye contact is important in creating a culture of trust. Students matter. They aren't lifeless objects just sitting in our room (although they may look like it) and we should we treat them as the valuable people they are. Recognize them.

Continue reading tips 6-10 on the next page.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
10 ways create positive learning experiences class management benefits articles

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
10 Ways to Create Positive Learning Experiences

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Hustle & Flow: Classroom Style The words hustle and flow describe one basic word to me: activity. I want my classroom to be full of activity. Productive activity. You may not agree with some of the things I'm writing, but remember, I'm suggesting these for the long-term effect they will have on the student culture and classroom atmosphere.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
by Robert J. Marzano and John L. Brown

This module and the next deal with establishing and communicating learning goals, tracking student progress, and celebrating success. Arguably the starting place for all effective instruction is designing and communicating clear learning goals. Although this might seem self-evident, actually executing this behavior is anything but routine for a number of reasons. First, there is a good deal of confusion about the difference between learning goals and instructional activities or assignments. All are important, but all have distinguishing characteristics. Once learning goals are clearly identified, they should be stated in a form that provides clear direction for students. Here we present a scale or rubric format. Well-written rubrics set the stage for assessments (addressed in Module 3) and can be used to provide students with effective feedback (also addressed in Module 3). Finally, the teacher should not be the only one setting learning goals during a unit of instruction. Students should be asked and invited to establish their own learning goals that complement those established by the teacher.

Reflecting on Your Current Beliefs and Practices

Before examining the strategies in this module, take some time to examine your current beliefs and practices by answering the following questions:

1. How clear are you about the distinction between a learning goal and a learning activity or an assignment? How do you communicate the difference to students?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

2. To what extent do you communicate learning goals in a way that makes explicit to students how they can improve?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

3. To what extent do you have students restate rubrics in their own words?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

4. To what extent do you have students design their own learning goals for units of instruction? If you do not, how might you do so?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Recommendations for Classroom Practice

This module addresses the following instructional strategies for Design Question 1:

Clearly articulating learning goals as opposed to activities and assignments

Creating scales or rubrics for learning goals

Rewriting scales in student-friendly language

Having students identify individual learning goals

Clearly Articulating Learning Goals as Opposed to Activities and Assignments

There is a great deal of confusion regarding the differences between learning goals and activities and assignments. There is also confusion regarding how they interact. Essentially, activities and assignments are used to help students achieve learning goals. Consider the following list of elements, all of which are activities or assignments:

Students preview the chapter on the adverse effects of smoking before reading it.

Students compare and contrast the use of technology in World War I and World War II.

Students complete the word problems at the back of Chapter 4.

Students read a chapter of a novel and write a brief summary.

Students read about the experiment for tomorrow's class and create a hypothesis as to its outcome.

Everything in the list represents something students will do to help them learn new information or new skills. We call these activities or assignments. Activities are typically things that are completed during a single lesson. For example, the first element, previewing the chapter on the adverse effects of smoking, would most likely be an activity. It would be done in class in preparation for reading a chapter in the textbook. The last element, about the experiment for tomorrow's class, might also be an activity done in class; however, it could also be an assignment. Typically, assignments are done outside of regular class time, although students may begin assignments during class time. The second element, involving comparing and contrasting the use of technology in World War I and World War II, would most likely be an assignment because it would probably take more than one class period. Frequently, assignments turn into homework. (We address the issue of homework in a subsequent module.)

We have worded the activities and assignments in the list somewhat formally. However, teachers usually record activities and assignments in a shorthand fashion in their planning books. For example, a teacher might simply write "preview chapter" to remind herself that she will have students preview the chapter on the harmful effects of smoking before reading it.

Activity Box

Identify one activity and one assignment you have used with students. Remember that activities are completed in a single class, whereas assignments are not.

Learning goals or objectives state what students should learn over the course of a unit (or a lesson or an entire semester). Consider the following list:

Students will understand key aspects contributing to the outcomes of World War I and World War II.

Students will be able to factor and simplify quadratic equations.

Students will understand plot, theme, conflict, and resolution of the novel.

Students will be able to create a reasonable hypothesis for a simple experiment and compare their hypothesis to the experiment's outcome.

As the list illustrates, learning goals have a very specific format:

Students will understand _____________.

or

Students will be able to ______________.

The format "students will understand ..." is used when information is the target of a learning goal. Technically, information is referred to as declarative knowledge. Declarative knowledge includes information such as vocabulary terms, facts, generalizations, and principles. The following are examples of declarative knowledge:

Incidents leading to the U.S. involvement in World War II

The concept of plot

A specific plot in a specific story

The format "students will be able to ... " is used when a process is the target of a learning goal. Technically, processes are referred to as procedural knowledge. Procedural knowledge includes processes such as skills, heuristics, and strategies, as well as complex processes such as writing. The following are examples of procedural knowledge:

Factoring and simplifying quadratic equations

Creating reasonable hypotheses for simple experiments

Using specific word processing software

For a more detailed discussion of learning goals for declarative and procedural knowledge, see Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives (Marzano & Kendall, 2008).

Occasionally a learning goal will include both declarative and procedural knowledge. In these cases the following format can be used:

Students will understand _________ and be able to __________.

To illustrate, a physical education teacher might design the following learning goal, which includes both declarative and procedural knowledge:

Students will understand the dynamics involved in stretching the hamstring muscle and be able to demonstrate the proper form.

It is important to note that the rules we are presenting regarding how to write objectives can be relaxed after a teacher understands the difference between declarative and procedural knowledge. This is illustrated in the next section of this module and in the next module for Design Question 1.

Distinguishing between learning goals versus activities and assignments as well as writing effective goals are important aspects of effective teaching. Figure 2.1 provides more examples. In the figure, the language arts and the science examples involve learning goals that incorporate both declarative and procedural knowledge. Note that each learning goal is associated with a specific activity or assignment or both. Making sure that learning goals are linked to specific activities and assignments is a critical aspect of the art and science of teaching.

Figure 2.1. Learning Goals and Activities/Assignments

Social Studies

Students will understand ...

How the antebellum period affected the Civil War.

The crucial events of the Civil War.

The immediate and lasting effects of the Civil War on the United States.

Students read Chapter 10 of the biography of Mary Todd Lincoln.

Students will be able to ...

Use an ordered pair to plot a point on a graph and vice versa.

Identify and solve linear equations from looking at a graph.

Students time each other in groups to see who can plot the most points on a graph.

Examples

Elementary Art. This elementary art teacher is working on the concept of perspective with her art students. She wants them to understand two different ways perspective can be established in paintings or photographs. She states her learning goal as follows: Students will understand two approaches to establishing perspective. To help students accomplish this goal, she plans an activity in which students will be shown paintings exemplifying the two types of perspectives that are the focus of the learning goal.

High School Technology. This technology teacher designs a unit devoted to helping students understand the characteristics of Web sites that demonstrate academic rigor. He establishes two learning goals: (1) Students will understand the characteristics of academically rigorous Web sites, and (2) Students will be able to screen Web sites for their academic rigor. He plans a series of initial activities that will exemplify characteristics of academically rigorous Web sites. He also identifies assignments that teach students how to analyze specific Web sites.

Activity Box

Identify a learning goal you have addressed recently. Describe one assignment and one activity that might accompany that goal.

Creating Scales or Rubrics for Learning Goals

While activities and assignments are being deployed in class, students should have opportunities to see their progress through formative assessments. We address how to design formative assessments and track students' progress in Module 3. In this section we consider how to translate learning goals into a scale that can be used to design and score formative classroom assessments. We should note that in the remainder of this handbook we will typically use the term scale as opposed to rubric. For a detailed discussion of why the term scale is preferred, see Classroom Assessment and Grading That Work (Marzano, 2006).

The first step in creating a scale for a learning goal is to identify knowledge that is easier than the learning goal and knowledge that is more complex than the learning goal. To illustrate, consider the following learning goal for reading at the middle school level:

Students will describe complex causal relationships in grade-appropriate passages.

Notice that the format for this learning goal is different from those used previously. Recall that we said that once teachers have become familiar with the distinctions between declarative and procedural knowledge, the rules we've established regarding writing goals can be relaxed. This is particularly true for declarative knowledge, which is the subject of the learning goal above regarding causal relationships in grade appropriate passages. In fact, this goal could have been written in the following way: Students will understand complex causal relationships in grade appropriate passages. However, when writing goals for declarative knowledge it is very helpful to use verbs that specify how students will demonstrate understanding. In this case that verb is describe. Other verbs commonly used when designing goals for declarative knowledge include recognize, select, identify, exemplify, name, list, label, and state. For a comprehensive list of such verbs, see Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives (Marzano & Kendall, 2008) and Designing and Teaching Learning Goals and Objectives (Marzano, 2009). For a thorough discussion of the ways in which learning goals can be written once an understanding of declarative and procedural knowledge has been acquired, see The New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Marzano & Kendall, 2007).

After designing the learning goal, the teacher would identify content that is an aspect of the learning goal but a simpler version of it or a prerequisite for it. In this case the teacher might identify the following content:

Students will identify literary clues that signal a cause-effect relationship.

At this level students can't explain complex cause-effect relationships but can identify terms and phrases within a passage that indicate a cause-effect relationship is present.

Next the teacher would identify content that is a little more complex than the learning goal, such as the following:

Students will explain the relationship between complex causal relationships in one story and those in other stories.

At this level students not only can describe explicit cause-effect relationships in a particular story (i.e., can demonstrate competence in the learning goal), but also can explain how the identified relationship is similar to those in other stories.

Activity Box

Select a learning goal you have used in class. Next, identify easier content that is an aspect of that learning goal or a prerequisite for that learning goal. Finally, identify related content that is more complex than the learning goal.

Learning goal:

Easier or prerequisite content:

More complex content:

With a clear learning goal identified along with content that is more complex and more simple, a scale can be readily designed. To illustrate, consider Figure 2.2. To understand the scale in the figure, let's start with the whole-point scores.

The 0.0 score value is the lowest on the scale; it is assigned to a student who shows no understanding of the content whatsoever, even with help.

The next whole-point step up is a score value of 1.0; it is assigned to a student who shows some knowledge of the simpler and more complex content when given help.

To receive a score of 2.0, a student shows understanding and skills regarding the simpler content but makes major errors or omissions when it comes to the more complex content.

A score of 3.0 is the next step up. It means that a student demonstrates knowledge of all the content (simple and complex) that was explicitly taught.

Finally, a score of 4.0 applies to a student who is able to demonstrate knowledge that goes above and beyond what was explicitly taught in class.

Figure 2.2. Scale for Learning Goals

Copyright © 2007. Marzano & Associates. Reprinted with permission.

This generic scale can be used to translate any learning goal for which simpler and more complex content has been identified and placed into a scale. To illustrate, consider Figure 2.3, which translates the learning goal for identifying complex causal relationships and its simpler and more complex content into a scale. In Figure 2.3 the content for the learning goal regarding comprehension of complex causal relationships has been placed in the Score 3.0 position. The simpler content has been placed in the Score 2.0 position, and the content that is more complex than the learning goal has been placed in the Score 4.0 position. This simple protocol can be used to design a scale for any learning goal in any subject area.

Figure 2.3. Scale for the Learning Goal of Understanding Causal Relationships

In addition to Score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences and applications that go beyond what was taught, such as

Explaining how a complex causal relationship in one story is similar to that in another story.

While engaged in grade-appropriate reading tasks, the student demonstrates an ability to

Describe complex causal relationships (e.g., observing that the plight of Anne Frank in The Diary of Anne Frank is the result of causes ranging from the policies of the Nazis in Amsterdam to the childhood of Adolph Hitler).
The student exhibits no major errors or omissions.

No major errors or omissions regarding the simpler details and processes, such as

Identifying literary clues that indicate complex causal relationships (e.g., recognizing specific words and phrases that signal complex causal relationships).
However, the student exhibits major errors or omissions with Score 3.0 elements.

Copyright © 2007. Marzano & Associates. Reprinted with permission.

Examples

Eighth Grade Science. This 8th grade science teacher is planning a unit on the structure and properties of matter. Her learning goal is for students to understand the characteristics of various elements. She identifies some content that is easier and more difficult than this target information and writes the following scale, which she will present to students.

In addition to Score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences and applications that go beyond what was taught, such as

Describing patterns in the composition, atomic number, melting point, and boiling point of a set of elements.

While engaged in tasks that address the structure and properties of matter, the student demonstrates an understanding of important information, such as

General characteristics (composition, atomic number, melting point, boiling point) of various elements (e.g., explaining general information known about a specific element, such as explaining that the boiling point of nitrogen is 77.36 K [-195.79° C, -320.42° F]).
The student makes no major errors or omissions.

No major errors or omissions regarding the simpler details and processes, such as

Recognizing and recalling specific terminology, such as

conservation of mass,

atomic arrangement, and

thermodynamic system.

Recognizing and recalling isolated details, such as
the atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons, which defines the element.

However, the student exhibits major errors or omissions with Score 3.0 elements.

Copyright © 2007. Marzano & Associates. Reprinted with permission.

Activity Box

Using the form below, design a rubric for a recent goal you have addressed in class by filling in the content for Scores 4.0, 3.0, and 2.0.

Copyright © 2007. Marzano & Associates. Reprinted with permission.

Rewriting Scales in Student-Friendly Language

Learning goals and the scales that go with them are typically written for teachers. Another way of saying this is that they are written in "teacher language." It is highly useful to translate them to "student language." To illustrate, consider Figure 2.4. It contains the scale shown in Figure 2.3, but this time the content for Scores 4.0, 3.0, and 2.0 has been stated in student language. This revision was done via a class discussion in which students and teacher jointly decided how best to rewrite the content for Scores 4.0, 3.0, and 2.0. Also note that specific examples are provided. These examples give students clear illustrations of what is expected of them.

Figure 2.4. Student-Friendly Scale for the Learning Goal of Understanding Causal Relationships

In addition to Score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences and applications that go beyond what was taught, such as

Being able to describe what caused what in one story and explain how it is the same in another story. For the story we read about the landslide that wiped out the town because the people didn't take care of the vegetation on the hills, we would have to show how this is the same as the story about the baseball player who didn't take care of his health and lost his position on the team.

While engaged in grade-appropriate reading tasks, the student demonstrates an ability to

Describe exactly what led to something happening. For example, in the story about the landslide that wiped out the town, we have to start right from the beginning when the townspeople didn't plant any new plants on the hills after the fire, and then explain how the rainy season was much worse than they thought, and keep showing how one thing led to another right up until the disaster.
The student exhibits no major errors or omissions.

No major errors or omissions regarding the simpler details and processes, such as

Being able to describe the parts of a story or the language in a story that lets us know the story is now talking about something making something else happen.
However, the student exhibits major errors or omissions with Score 3.0 elements.

Copyright © 2007. Marzano & Associates. Reprinted with permission.

Examples

Middle School Geography. This 7th grade social studies teacher has designed a scale for a learning goal regarding the difference in human and animal migration. She has students break into small groups and rewrite the Score 4.0, 3.0, and 2.0 elements from the scale. Groups share their responses, and the class as a whole comes up with a student-friendly version of the scale created by the teacher.

Primary Reading. This teacher has presented students with a scale for a learning goal regarding writing a composition with a clear beginning, middle, and end. Using previous compositions students have written, the teacher provides examples of compositions, or "anchor papers," for Scores 4.0, 3.0, and 2.0. These are posted on the board right next to the scale. Students can clearly see what Score 4.0, 3.0, and 2.0 papers look like.

Activity Box

Using the Score 4.0, 3.0, and 2.0 values from the activity box containing the rubric you designed, rewrite the content in a way that would be more student friendly. Remember to provide an example of a response for each Score 4.0, 3.0, and 2.0 value.

Rewritten Score 4.0 content:

Rewritten Score 3.0 content:

Rewritten Score 2.0 content:

Having Students Identify Individual Learning Goals

It's probably safe to assume that students are more engaged in a unit of instruction when they have personal goals regarding the content that is addressed. Consequently, it is beneficial to ask students to articulate personal learning goals. To illustrate, suppose a social studies teacher has set as a goal for a unit of instruction that students will understand the implications of major compromises considered by the delegates during the Constitutional Convention. After presenting this learning goal, the teacher would ask students to identify related goals of their own. One student might set a goal to learn more about specific people who attended the Constitutional Convention. Another student might set a goal to learn more about the place where the Constitutional Convention was held.

Whereas some students might quickly and easily generate personal goals related to the Constitutional Convention, it is probably true that many students would not. In this case a teacher must be willing to provide some concrete guidance. For example, the teacher might explain that the general theme they will be studying is that when something new is being developed, the rules and regulations that are established commonly have a profound effect on what happens in the future. The teacher would then encourage students to identify a personal goal regarding anything that is related to this general theme: What are some things you are interested in right now that have rules and regulations? Who created those rules and regulations?

One student who is interested in figure skating might decide that her personal goal is to learn more about the rules established for competitive figure skating to determine why they were established and how these initial rules have affected the sport over the years. Another student who likes basketball might do the same-learn about why specific rules were first established for basketball and how those rules have affected the sport throughout the decades. A student who is interested in computers might wish to determine how the early thinking about computing machines shaped the development of computers.

While students were learning about the Constitutional Convention, the teacher would continually help them make linkages between their personal learning goals and the overall class goal. To help students state their own learning goals in a precise manner, the following format can be used:

When this unit is completed I will better understand _____________.

or

When this unit is completed I will be able to ___________________.

As is the case with teacher goals, student learning goals should be accompanied by a scale that can be used to track progress. We have found it useful to provide students with a generic scale like that in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5. Generic Scale for Student Goals

4 = I did even better than the goal I set.

3 = I accomplished my goal.

2 = I didn't accomplish everything I wanted to, but I learned quite a bit.

1 = I tried, but I didn't really learn much.

0 = I didn't really try to accomplish my goal.

Copyright © 2007. Marzano & Associates. Reprinted with permission.

Examples

Secondary Physical Education. A high school physical education teacher is addressing personal fitness. After she presents the learning goals for the unit and passes out the scales associated with those goals, she has each student identify a personal learning goal regarding physical fitness.

Elementary Social Studies. An elementary teacher has presented students with a scale for his learning goal regarding understanding the importance and history of the U.S. Constitution. He explains that the general theme they will be studying is how the U.S. Constitution was a document that changed the course of world history. For their personal learning goal, he invites students to learn about other documents or other events that changed the course of history.

Activity Box

Identify a learning goal you have used in a unit of instruction. Describe the directions you might have given students to help them identify personal learning goals that are related to the overall classroom goal.

Checking for Understanding

Use the following rating scale to assess your current understanding and comfort level regarding key strategies and processes presented in this module:

4 = I understand and already fully implement this strategy in my classroom.

3 = I understand this strategy, but I need to practice using it in my classroom.

2 = I can explain this strategy, but I am not fully confident that I can use it.

1 = I do not understand this strategy, and I do not currently use it in my classroom.

___ 1. Clearly articulating learning goals as opposed to activities and assignments
Based on my rating, I may need to revisit the following:
___ 2. Creating scales or rubrics for learning goals
Based on my rating, I may need to revisit the following:
___ 3. Rewriting scales in student-friendly language
Based on my rating, I may need to revisit the following:
___ 4. Having students identify individual learning goals
Based on my rating, I may need to revisit the following:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Module 2: Establishing and Communicating Learning Goals

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
by Robert J. Marzano and John L. Brown This module and the next deal with establishing and communicating learning goals, tracking student progress, and celebrating success. Arguably the starting place for all effective instruction is designing and communicating clear learning goals. Although this might seem self-evident, actually executing this behavior is anything but routine for a number of reasons.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
PBS LearningMedia | Teaching Resources For Students And Teachers

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Inspire your students with thousands of free teaching resources including videos, lesson plans, and games aligned to state and national standards.

# data[].attributes.body
Resource for Specific ELL pedagogy and websites for the classroom

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
PlanbookEdu.com is an online lesson planner that makes it easy for teachers of all grade levels to create, share and print their lesson plans. Other features include attaching files, Common Core Standards and iPad Support.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
ADVERTISEMENT | REMOVE ADS

Your Free Gift

The Ultimate Back-to-School Guide

Teachers are always thinking about their students, but devotion to their progress shouldn't come at the expense of your own. That's why we've created an "Ultimate Back-to-School Guide" for teachers based on our nine future-ready skill domains.

What you can expect from this guide:

Learn 9 ways to become a better teacher by developing a positive mindset.

Links to dozens of free resources curated by our experts to help you both in and outside the classroom.

Clear steps to improve your teaching and general well-being.

Sign up for a premium membership to get your Ultimate Back-to-School Guide absolutely free!
SIGN UP TO CLAIM YOUR FREE GIFT

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
ADVERTISEMENT | REMOVE ADS Your Free Gift The Ultimate Back-to-School Guide Teachers are always thinking about their students, but devotion to their progress shouldn't come at the expense of your own. That's why we've created an "Ultimate Back-to-School Guide" for teachers based on our nine future-ready skill domains.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Cite this guide: Armstrong, P. (2010). Bloom's Taxonomy. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/.

Background Information | The Original Taxonomy | The Revised Taxonomy | Why Use Bloom's Taxonomy? | Further Information

The above graphic is released under a Creative Commons Attribution license. You're free to share, reproduce, or otherwise use it, as long as you attribute it to the Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. For a higher resolution version, visit our Flickr account and look for the "Download this photo" icon.

Background Information

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom with collaborators Max Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter Hill, and David Krathwohl published a framework for categorizing educational goals: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Familiarly known as Bloom's Taxonomy, this framework has been applied by generations of K-12 teachers and college instructors in their teaching.

The framework elaborated by Bloom and his collaborators consisted of six major categories: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. The categories after Knowledge were presented as "skills and abilities," with the understanding that knowledge was the necessary precondition for putting these skills and abilities into practice.

While each category contained subcategories, all lying along a continuum from simple to complex and concrete to abstract, the taxonomy is popularly remembered according to the six main categories.

The Original Taxonomy (1956)

Here are the authors' brief explanations of these main categories in from the appendix of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives ( Handbook One, pp. 201-207):

Knowledge "involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting."

Comprehension "refers to a type of understanding or apprehension such that the individual knows what is being communicated and can make use of the material or idea being communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing its fullest implications."

Application refers to the "use of abstractions in particular and concrete situations."

Analysis represents the "breakdown of a communication into its constituent elements or parts such that the relative hierarchy of ideas is made clear and/or the relations between ideas expressed are made explicit."

Synthesis involves the "putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole."

Evaluation engenders "judgments about the value of material and methods for given purposes."

The 1984 edition of Handbook One is available in the CFT Library in Calhoun 116. See its ACORN record for call number and availability.

Barbara Gross Davis, in the "Asking Questions" chapter of Tools for Teaching, also provides examples of questions corresponding to the six categories. This chapter is not available in the online version of the book, but Tools for Teaching is available in the CFT Library. See its ACORN record for call number and availability.

The Revised Taxonomy (2001)

A group of cognitive psychologists, curriculum theorists and instructional researchers, and testing and assessment specialists published in 2001 a revision of Bloom's Taxonomy with the title A Taxonomy for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment. This title draws attention away from the somewhat static notion of "educational objectives" (in Bloom's original title) and points to a more dynamic conception of classification.

The authors of the revised taxonomy underscore this dynamism, using verbs and gerunds to label their categories and subcategories (rather than the nouns of the original taxonomy). These "action words" describe the cognitive processes by which thinkers encounter and work with knowledge:

Remember

Understand

Interpreting

Exemplifying

Classifying

Summarizing

Inferring

Comparing

Explaining

Apply

Analyze

Differentiating

Organizing

Attributing

Evaluate

Create

In the revised taxonomy, knowledge is at the basis of these six cognitive processes, but its authors created a separate taxonomy of the types of knowledge used in cognition:

Factual Knowledge

Knowledge of terminology

Knowledge of specific details and elements

Conceptual Knowledge

Knowledge of classifications and categories

Knowledge of principles and generalizations

Knowledge of theories, models, and structures

Procedural Knowledge

Knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms

Knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods

Knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate procedures

Metacognitive Knowledge

Strategic Knowledge

Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge

Self-knowledge

Mary Forehand from the University of Georgia provides a guide to the revised version giving a brief summary of the revised taxonomy and a helpful table of the six cognitive processes and four types of knowledge.

Why Use Bloom's Taxonomy?

The authors of the revised taxonomy suggest a multi-layered answer to this question, to which the author of this teaching guide has added some clarifying points:

1. Objectives (learning goals) are important to establish in a pedagogical interchange so that teachers and students alike understand the purpose of that interchange.

2. Organizing objectives helps to clarify objectives for themselves and for students.

3. Having an organized set of objectives helps teachers to:

"plan and deliver appropriate instruction";

"design valid assessment tasks and strategies";and

"ensure that instruction and assessment are aligned with the objectives."

Citations are from A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.

Further Information

Section III of A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, entitled "The Taxonomy in Use," provides over 150 pages of examples of applications of the taxonomy. Although these examples are from the K-12 setting, they are easily adaptable to the university setting.

Section IV, "The Taxonomy in Perspective," provides information about 19 alternative frameworks to Bloom's Taxonomy, and discusses the relationship of these alternative frameworks to the revised Bloom's Taxonomy.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
by Patricia Armstrong Print Version Cite this guide: Armstrong, P. (2010). Bloom's Taxonomy. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/. Background Information | The Original Taxonomy | The Revised Taxonomy | Why Use Bloom's Taxonomy? | Further Information The above graphic is released under a Creative Commons Attribution license.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Educational standards describe what students should know and be able to do in each subject in each grade. In California, the State Board of Education decides on the standards for all students, from kindergarten through high school.

Since 2010, a number of states across the nation have adopted the same standards for English and math. These standards are called the Common Core State Standards (CCSS). Having the same standards helps all students get a good education, even if they change schools or move to a different state. Teachers, parents, and education experts designed the standards to prepare students for success in college and the workplace.

The California Department of Education helps schools make sure that all students are meeting the standards. Below you will find information about the standards and the CCSS-related activities taking place in California.

California Common Core State Standards

Current Standards

Search the California Content Standards
This application contains the 12 California content standards. The application is designed so educators can quickly find, search, and sort relevant standards across disciplines to aid in instructional planning and assessment. This is a web view of our available mobile application, which we encourage you to download. You can find more information about the mobile application on the CA Standards Mobile Application web page.

Resources

Common Core Search
Common Core Search is a collection of resources to support implementation of the CCSS. Resources organized by audience are available in the tab sections below.

Parent/Guardian Overview Brochures (Jan-2016)
These brochures explain the CCSS to pa​rents/guardians, providing insights into what students will learn and highlighting progression through the grade levels.

English Language Arts/Literacy (ELA):

Mathematics:

Achieve the Core
Free, high-quality resources compiled by Student Achievement Partners, writers of the CCSS, for educators implementing the CCSS, including professional learning modules, handouts, presentations, sample lessons, lesson videos, and much more.
Instructional Practice Guide
This guide includes coaching and lesson planning tools to help teachers and those who support teachers to make the key shifts in instructional practice required by the CCSS.

Achieve the Core
Free, high-quality resources compiled by Student Achievement Partners, writers of the CCSS, for educators implementing the CCSS, including professional learning modules, handouts, presentations, sample lessons, lesson videos, and much more.

Instructional Leadership and the CCSS Module
This is a 1.5 hour module designed to guide the school-level instructional leader in beginning the work of understanding and implementing the CCSS.

Instructional Practice Guide
This guide includes coaching and lesson planning tools to help teachers and those who support teachers to make the key shifts in instructional practice required by the CCSS.

PACE/CCSESA Regional Leadership Sessions on CCSS Implementation
Policy Analysis for California Education (PACE) and the California County Superintendents Educational Services Association (CCSESA) sponsored regional leadership sessions to highlight a variety of strategies, tools, and resources, including local examples and strategic advice on key issues, to support the successful implementation of the CCSS. On this Web site you can find videos of session presentations and related tools and resources.

Achieve Publications
Achieve publishes national and state reports as well as policy briefs, surveys, and white papers that focus on preparing all students for college and careers. All of these publications are available to the public for free in PDF format.

Parent/Guardian Overview Brochures (Jan-2016)
These brochures explain the CCSS to pa​rents/guardians, providing insights into what students will learn and highlighting progression through the grade levels.

English Language Arts/Literacy (ELA):

Mathematics:

K-8 California's Common Core Standards Parent Handbook
This handbook, created by the California County Superintendents Educational Services Association (CCSESA) in consultation with the California State Parent Teacher Association (PTA), gives parents an introduction to California's CCSS and a summary of what students are expected to learn as they advance from kindergarten through grade eight. This document has been translated into 17 languages. The handbook and translations may be found on theCCSESA Common Core Standards Communication Tools Web page under the General Overview Materials section.

California PTA Common Core Web Page
The California State PTA has made available many resources for parents to learn more about the CCSS and support their child's achievement of the standards. Resources include informational fliers, frequently asked questions, grade level parents' guides, links to additional resources, and articles of interest. The fliers and parents' guides are available in English, Spanish, Arabic, Chinese, Tagalog, and Vietnamese.
National PTA Assessment Resources
The National PTA has released a fact sheet on assessments to provide parents with information about what he assessments should do and what they are trying to accomplish. It has also made available videos about the assessments and test scores.

Council of Great City Schools Parent Roadmaps
The Council of Great City Schools has developed parent roadmaps for understanding the English language arts (ELA) and mathematics CCSS in kindergarten through eighth grade. For each grade and subject, the roadmaps explain to parents what children will be learning and how parents can support learning outside of the classroom.

Questions: Curriculum Frameworks and Instructional Resources Division | cfird@cde.ca.gov | 916-319-0881

Last Reviewed: Wednesday, July 19, 2023

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Information and resources about the new academic content standards for English language arts and mathematics adopted by the State Board of Education on August 2, 2010.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Raindrop.io — All in One Bookmark Manager

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
For your inspiration, read later, media and stuff

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Login or sign up for free on Socrative - your assessment partner for real-time assessments and instant insights.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Kahoot! | Learning games | Make learning awesome!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kahoot! is a game-based learning platform that brings engagement and fun to 1+ billion players every year at school, at work, and at home.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
BY ABBY MADDALENA In school, I learn best when working: (delete answers that don't fit) Alone With one other person In a small group As a whole class Why? What helps you learn? (For example, a hands-on activity, reading, taking notes, or reading out loud.) Think of a great teacher you've had.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
CCSS Mathematics Resources - Common Core State Standards (CA Dept of Education)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Resources to support the teaching of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) for mathematics.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
CalTPA is offered in the following credential areas*:

and the following Single Subjects:

Industrial and Technology Education

Mathematics

Music

Physical Education

Science

Social Science

Performance assessment consisting of two instructional cycles:

Instructional Cycle 1: Learning About Students and Planning Instruction

Instructional Cycle 2: Assessment-Driven Instruction

*Translations are NOT required for the following:

concurrent Bilingual Authorization candidates who are in a placement where a language other than English is exclusively used for instruction, or who are in a placement where both English and another language are used for instruction
NOTE: Analysis and reflection narratives must be primarily in English

candidates registered for the World Languages assessment

candidates using American Sign Language (ASL) in a classroom setting with students who are deaf or hard of hearing

For all other candidates who are not in a Bilingual Authorization placement, any evidence in a language other than English must be accompanied by a translation.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
CalTPA is offered in the following credential areas*: and the following Single Subjects: Industrial and Technology Education Mathematics Music Physical Education Science Social Science Performance assessment consisting of two instructional cycles: Instructional Cycle 1: Learning About Students and Planning Instruction Instructional Cycle 2: Assessment-Driven Instruction *Translations are NOT required for

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What is Bloom's Taxonomy

Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of the different outcomes and skills that educators set for their students (learning outcomes). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago. The terminology has been recently updated to include the following six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning outcomes, lessons, and assessments of your course. :

1. Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐term memory.

2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.

3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure for executing, or implementing.

4. Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing.

5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.

6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.

Like other taxonomies, Bloom's is hierarchical, meaning that learning at the higher levels is dependent on having attained prerequisite knowledge and skills at lower levels. You will see Bloom's Taxonomy often displayed as a pyramid graphic to help demonstrate this hierarchy. We have updated this pyramid into a "cake-style" hierarchy to emphasize that each level is built on a foundation of the previous levels.

You may use this graphic for educational or non-profit use if you include a credit for Jessica Shabatura and citation back to this website.
How Bloom's can aid in course design

Bloom's taxonomy is a powerful tool to help develop learning outcomes because it explains the process of learning:

Before you can understand a concept, you must remember it.

To apply a concept you must first understand it.

In order to evaluate a process, you must have analyzed it.

To create an accurate conclusion, you must have completed a thorough evaluation.

However, we don't always start with lower order skills and step all the way through the entire taxonomy for each concept you present in your course. That approach would become tedious-for both you and your students! Instead, start by considering the level of learners in your course:

1. Are lots of your students freshman? Is this an "Introduction to..." course? If so, many your learning outcomes may target the lower order Bloom's skills, because your students are building foundational knowledge. However, even in this situation we would strive to move a few of your outcomes into the applying and analyzing level, but getting too far up in the taxonomy could create frustration and unachievable goals.

2. Are most of your students juniors and seniors? Graduate students? Do your students have a solid foundation in much of the terminology and processes you will be working on your course? If so, then you should not have many remembering and understanding level outcomes. You may need a few, for any radically new concepts specific to your course. However, these advanced students should be able to master higher-order learning objectives. Too many lower level outcomes might cause boredom or apathy.

How Bloom's works with learning outcomes

Fortunately, there are "verb tables" to help identify which action verbs align with each level in Bloom's Taxonomy.

You may notice that some of these verbs on the table are associated with multiple Bloom's Taxonomy levels. These "multilevel-verbs" are actions that could apply to different activities. For example, you could have an outcome that states "At the end of this lesson, students will be able to explain the difference between H2O and OH-." This would be an understanding level outcome. However, if you wanted the students to be able to "... explain the shift in the chemical structure of water throughout its various phases." This would be an analyzing level verb.

Adding to this confusion, you can locate Bloom's verb charts that will list verbs at levels different from what we list below. Just keep in mind that it is the skill, action or activity you will teach using that verb that determines the Bloom's Taxonomy level.

Bloom's Level

Key Verbs (keywords)

Example Learning Outcome

Evaluate
choose, support, relate, determine, defend, judge, grade, compare, contrast, argue, justify, support, convince, select, evaluate.

By the end of this lesson, the student will be able to determine whether using conservation of energy or conservation of momentum would be more appropriate for solving a dynamics problem.

Learning outcome examples adapted from, Nelson Baker at Georgia Tech: nelson.baker@pe.gatech.edu
How Bloom's works with Quality Matters

For a course to meet the Quality Matters standards it must have learning outcomes that are measurable. Using a verb table like the one above will help you avoid verbs that cannot be quantified, like: understand, learn, appreciate, or enjoy. Quality Matters also requires that your course assessments (activities, projects, and exams) align with your learning outcomes. For example, if your learning outcome has an application level verb, such as "present", then you cannot demonstrate that your students have mastered that learning outcome by simply having a multiple choice quiz.

Course level and lesson level outcomes

The biggest difference between course and lesson level outcomes is that we don't directly assess course level outcomes. Course level outcomes are just too broad. Instead, we use several lesson level outcomes to demonstrate mastery of one course level outcome. To create good course level outcomes, we need to ask ourselves: "what do I want the students to have mastery of at the end of the course?" Then, after we finalize our course level outcomes, we have to make sure that mastery of all of the lesson level outcomes underneath confirm that a student has mastery of the course level outcome-in other words, if your students can prove (through assessment) that they can do each and every one of the lesson level outcomes in that section, then you as an instructor agree they have mastery of the course level outcome.

How Bloom's works with course level and lesson level outcomes:

Course level outcomes are broad. You may only have 3-5 course level outcomes. They would be difficult to measure directly because they overarch the topics of your entire course.

Lesson level outcomes are what we use to demonstrate that a student has mastery of the course level outcomes. We do this by building lesson level outcomes that build toward the course level outcome. For example, a student might need to demonstrate mastery of 8 lesson level outcomes in order to demonstrate mastery of one course level outcome.

Because the lesson level outcomes directly support the course level outcomes, they need to build up the Bloom's taxonomy to help your students reach mastery of the course level outcomes. Use Bloom's Taxonomy to make sure that the verbs you choose for your lesson level outcomes build up to the level of the verb that is in the course level outcome. The lesson level verbs can be below or equal to the course level verb, but they CANNOT be higher in level. For example, your course level verb might be an Applying level verb, "illustrate." Your lesson level verbs can be from any Bloom's level that is equal or below this level (applying, understanding, or remembering).

Steps towards writing effective learning outcomes:

1. Make sure there is one measurable verb in each objective.

2. Each outcome needs one verb. Either a student can master the outcome , or they fail to master it. If an outcome has two verbs (say, define and apply), what happens if a student can define, but not apply? Are they demonstrating mastery?

3. Ensure that the verbs in the course level outcome are at least at the highest Bloom's Taxonomy as the highest lesson level outcomes that support it. (Because we can't verify they can evaluate if our lessons only taught them (and assessed) to define.)

4. Strive to keep all your learning outcomes measurable, clear and concise.

When you are ready to write, it can be helpful to list the level of Bloom's next to the verb you choose in parentheses. For example:

Course level outcome 1. (apply) Demonstrate how transportation is a critical link in the supply chain.

1.1. (understand) Discuss the changing global landscape for businesses and other organizations that are driving change in the global environment.

1.2. (apply) Demonstrate the special nature of transportation demand and the influence of transportation on companies and their supply chains operating in a global economy.

This trick will help you quickly see what level verbs you have. It will also let you check that the course level outcome is at least as high of a Bloom's level as any of the lesson level outcomes underneath.

Before you begin constructing your outcomes:

Please read our Learning Outcome : Before and After Examples page.

Additional External Resources:

For a longer list of Bloom's Verbs - TIPS tip: You can also use the "find" function (press: Ctrl-f or command-f on a mac) in your browser to locate specific verbs on this list.

To see how Bloom's can be applied specifically to distance education: Digital Approaches to Bloom's Taxonomy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Using Bloom's Taxonomy to Write Effective Learning Outcomes

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of the different outcomes and skills that educators set for their students (learning outcomes). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago. The terminology has been recently updated to include the following six levels of learning.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Program Overview

The English Language Proficiency Assessments for California (ELPAC) is the required state test for English language proficiency (ELP) that must be given to students whose primary language is a language other than English. State and federal law require that local educational agencies administer a state test of ELP to eligible students in kindergarten through grade twelve. The California Department of Education (CDE) transitioned from the California English Language Development Test (CELDT) to the ELPAC as the state ELP assessment in 2018. The ELPAC is aligned with the 2012 California English Language Development Standards. It consists of two separate ELP assessments: one for the initial identification of students as English learners (ELs), and a second for the annual summative assessment to measure a student's progress in learning English and to identify the student's level of ELP.

The following links provide additional information about the program:

ELPAC - CalEdFacts web page provides a more detailed overview of the test.

California Assessment Timeline (PDF) presents the assessment administration timeline for the 2020-21, 2021-22, and 2022-23 school years.

Assessment System Chart (PDF) lists the tests of the 2020-21 California assessment system by subject content, test name, test type, student participant groups, grade levels, and testing window timeframe.

Assessment Spotlight web page contains archives of all previous Assessment Spotlight emails. Send a blank email to subscribe-caaspp@mlist.cde.ca.gov to receive regular updates on the latest information about the statewide assessment system.

Assessments

Resources and Communication Materials
2020-21 ELPAC Information Guide (PDF) Talking to Parents About the ELPAC (PPTX; 3MB) Charla con los padres acerca de las ELPAC (PPTX; 15MB) ELPAC Resources for Parents Quick Reference Guides ELPAC Overview Video: English (Video; 16:06) Video en español de reseña de las ELPAC (Video; 18:28) Available ELPAC Resources flyer (PDF) Practice test flyer (PDF) Talking to Educators About the ELPAC (PPTX; 13MB) 2020-2021 COVID-19 Guidance for Reclassification (PDF)
English-Spanish Education and Assessment Glossary
Translation glossary for assessment-related communications prepared by the CDE.

Accessibility Resources
ELPAC Accessibility Resources Video (Video; 17:58)
California Assessment Assessibility Resources Matrix
The matrix displays the embedded and non-embedded universal tools, designated supports, and accommodations (UDAs) allowed as part of the CAASPP and ELPAC for 2020-21. Also used in conjunction with the English Language Proficiency Assessments for California Accessibility for Operational Testing (DOCX) .
ELPAC Administration Student Accessibility Checklist (PDF) ELPAC Administration Guidance and Governing Definitions for Student Accessibility Discussions (PDF)
Test Administration
ELPAC Administration Research Files Test Administration Coordination website
Scores and Results Reporting
ELPAC Results website
Starting Smarter
Now families have a new website for resources to support their child's learning. The Starting Smarter website includes information on student score reports, sample test questions, parent-teacher conferences, and other no-cost resources in English and Spanish.

Technical Documents

Questions: English Language Proficiency and Spanish Assessments Office | elpac@cde.ca.gov | 916-319-0784

Last Reviewed: Wednesday, October 21, 2020

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
English Language Proficiency Assessments for California (ELPAC)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The English Language Proficiency Assessments for California (ELPAC) is the required state test for English language proficiency (ELP) that must be given to students whose primary language is a language other than English. State and federal law require that local educational agencies administer a state test of ELP to eligible students in kindergarten through grade twelve.

# data[].attributes.body
pdf doc.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Let’s teach for mastery -- not test scores

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Would you choose to build a house on top of an unfinished foundation? Of course not. Why, then, do we rush students through education when they haven’t always grasped the basics? Yes, it’s complicated, but educator Sal Khan shares his plan to turn struggling students into scholars by helping them master concepts at their own pace.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Get a daily email featuring the latest talk, plus a quick mix of trending content.

By subscribing, you understand and agree that we will store, process and manage your personal information according to our Privacy Policy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Sir Ken Robinson: Do schools kill creativity?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sir Ken Robinson makes an entertaining and profoundly moving case for creating an education system that nurtures (rather than undermines) creativity.

# data[].attributes.body
Ways to engage higher order thinking

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
One of the main 21 st century components that teachers want their students to use are higher-order thinking skills. This is when students use complex ways to think about what they are learning.

Higher-order thinking takes thinking to a whole new level. Students using it are understanding higher levels rather than just memorizing math facts. They would have to understand the facts, infer them, and connect them to other concepts.

Here are 10 teaching strategies to enhance higher-order thinking skills in your students.

1. Teaching Strategies to Help Determine What Higher-Order Thinking is

Help students understand what higher-order thinking is. Explain to them what it is and why they need it. Help them understand their own strengths and challenges. You can do this by showing them how they can ask themselves good questions. That leads us to the next strategy.

2. Encourage Questioning

A classroom where students feel free to ask questions without any negative reactions from their peers or their teachers is a classroom where students feel free to be creative. Encourage students to ask questions, and if for some reason you can't get to their question during class time, then show them how they can answer it themselves, or have them save the question until the following day.

3. Connect Concepts

Lead students through the process of how to connect one concept to another. By doing this you are teaching them to connect what they already know with what they are learning. This level of thinking will help students learn to make connections whenever it is possible, which will help them gain even more understanding. For example, let's say that the concept they are learning is "Chinese New Year." An even broader concept would be "Holidays," and if you take it one step further it can be "Celebrations." Each small concept can be connected to a bigger, broader concept.

4. Teach Students to Infer

Teach students to make inferences by giving them "Real-world" examples. You can start by giving students a picture of a people standing in line at a soup kitchen. Ask them to look at the picture and focus on the details. Then, ask them to make inferences based on what they see in the picture. Another way to teach young students about how to infer is to teach an easy concept like weather. Ask students to put on their raincoat and boots, then ask them to infer what they think the weather looks like outside.

5. Use Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers provide students with a nice way to frame their thoughts in an organized manner. By drawing diagrams or mind maps, students are able to better connect concepts and see their relationships. This will help students develop a habit of connecting concepts.

6. Teach Problem-Solving Strategies

Teach students to use a step-by-step method for solving problems. This way of higher order thinking will help them solve problems faster and easier. Encourage students to use alternative methods to solve problems as well as offer them different problem-solving methods.

7. Encourage Creative Thinking

Creative thinking is when students invent, imagine, and design what they are thinking. Using your creative senses help students process and understand information better. Research shows that when students utilize creative higher order thinking skills, it indeed increases their understanding. Encourage students to think "Outside of the box."

8. Use Mind Movies

When concepts that are being learned are hard, encourage students to create a movie in their mind. Teach them to close their eyes and picture it like a movie playing. This way of higher order thinking will truly help them understand in a powerful, unique way.

9. Teach Students to Elaborate Their Answers

Higher-order thinking requires students to really understand a concept not repeat it or memorize it. Encourage students to elaborate their answers and talk about what they are learning. Ask parents to reinforce this at home, as well by asking the right questions that make students explain their answers in more detail, or to answer their child's question with a more detailed response.

10. Teach QARs

Question-Answer-Relationships, or QARs, teach students to label the type of question that is being asked, then use that information to help them formulate an answer. Students must decipher if the answer can be found in a text or on the Internet, or if they must rely on their own prior knowledge to answer it. This strategy has been found to be effective for higher-order thinking because students become more aware of the relationship between the information in a text and their prior knowledge, which helps them decipher which strategy to use when they need to seek an answer.
How do you enhance higher order thinking skills in your classroom? Do you have any tips that you would like to share? Please feel free to leave a comment in the section below, we would love to hear your thoughts on this topic. Janelle Cox is an education writer who uses her experience and knowledge to provide creative and original writing in the field of education. Janelle holds a Master's of Science in Education from the State University of New York College at Buffalo. She is also the Elementary Education Expert for About.com, as well as a contributing writer to TeachHUB.com and TeachHUB Magazine. You can follow her at Twitter @Empoweringk6ed, or on Facebook at Empowering K6 Educators.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teaching Strategies that Enhance Higher-Order Thinking

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
One of the main 21 st century components that teachers want their students to use are higher-order thinking skills. This is when students use complex ways to think about what they are learning. Higher-order thinking takes thinking to a whole new level. Students using it are understanding higher levels rather than just memorizing math facts.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Wish you understood your students better? Here's twenty questions that will help you get to know them.

We all know how important strong relationships are to successful teaching. But in order to build strong relationships, we need to understand how our students thinkand why they make the choices that they do.

Often we think we know what student's going on in our students' heads, but we could be way off. And when we're off, students can tell. They bemoan that we don't get them (because, let's be honest, we don't!), and any advice we give tends to fall flat.

We get frustrated. Our students get frustrated. And it all becomes a big mess.

So how do we remedy this? By actively seeking to understand our students. By getting to know not just their school persona but who they really are. This includes their background and home life, but possibly more importantly, their innermost thoughts and feelings that include their hopes, dreams, fears, and anxieties.

Because when we start to understand what drives them, we begin to appreciate them as a unique individual, and our relationships blossom.

And when challenges arise, we can talk about the real issues and address their true thoughts, motivations, and fears, rather than the ones we thought they had.

hOW TO GET TO KNOW YOUR STUDENTS

So we're back to the question of how. How do we get to know our students' innermost thoughts and feelings? Things they might not even quite be able to put into words themselves.

As we discuss in Beyond Classroom Management, the key is to be intentional. Look for opportunities to observe, notice, and ask good questions. And always be seeking to understand how your students think, what motivates them, what frustrates them, what they're worried about, etc.

But while observing and casual conversations are important, they're also easy to forget about in the busyness of the day. That's why a more intentional approach can be immensely helpful.

And that intentional approach could be writing.

`Now, no, I don't care if you teach math. Student writing can enrich both your classroom and curriculum, no matter what you teach.

I share some of my favorite ways to incorporate writing here, but one of the easiest forms is exit slips. Rather than wasting the last couple minutes of class, have your students answer a quick question and turn it in on their way out.

These exit slips can often include academic questions like "tell me one thing you learned today" or "what's one thing you're still wondering about today's topic?" But you can also intersperse questions that help you better understand how your students think. Questions like these....

WRITING PROMPTS TO HELP YOU BETTER UNDERSTAND YOUR STUDENTS

1. What's one thing you wish you could change about this class? Why?

2. Describe one thing that makes you feel a sense of accomplishment. Explain why.

3. What was your first impression of this class?

4. What's your least favorite part of school? Why?

5. Share a favorite memory you made with a family member.

6. What's one thing you wish I knew about you?

7. What's your biggest dream in life?

8. What's one thing you wish you could change about our school? Why?

9. What's one thing that you worry about?

10. What's the best book you've ever read? Why did you like it?

11. What's your family's religious background? Does it match your personal beliefs?

12. If you could pick one person (dead or alive) to have lunch with, who would it be? Why?

13. Describe your relationship with your parents/guardians.

14. Describe a lesson you learned when you faced something difficult.

15. What's one thing that makes you feel happy?

16. Describe something that annoys you.

17. Who is someone you consider a hero in your life? Why?

18. If you could live anywhere, where would you live? Why?

19. Who is someone you consider a friend? What do you like most about him/her?

20. Describe one of your favorite [insert holiday] traditions.

BONUS: The Student Opinion section of The New York Times' website offers thought-provoking prompts based on current articles. Some of them are pretty great! Check back regularly for current topics here: ​ www.nytimes.com/column/learning-student-opinion

And if you'd like to discover more strategies for how to connect with your students and build stronger relationships consider joining us in Beyond Classroom Management. In this course, you'll learn strategies to help you create a classroom culture where, rather than constantly butting heads, you and your students actually work together to accomplish amazing things. Click here for more details about our Beyond Classroom Management course.

spread the word!

Did you find this post helpful? Clue in your fellow teachers by sharing the post directly (just copy the URL) or by clicking one of the buttons to automatically share on social media.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
20 Questions to Help You Get to Know Your Students

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Wish you understood your students better? Here's twenty questions that will help you get to know them. Subscribe to the Teach 4 ﻿the﻿ Heart Podcast. We all know how important strong relationships are to successful teaching. But in order to build strong relationships, we need to understand how our students think and why they make [...]

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MRZWjCaXtQo

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Copyright © Understood for All, Inc.

Understood is a tax-exempt 501(c)(3) charitable organization (tax identification number 83-2365235). Donations are tax-deductible as allowed by law. Understood does not provide medical or other professional advice. The health and medical related resources on this website are provided solely for informational and educational purposes and are not a substitute for a professional diagnosis or for medical or professional advice.

Use of this website is subject to our Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.

Copyright © 2014-2023 Understood For All Inc.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Explore topics about ADHD, dyslexia, and learning disabilities. Learn about focus, hyperactivity, executive function skills, and trouble with reading, writing, and math.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Social-emotional learning has taken on a new level of importance as schools and districts adapt to meet the increasingly complex needs of students. SEL informs how educators approach culture, climate, management and discipline, and how they deliver the supports needed across schools and districts. There are many aspects to creating a robust system of supports that ensures schools and programs in the district not only speak the same language, but also have a shared understanding of resources and expectations for success.

The community contributes

A year ago, our district partnered with the South Carolina Department of Mental Health to train staff on trauma-informed practices. Small teams of educators from seven schools learned to better understand the impact that adverse childhood experiences have on students. We now recognize the impact that trauma and certain disciplinary actions have on students' decision-making.
This training now includes all 52 schools in the district. School-based teams have served as leads in providing hands-on support for their colleagues.

Another partnership in the tiered support system is telehealth services for parents and students in a rural area of the district. In the district's urban center, the United Way provides health services, job training and related assistance to families to help boost student attendance and academic success.

Each school has created a mentoring or support program for students who may need additional interactions with positive, caring adults. One of the most important resources for assisting schools with this work is the partnership with community and state agencies, as some issues can be greater than districts and schools alone can handle.

We recognize the impact of trauma not only in students' decision-making and actions, but also the impact certain disciplinary actions may have.

New views on behavior

As a district with a poverty index over 74 percent, we needed to equip all of our certified staff with classroom strategies to cope with the neurological impacts of poverty and the associated trauma. Administrators and teachers now understand the science behind certain student behaviors, and how educators can create a healthier social landscape.

Over the past two years, the district has aligned programming and other activities in a tiered and strategic approach to SEL. School communities are different, but their ultimate goals are engaging students and staff, maintaining a positive school climate with high expectations, and ensuring that students know that caring adults work in every building.

That said, we had to look systemically at the approach to certain aspects of SEL. We revised the student code of conduct so that level 1 offenses (minor infractions) now lead to activities such as mediation, community service and restorative justice, as well as training and information sessions for parents. At the elementary and secondary levels, schools now have the ability to tailor level 1 interventions to meet the needs and circumstances of the student.

A big difference

We are in the early stages of aligning the many steps and activities required to be a trauma-informed district, as it relates to meeting the social-emotional needs of our students. Trauma-informed practices are an important tool embedded in our SEL activities and our tiered support mode of operation. We find that these activities and training make a big difference as we strive to improve outcomes, options and opportunities for all students in the district.

Craig Witherspoon is the superintendent of Richland County School District One in Columbia, South Carolina.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
DA Op-Ed: SEL takes center stage | District Administration

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Social-emotional learning has taken on a new level of importance as schools and districts adapt to meet the increasingly complex needs of students. SEL informs how educators approach culture, climate, management and discipline, and how they deliver the supports needed across schools and districts.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A question popped up in one of my classes last week about cultural accommodation: "Dr. L, how much should we acknowledge or accommodate our students' cultures in our classroom or school? How do ELLs learn to function in the new culture if they're constantly living in the old one?"

This must be on the minds of many teachers, because I came across two different studies via Education Week: one about how prior school experience is one of the largest predictors of the success that refugees will (or will not) encounter in a school setting, and the other about how important it is that teachers adapt to the culture of their newcomer students. Fellow TESOL blogger Nathan Hall also provided some ideas for helping ELL students acculturate to a new context, as well. While not every ELL is a refugee or a newcomer, both of these studies and Nathan's blog support the answer that I gave in class, which supported the necessity of including culture in the language classroom for both students and teachers. For TESOL teacher educators, though, I think there is one more step that teachers should take, and that is to go so far as to integrate students' culture and background knowledge into your instruction to be more effective.

In one approach to culturally-inclusive education, González, Moll, and Amanti (2013) stress the importance of using students' , which are created by the out-of-school life experiences that students have. For example, it may be tough for a beginning ELL to express his knowledge of fractions, but he may be well-versed in portions and ratios as he helps his parents cook. Thus, it isn't that he doesn't understand fractions; he might not understand them as presented in a book, but is well aware of the concept in real-life. A math teacher who is aware of this would try to incorporate more of the familiar context to support the classroom learning.

It seems the more we know about the role of students' funds of knowledge, the more important they seem to be. Even if you are working with English learners in a foreign language, rather than a second language environment, drawing upon your learners' life and cultural experiences as they learn language can strongly impact their language learning. In addition, if you're a teacher trainer or teacher educator, teachers' life experiences and beliefs should also be taken into account, as Johnson (2006) put forth in her discussion of the sociocultural turn in L2 teacher education. Teachers who are learning how to teach in a preservice university setting, as well as in-service teachers with their own career experiences, have their own funds of knowledge that effective teacher educators will account for as they facilitate coursework, professional development, and reflection.

Some practical ways of beginning to learn more about your students' cultures and funds of knowledge, in addition to web-based research, are:

conduct home visits;

have students create photo essays of a typical day or weekend in their home/family life;

have students create a collage of hobbies/pastimes;

interview your students/students' families;

invite guest speakers from various linguistic communities to share traditions, celebrations, or slices of daily life;

attend public events in your students' communities;

host an event at your school where students and families can contribute food and/or music; and

advertise events from your cultural community that students/families might enjoy.

Then, don't stop there-challenge yourself or the teachers that you work with to take that cultural knowledge and integrate it into teaching via texts and activities that place language and content in contexts that tap into those valuable funds of knowledge.

Feel free to add ways that you've integrated funds of knowledge into your language teaching in the comments below!
Reference
González, N., Moll, L. C., & Amanti, C. (Eds.). (2013). Funds of knowledge: Theorizing practices in households, communities, and classrooms. Routledge.

Johnson, K. E. (2006). The sociocultural turn and its challenges for second language teacher education. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 235-257.

About Kristen Lindahl

Kristen Lindahl holds a PhD in linguistics with a specialization in L2 teacher education from the University of Utah. She is currently assistant professor of bicultural-bilingual studies at the University of Texas at San Antonio, where she teaches pre-service ESL/TESOL educators at the undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral levels. Dr. Lindahl has taught K-12 and college ESL, and actively pursues consulting and coaching teachers of English learners in public and English language schools around the globe.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A question popped up in one of my classes last week about cultural accommodation: "Dr. L, how much should we acknowledge or accommodate our students' cultures in our classroom or school? How do ELLs learn to function in the new culture if they're constantly living in the old one?"

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Please [contact us](https://www.ted.com/contact) and let us know what happened.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
"Wixie is a great tool for my students to showcase their learning by creating original digital projects, which can be easily shared with their teacher, classmates, and family members. It is a unique program that allows students to access all 4 C's, is highly engaging, and most of all FUN! My students cannot wait to log in to Wixie and ask about it all the time!"

Dr. Monica Winkler
Buffalo Trail Elementary, CO

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Wixie is a creative platform for powerful teaching and learning in the cloud.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
By Barbara Blackburn
Although our assessment of students is critical to learning, we also want students to learn to assess themselves. Encouraging students to take measures of their own learning is more rigorous than the teacher providing all the assessment.

As always, with greater rigor comes plenty of support. We can't expect students to immediately grasp what it means to gauge their own academic progress.

Let's look at four strategies that allow students to provide a brief snapshot of their learning, then three that are more detailed.
First, you may want to have students assess simply where they are in the learning process. Although these provide a brief look, you could ask students to expand on their responses.

Triangle Reflection

Melinda Crean, author of Top Notch Teaching, shares a way to have students reflect on where they are in the process of learning. Using triangles, she asks students to choose their level of learning.

Musical Notes/Color Clusters

Carolyn Chapman and Rita King in their book Differentiated Assessment Strategies: One Tool Doesn't Fit All provide two ways for students to share how well they understand the content. Both require students to think about their own learning and identify their progress. In musical notes, students use songs to identify their learning stage.

Similarly, in color clusters, students label their learning progress through a series of colors.

Laundry Day

Similarly, in Laundry Day, students group themselves in four categories derived from detergent brands. With the groupings you can then determine how much re-teaching needs to occur.

You also may want to ask students to provide detail on their thinking, rather than simply gauging their progress.

A Bump in the Road

With A Bump in the Road, students reflect of their learning and identify two to four points where they hit bumps in the road, or struggles. Then they partner with another student to see if they can work their way through their struggle.

Muddy Point Board

With Muddy Point Board, you designate an area in the room or a board for students to use to pin questions they have - the "muddy points" that confuse them.

You may have students do this at the end of lessons, or you may use them throughout the lesson. Not only does this provide you a perspective of their learning, it allows you to customize your instruction to their needs.

Reflective Journals

Another strategy for self-assessment is the use of reflective journals. Former middle school teacher Kendra Alston used journals with her students. She asked students to continually reflect on their learning in their daybooks, simple bound notebooks. Then she asked them to write a reflection on their learning at the end of the nine weeks. Some wrote about specific content they learned; others of her students reflected on how they learned.

You can also use journals for students to reflect on specific information about their subject area. For example, in math, students might focus on explanations.

Your students can write in their journals daily, weekly, or at the end of the month or grading period. Students can also keep their journals online in a blog format, or through Google Docs.

Conclusion

Providing students opportunities to reflect and self-assess is an important part of your instruction. It allows students to take ownership of learning, and reflects a more active, rigorous approach to learning. When you use self-assessment techniques frequently, you're gathering information "in real time" that can help fine-tune lessons and differentiate more effectively.
__________________________________
A nationally recognized expert in the areas of rigor and motivation, she collaborates with schools and districts for professional development. Barbara can be reached through her website or her blog. Follow her on Twitter @BarbBlackburn. Barbara Blackburn was named one of the Top 30 Global Gurus in Education in 2017. She is a best-selling author of 16 books including Rigor is Not a Four Letter Word and most recently Rigor and Assessment in the Classroom.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
7 Ways to Help Students Self Assess Effectively

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
By Barbara Blackburn Although our assessment of students is critical to learning, we also want students to learn to assess themselves. Encouraging students to take measures of their own learning is more rigorous than the teacher providing all the assessment. As always, with greater rigor comes plenty of support.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
contributed by Saga Briggs

The ultimate goal of teaching is understanding.

But sometimes it's easier to talk than to teach, as we all know, especially when we need to cover a lot of material in a short amount of time. We hope students will understand, if not now then before test time, and we keep our fingers crossed that their results will indicate we've done our job.

The problem is, we often rely on these tests to measure understanding and then we move on. There isn't always time to address weaknesses and misunderstandings after the tests have been graded, and the time to help students learn through strategies to ask great questions is gone.

Below are 22 simple assessment strategies and tips to help you become more frequent in your teaching, planning, and curriculum design.

Book TeachThought Professional Development for training on assessment practices that grow teachers
22 Simple Assessment Strategies & Tips You Can Use Every Day 1. An open-ended question that gets them writing/talking
Avoid yes/no questions and phrases like "Does this make sense?" In response to these questions, students usually answer 'yes.' So, of course, it's surprising when several students later admit that they're lost.

To help students grasp ideas in class, ask open-ended questions that require students that get students writing/talking. They can reveal more than you would've thought to ask directly.
2. Ask students to reflect
During the last five minutes of class ask students to reflect on the lesson and write down what they've learned. Then, ask them to consider how they would apply this concept or skill in a practical setting. Exit ticketsmake this easy to administer and review student answers.
3. Use quizzes
Give a short quiz at the end of class to check for comprehension.
4. Ask students to summarize
Have students summarize or paraphrase important concepts and lessons. This can be done orally, visually, or otherwise.
5. Hand signals
Hand signals can be used to rate or indicate students' understanding of content. Students can show anywhere from five fingers to signal maximum understanding to one finger to signal minimal understanding. This strategy requires engagement by all students and allows the teacher to check for understanding within a large group.
6. Response cards
Index cards, signs, whiteboards, magnetic boards, or other items are simultaneously held up by all students in class to indicate their response to a question or problem presented by the teacher. Using response devices, the teacher can easily note the responses of individual students while teaching the whole group.
7. Four corners
A quick and easy snapshot of student understanding, Four Corners provides an opportunity for student movement while permitting the teacher to monitor and assess understanding.

The teacher poses a question or makes a statement. Students then move to the appropriate corner of the classroom to indicate their response to the prompt. For example, the corner choices might include "I strongly agree," "I strongly disagree," "I agree somewhat," and "I'm not sure."
8. Think-pair-share
Students take a few minutes to think about the question or prompt. Next, they pair with a designated partner to compare thoughts before sharing with the whole class.
9. Choral reading
Students mark text to identify a particular concept and chime in, reading the marked text aloud in unison with the teacher. This strategy helps students develop fluency; differentiate between the reading of statements and questions; and practice phrasing, pacing, and reading dialogue.
10. One question quiz
Ask a single focused question with a specific goal that can be answered within a minute or two. You can quickly scan the written responses to assess student understanding.
11. Socratic seminar
Students ask questions of one another about an essential question, topic, or selected text. The questions initiate a conversation that continues with a series of responses and additional questions. Students learn to formulate questions that address issues to facilitate their own discussion and arrive at a new understanding.
12. 3-2-1
Students consider what they have learned by responding to the following prompt at the end of the lesson: 3) things they learned from your lesson; 2) things they want to know more about; and 1) questions they have. The prompt stimulates student reflection on the lesson and helps to process the learning.
13. Ticket out the door
Students write in response to a specific prompt for a short period of time. Teachers collect their responses as a "ticket out the door" to check for students' understanding of a concept taught. This exercise quickly generates multiple ideas that could be turned into longer pieces of writing at a later time.
14. Journal reflections
Students write their reflections on a lesson, such as what they learned, what caused them difficulty, strategies they found helpful, or other lesson-related topics. Students can reflect on and process lessons. By reading student work-especially -types of learning journals that help students think-teachers can identify class and individual misconceptions and successes. (See also
15. Formative pencil-paper assessment
Students respond individually to short, pencil-paper formative assessments of skills and knowledge taught in the lesson. Teachers may elect to have students self-correct. The teacher collects assessment results to monitor individual student progress and to inform future instruction.

Both student and teacher can quickly assess whether the student acquired the intended knowledge and skills. This is a formative assessment, so a grade is not the intended purpose.
16. Misconception check
Present students with common or predictable misconceptions about a concept you're covering. Ask them whether they agree or disagree and to explain why.
17. Analogy prompt
Teaching with analogies can be powerful. Periodically, present students with an analogy prompt: "the concept being covered is like ____ because ____."
18. Practice frequency
Check for understanding at least three times a lesson, minimum.
19. Use variety
Teachers should use enough different individual and whole group techniques to check understanding that they accurately know what all students know. More than likely, this means during a single class the same technique should not be repeated.
20. Make it useful
The true test is whether or not you can adjust your course or continue as planned based on the information received in each check. Do you need to stop and start over? Pull a few students aside for three minutes to re-teach? Or move on?
21. Peer instruction
Perhaps the most accurate way to check for understanding is to have one student try to teach another student what she's learned. If she can do that successfully, it's clear she understood your lesson.
22. "Separate what you do and don't understand"
Whether making a t-chart, drawing a concept map, or using some other means, have the students not simply list what they think they know, but what they don't know as well. This won't be as simple as it sounds-we're usually not aware of what we don't know.

They'll also often know more or less than they can identify themselves, which makes this strategy a bit crude. But that's okay-the goal isn't for them to be precise and complete in their self-evaluation the goal is for you to gain insight as to what they do and don't know.

And seeing what they can even begin to articulate on their own is an excellent starting point here.
This post was written by Saga Briggins and was first published by on opencolleges.edu.au; 20 Simple Assessment Strategies You Can Use Every Day

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
22 Simple Assessment Strategies You Can Use Every Day

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
contributed by Saga Briggs The ultimate goal of teaching is understanding. But sometimes it's easier to talk than to teach, as we all know, especially when we need to cover a lot of material in a short amount of time.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Kids Learning Ville is a website with a rich collection of free curriculum support materials for teaching language arts (ESL, EFL), Math, Phonics and Science. This site offers free worksheets, videos, fun games, phonics, letter writing materials & more. The materials are suitable for teaching toddlers, preschool, kindergarten, 1 st, 2 nd & 3 rd grade learners.

Language (ESL/EFL)

Vocabulary worksheets

Phonics Worksheets

Memory Games

Crocodile Games

Science Worksheets

Pirate Games

Vocabulary Lessons

Math Lessons

Science Lessons

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Language arts (ESL, EFL), Math, Phonics and Science, Free worksheets, videos, fun games, phonics

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids Learning Ville is a website with a rich collection of free curriculum support materials for teaching language arts (ESL, EFL), Math, Phonics and Science. This site offers free worksheets, videos, fun games, phonics, letter writing materials. The materials are suitable for teaching toddlers, preschool, kindergarten, 1st, 2nd & 3rd grade learners.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an approach to teaching and learning that gives all students equal opportunity to succeed.

To understand what UDL is, it helps to understand what it's not. The word universal may throw you off. It may sound like UDL is about finding one way to teach all students. But UDL actually takes the opposite approach.

The goal of UDL is to use a variety of teaching methods to remove any barriers to learning. It's about building in flexibility that can be adjusted for every person's strengths and needs. That's why UDL benefits all learners.

This approach to teaching or to workplace training doesn't specifically target people who learn and think differently. But it can be especially helpful for kids with these challenges - including those who have not been formally diagnosed. It can also be very helpful for English language learners.

Watch this video to see what UDL looks like in a fifth-grade classroom.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What is Universal Design for Learning (UDL)?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a teaching approach to help all learners be successful. Read about UDL principals and the benefits of UDL for students.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
If you're a Christian teacher, it shouldn't matter where you teach. Our goal should be the same - to show Christ to our students.

Some of us can be more open and apparent, but all of us can and should be intentional about showing Christ and His love in every way we can.

When I think about sharing Christ, the first thing that pops into my head is talking about Him. And while we should certainly take advantage of every opportunity we get to talk about God & His truths, just talking about Him isn't enough. Our students need to see Christ in us. We need to show them who He is. And that's something every one of us can do - no matter where we teach.

I wish I could say I'm always a perfect model, but I'm not. None of us are. But with God's help we can continue to grow closer - in our personal walk, in our testimony, and in our portrayal of Him.

Let's look at a few ways, in particular, that we can model Christ in our classrooms.

How to Model Christ in Our Classrooms

1. Love our students. God is love, and if we want to show Him to our students, we must also love them - all of them. Even the one that's driving us crazy. And it's not enough to just say we love them. We need to show them that we love them. We discuss how in my post "How to Show Real Love to the Kids (Even When They're Not Acting Lovable)."

2. Be kind and understanding. When we're mean or grumpy, we turn students off and are a poor model of the Savior we serve. We must be kind and understanding of our students' struggles. This doesn't mean that we are a pushover. But we can be kind and firm at the same time. And, in fact, we must be.

3. Care more about our students than our policies. Too often we get so entrenched in our policies that we miss the point - that we're here to help our students grow. As we talk about in ometimes a student needs some mercy. Sometimes we shouldn't be fair. Sometimes what's best for a student doesn't line up perfectly with our plan. In these cases, we must pray for wisdom and remember that the growth and maturity of our students is our main goal.

4. Have high expectations and hold students to them. Caring more about our students than our policies in no case means we should start letting everything go. On the contrary, we must have high expectations. And we must hold students to them. If we're pushovers or wishy-washy, we are a poor example of Christ's authority and leadership.

5. Value integrity. Our society today has little value for integrity, yet we all respect it when we see it. Model integrity in your own life and expect it of your students. Teach them what it looks like, and put forth the effort to help them develop it.

6. Counsel students; don't just hand out punishments. I know that in a busy day, it's much easier to just hand out a detention and be done with it. But if this is all we ever do, we're not going to make much of an impact on our students. We need to take the time to counsel them - whether it's about their behavior in our class or an interpersonal dispute or a tough situation they're facing. Be approachable and show them that you're there to help them grow. (Check out the post "How to Counsel a Student" for more insight.)

7. Let His truths permeate your conversations and lessons. God's truths should be such a part of us that we can't help but speak them in our daily conversations and in our lessons. And lest those of you in public schools think this doesn't apply to you, realize that God's truths are universal. Our students need to hear them, even if they can't be told straight out that they come from the Bible.​
Check out this post here for details about what is legally allowed in public schools.

8. Model Christlike living. Our lives should portray Christ, and our conduct should be an example. The Spirit should be evidencing His fruit - love, joy, peace, patience, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, self-control. And our lives should be marked by integrity and purity. We would never want our sin to be a stumbling block for our students.

9. Be humble. Servant leadership is a powerful example of Christ and will draw students to Him. When we can set aside our pride, admit our mistakes, and not be easily offended, our students will see a very real difference.

10. Be real. Above all else, we have to be real. Genuine. Ourselves. Students can sense hypocrisy a mile away, and it will turn them off faster than anything. We are not perfect. And we don't always have it all together. When we're authentic about our own struggles, we show them that our faith is real and model how God can work in us to change us and mold us into His image.

Take our 21-day prayer challenge!

Unleash the power of prayer on your students and school. Simply commit to pray for them for 21 days & see what God will do.

Teach 4 the Heart is here for ﻿YOU﻿.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
If you're a Christian teacher, it shouldn't matter where you teach. Our goal should be the same - to show Christ to our students. Some of us can be more open and apparent, but all of us can and should be intentional about showing Christ and His love in every way we can.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Thought starters

1. What information should be shared during the pre-observation meeting?

2. Why is it essential to have a "back-up plan" for your lesson?

3. How self-reflective and open to constructive criticism is the teacher during the post-observation?

School Details

Herricks High School
100 Shelter Rock Road
New Hyde Park NY 11040

Data Provided By:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
New Teacher Survival Guide: The Formal Observation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A new chemistry teacher at Herricks High School in Long Island, New York, participates in a 3-step formal evaluation process. The process includes a pre-observation meeting, the formal observation, and a post-observation meeting. The department head, Karen Hughes, conducts the evaluation of Laura Gurick.During the pre-observation meeting, Laura shares the classroom dynamics and plans for the lesson.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Connecting Activity- Connected Web with Yarn

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Connecting Activity- Getting to know you BINGO

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Connecting Activity- Have you filled a bucket today

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Connecting Activity- I dont want to live without...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Connecting Activity- Lighting up the world with kindness

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Connecting Activity- My kindness contract