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In traditional math classrooms-and in classrooms where challenging, unfamiliar work is often assigned, more generally-the progression " I do, we do, you do" often becomes the default approach to learning, according to researcher and professor of mathematics at Simon Fraser University, Peter Liljedahl.

It makes sense in many cases, particularly when difficult concepts need to be addressed in time windows that are compressed by bell schedules, holiday breaks, andsummer vacation.But used too frequently, this approach, Liljedahl recently told the Cult of Pedagogy, inhibits higher order thinking and results in students who "mimic" teachers. Students who engage in too much rote work miss out on some of the challenging, sometimes confusing work that builds up their self esteem to face difficult thinking tasks in the future.

"By and large students spend most of their class time not thinking, at least not in ways we know they need to think in order to be successful in mathematics." Liljedahl explains. "If they're not thinking, they're not learning."

Liljedahl, the author of Building Thinking Classrooms in Mathematics, Grades K-12: 14 Teaching Practices for Enhancing Learning advocates for "Thinking Classrooms", which offers a different take on how classroom work is organized, how tasks are assigned, and how students learn and work together. His conclusions are based on more than a decade of research, experimentation, and collaboration with over 400 K-12 teachers.

In a 2017 article for Edutopia, Liljedahl clarified that a "non-thinking" classroom is "predicated on an assumption that the students either could not or would not think." When presented with difficult problems, students in these classrooms have a hard time pushing through to find their own solutions, he argued, and often wait for teachers to step in to do the heavy lifting for them.

To stimulate independent thinking, Liljedahl says, reorganize some of your classroom approaches: Start with hard puzzles and problems that push kids to their limits; confront the fundamental passivity of classroom seating; and use highly structured group activities to promote discussion, peer review, and iterative thinking.

Starting With 'Thinking Tasks'

Instead of starting a lesson with direct instruction, give students novel "thinking tasks" they can work on, ideally in groups. Liljedahl describes these tasks as problem solving activities and mental puzzles that, early on in the school year, should be "highly engaging, non-curricular tasks" to motivate students and get them in the mindset of challenging themselves. As the school year progresses and students become more accustomed to this mode of working and thinking, the activities and challenges can be replaced with tasks directly related to the curriculum.

Liljedahl points out that the tasks should be carefully sequenced so they get incrementally more challenging. "The goal of thinking classrooms is not to get students to think about engaging with non-curricular tasks day in and day out-that turns out to be rather easy," he told Cult of Pedagogy. "Rather, the goal is to get more of your students thinking, and thinking for longer periods of time, within the context of curriculum, which leads to longer and deeper learning."

Liljedahl has a long list of sample "thinking tasks" to look through. They include challenging dice-related problems, such as: Imagine a typical 6-sided die, and notice that the sum of opposite faces is always seven. The one is across from the six, the two is across from the five, and so on. Now imagine that you were making your own six-sided die that did not have this restriction. How many different dice could be made?

Use Standing, Randomized Group Work

Central to Liljedahl's approach is student collaboration and group work. Instead of grouping students by ability, or allowing them to choose their own groups to work in, his research has shown him students work more effectively-and are more likely to contribute-in randomized groups. According to Liljedahl, interviews with students show that randomized groups "break down social barriers within the room, increase knowledge mobility, reduce stress, and increase enthusiasm for mathematics."

At Design39Campus, a K-8 school in San Diego, eighth grade math teacher Kyle Asmus puts Liljedahl's approach into practice by using a random group generator (such as this one from Classtools or this one from Keamk) to ensure that different kids work together across multiple exercises.

To ensure that all students feel included, Asmus assigns group roles: The scribe writes down possible solutions; the speaker communicates the group's thinking to the broader classroom; the inquirer asks the teacher questions; and the manager makes sure the rest of the group stays on track.

Having students stand while they engage in this collaborative, messy thinking is yet another way to engage them, according to Liljedahl: It makes them much less likely to withdraw from the work, or assume that others will handle it. "It turns out that when students are sitting, they feel anonymous," Liljedahl told Cult of Pedagogy. "And when students feel anonymous, they disengage."

Work on Non-Permanent, Vertical Surfaces

In a thinking classroom, students put notebooks away and participate in group work while standing at vertical non-permanent surfaces such as whiteboards, blackboards, or windows-surfaces that Liljedahl believes promote more risk-taking.

According to Liljedahl, his experimentation with students shows that when comparing a group working on a whiteboard versus a group working on flip chart paper, the group working on whiteboards start working within 20 seconds.

"They'll start making notations on the board. They'll try anything and everything because they feel like they can just erase it if it's wrong," he told Cult of Pedagogy. Meanwhile, students working on chart paper take upwards of three minutes to make a single notation, because, Liljedahl said, they often wait until what they write is perfect-"and that hesitation leads to a lower form of thinking."

Design39 students also practice Liljedahl's "vertical surfaces" learning technique, which Asmus says promotes "high quality collaboration" and facilitates "questions and rich conversations" among students. According to Asmus, when students are presented with challenging tasks and work vertically, the time for students to get to a task is not only quicker, but the time they spend on a task is longer.

The large surfaces spread out around the room also allow students to see the work their peers are doing in other groups, and build off of each other's understanding. "It makes it easy for the whole class to see what everybody else is doing so we can be inspired by each other's ideas," said Iniyaa, a student in Asmus' class.

Answer the Right Questions

As students work vertically in groups, teachers can easily see how they're progressing and bounce around the room. Questions will undoubtedly arise, but Liljedahl says teachers should avoid answering questions asked for the purpose of reducing student effort and getting to an answer more quickly-such as "is this right?" Instead, they should prioritize addressing student questions that will lead to further independent thinking.

In her elementary school classroom in Brooklyn, teacher Tori Filler says that instead of rushing to provide hints and solutions to the hard parts of a lesson, she often asks them to evaluate what's tough about it, and encourages them to sort it out on their own before stepping in to help.

If most of the class is struggling, ask more questions and turn the struggle into a productive discussion for everyone. Asking questions like "What makes this hard?" or "What have we tried?" gets students to think metacognitively and develop the skills to push through challenging work on their own.

Evaluate What You Value

To succeed in a thinking classroom, students need to develop skills like perseverance, academic courage, collaboration, and curiosity, among others. But according to Liljedahl, if we want students to develop these competencies, then we should find ways to evaluate them on it.

"What we choose to evaluate tells students what we value, and, in turn, students begin to value it as well," he writes.

He argues for a mix of both formative and summative assessment in math classrooms that focus less on end products and student ranking, and more on the work leading up to those end products and collaboration between groups to get there.

The educators at Bite Sized Learning, for example, suggest evaluating students on the work they produce, but also on how well they persevere and make an effort in response to challenges, how well they set individual goals and monitor progress toward achieving them, and how well they share information and resources with group members to solve problems and make decisions.

Liljedahl's own formative assessments focus on informing students "about where they are and where they're going in their learning." This can take the form of observations, check-for-understanding questions, or even unmarked quizzes. Summative assessments, meanwhile, "should focus more on the processes of learning than on the products, and should include the evaluation of both group and individual work," Liljedahl writes.

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How to Turn Your Math Classroom Into a 'Thinking Classroom'

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The researcher Peter Liljedahl evangelizes for practices that prioritize and stimulate more hard thinking in classrooms.

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Improve Student Thinking in the Classroom
Using Vertical Whiteboard Teaching

Introduction to Vertical Whiteboard Teaching

In the dynamic world of education, teachers are always looking for innovative ways to foster a high level of student engagement in their classrooms to get students excited to learn and become successful in mathematics. One simple, practical, and easy-to-implement approach gaining popularity in schools is the use of vertical whiteboards, also referred to as vertical non-permanent surfaces (VNPSs). These boards offer many benefits that lift the learning experiences of students at the elementary and secondary levels.

What are some of the benefits?

In this blog, we'll share top reasons and tips that help create cultures with a noticeable lift in student thinking, collaboration, and discussion amongst students. Don't believe it can happen? Read below to discover what these versatile tools can offer beyond providing your students with a non-permanent writable surface.

Let's dive into this approach that is based on research by Peter Liljedahl in his book Building Thinking Classrooms. His research shows that for students who completed the lesson (that offers many entry points) on non-permanent surfaces like whiteboards and in particular when students were standing in a vertical position, there were improvements in learning when compared to students working on more permanent writing surfaces like chart paper, notebooks, or workbooks.

Communication and Collaboration with Vertical

Whiteboard Teaching

Learning is a social process that requires students to interact and collaborate. Lev Vygotsky's research suggests we need to present tasks that allow for interaction. Instruction that requires students to communicate their thinking, while reasoning and making sense of concepts will progressively move their understanding to higher levels.

Vertical non-permanent surfaces are ideal for this collaborative, social process of learning. Setting up interactive learning stations where students work in small groups, rather than individually, standing around a vertical whiteboard, rather than sitting at a desk, can be used to explore these types of tasks that encourage open discussions and peer-to-peer learning, as they solve problems. They also allow teachers to showcase students' work to the entire math classroom. This can be particularly helpful for discussing different methods. The teachers' role shifts toward supporting and orchestrating collaborative experiences among students, they hand over more of the thinking work to students.

Peter Liljedahl also cites improved communication (allowing for more non-verbal expression) and increased knowledge mobility (ideas and learning to move amongst students/groups) as a result of working on vertical whiteboards. Along those lines, standing reduces the feeling of anonymity. When students feel anonymous, they tend to check out - which leads to less collaboration, thinking, and learning, understandably.

From my experience, eagerness, discussion, participation, and persistence are all winners when students use VNPSs. These surfaces promote more risk-taking and the fact that they are vertical can prevent students from disengaging. But what about the student who appears to be disengaged (not talking, not sharing, or brainstorming ideas)? This is a common question often asked by teachers. Keep reading for helpful tips.

The Power of Visualization in Mathematics

Moving on to the next point, visualization. Visualization plays a crucial role in mathematics, helping students better understand and express concepts and relationships. Vertical whiteboards give students a blank canvas to express their ideas, visually. They provide large, clear spaces that allow students to engage in math, by writing out math problems, equations, and diagrams making it easier to see and understand the steps involved.

Unlike traditional paper or notebooks, these boards along with a dry-erase marker allow for dynamic representations. Students can quickly erase and change their work, making it easy to explore different methods and mistakes can easily be removed, in real-time. Students can use gestures, illustrate, draw connections between ideas, and manipulate representations. These acts of physically interacting with a vertical board can reinforce conceptual understanding. They can also work collaboratively with others.

For geometry problems, a vertical whiteboard allows students to draw shapes, angles, and geometric constructions more accurately. These visual representations can enhance understanding of spatial relationships and geometric concepts.

Graphing becomes more intuitive on a vertical surface. Students can easily plot points, draw lines, and visualize functions working on boards, helping them grasp the graphical representation of mathematical concepts.

Tips for Using Vertical Whiteboards in the Math Classroom

Now let's talk about some helpful tips to set all students up for success.

Classroom Setup for Thinking Classrooms

First, take stock of current space and maximize existing vertical workspaces, for instance, a large chalkboard, or whiteboard mounted to the wall, or a mobile board with an easel. Arrange student tables to leave plenty of space around these areas; cluster them in the center leaving room for students to work and work on the boards. To have the optimal number of students stay on each whiteboard, add a few smaller vertical non-permanent surfaces on some blank wall space. Consider seven to eight interactive workstations where students can work in groups of three problem-solving. Make adjustments according to class size.

The company, Wipebooks.com, offers dynamic and reusable, non-permanent surfaces that enhance the engagement of groups working out problems. Consider filling up your walls with Wipebook Flipcharts. Short on wall space? These charts offer flexibility; they can easily be tucked away and then taken out when needed. Because the whiteboards are made of paper, you essentially have more writing space than a conventional whiteboard.

Material Use

Shared materials promote collaboration and communication which leads to higher levels of engagement and thinking. Provide one marker per group for students to share. Set expectations that students "pass the marker" to show other people's thinking. When group members aren't passing the marker, the teacher simply approaches a group and moves the marker from one student to the next to promote accountability for collaboration.

Small Groups for a Student Thinking Classroom

Now let's talk about how to group students. Peter Liljedahl also argues that creating visibly random groups (VRG) for students is the best way for students to think and collaborate (Liljedahl, 2019). When students are placed into a random group, it helps to build the mindset that every student is capable. These random groups also need to be created in front of the students, so they can witness that the groups are truly randomized. To lift the level of engagement, create groups of three students. Here are just a few ways to make many groups.

Playing cards-students find teammates with the same suite or number

Popsicle sticks- the teacher selects three sticks with students' names on each stick

Team Maker Tools- check out websites or apps that form random groups right in front of your class

Teacher Expectations

Last but not least, support student success in "thinking classrooms" by establishing clear expectations for behavior. Post a graphic at each learning station as a reminder for accountability; for example, only one marker per group, take turns with the marker and be a team so that everyone is responsible for everyone's learning.

To promote discussion, provide prompts for students who get stumped with what questions to ask or ways to contribute during a discussion. Teach into and post questions and prompts that they can reference when working with a team.

Lean into these tips when setting up learning spaces, establishing group norms, or ways to empower reluctant learners. It's worth putting in the hard work of creating a collaborative math class, full of inquiry, communication, and reflection. Give it a try!

Conclusion

To wrap it up, as we witness the transformative impact of vertical whiteboards in the classroom, it's evident that these tools go beyond traditional instructional practices. By fostering risk-taking, encouraging collaboration, and providing interactive learning experiences, they have become essential in lifting the level of student engagement. Embrace the use of vertical whiteboards and notice how students love working and learning elevates.

What are your thoughts on vertical whiteboards? How are you using them with your students? Join the conversation by sharing your experiences in the comment box below. By leaving a post you will be eligible for a free class set of Wipebook Flip Charts or a copy of the book Building Thinking Classrooms by Peter Liljedahl.

Coming Soon

Want to learn more about key practices for building thinking in your classroom? [Math]odology is offering the two-day workshop, Deep Dive into the World of Building Thinking Classrooms, with Sarah Schaefer and Peter Liljedahl. This exciting workshop is based on the research practices that author and researcher, Peter Liljedahl has included in his book Building Thinking Classrooms (BTC). Join Peter and Sarah and you will walk away with practical knowledge and strategies for using vertical whiteboards with your students along with other key practices that can be applied from the start of the year. Set your students up for success from the start!

Thanks for reading my post!

-Sarah Schaefer

[Math]odology
mathodology.com

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Improve Student Thinking in the Classroom Using Vertical Whiteboard Teaching - [Math]odology Resources

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Improve Student Thinking in the Classroom Using Vertical Whiteboard Teaching Introduction to Vertical Whiteboard Teaching In the dynamic world of education, teachers are always looking for innovative ways to foster a high level of student engagement in their classrooms to get students excited to learn and become successful in mathematics.

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I'm all for raising creative and independent children through play and I believe the easiest way to accomplish that is having a prepared environment in the form of open-ended toys and resources.

There is so much that a good-quality open-ended toy or resource can do in terms of encouraging independent play and creativity. Children can and will return to the toy or resources repeatedly on several occasions, on their own accord, because of the fact that there are unlimited ways of playing with them.

With open-ended materials, there is no one fixed way of engaging with them and so children are naturally drawn to play more, explore more and experiment more, consequently learning and discovering so much in the process.

A Momsboard Review

We were recently gifted with a Momsboard, which is a functional - yet aesthetically pleasing - magnetic whiteboard from Toppings Kids to review and l was undoubtedly really excited for so many reasons.

Besides it being a high quality open-ended resource that encourages endless creative and independent play, I love the fact that my children have essentially found yet another way to play with their beloved magnetic tiles, which is the number one toy in our house. All that aside, there are also so many additional benefits for children to be working on a vertical surface which I will elaborate more below.

Details of the Momsboard

Momsboard is 100% made in Korea. It's eco-friendly, durable and is designed to grow with your kids and to nurture their creativity.

There are several designs, like an ice cream popsicle, the regular square, and a number of beautiful pastel colours like grey, pink or blue to choose from so you can pick your child's favourite colour or one that matches the overall colour scheme, layout or feel of the room. We chose the Jeje House Momsboard (M) in Mint.

Toppings Kids also stocks several amazing learning aids that are a perfect complement to the Momsboard, some of which I ordered to review: the Animal Puzzle and the Bundle of Magnetic Uppercase letters, Lowercase letters, numbers, and clock.

Benefits of Working on A Vertical Surface for Children's Development

As mentioned earlier, there are several developmental benefits for children to work on a vertical surface as they get the opportunities to strengthen and develop certain physical motor skills in a way that sitting at the table and floor won't.

It is definitely more common for children to play or work on fine-motor activities on horizontal surfaces so I'm really glad that we now have an amazing resource that will encourage my children to work on a vertical surface more often without any additional setup from me.

Having said all that, here are some of the wonderful skills children are unintentionally developing by working on a vertical surface from the observations of my children using the Momsboard in various ways.

Engaging Core Strength, Back Muscles and Facilitating Good Posture

Several times throughout the day, my 3yo would go back and forth between the board and her other toys - drawing, creating various 2D & 3D shapes and objects on it using our playmags and even combining both activities to trace around the playmags creations she's constructed. She assumes different positions, alternating between kneeling and standing and occasionally hunching over the board and this builds her core strength and helps her to maintain a good upright posture.

As for Miss 2, she is often hobbling in front of the board moving the various magnetic learning aids as well as the puzzle pieces about to find their matching pair. Without the back of a chair for support, her back muscles are constantly engaged to keep her posture upright for easy access to the magnets on the whiteboard.

Shoulder/Elbow Stability

A real benefit of using a whiteboard has been that it makes things really easy to correct and revise your work, therefore really improving my child's observation and drawing skills. When my 3-year-old is unsatisfied with her drawing which she often is being the little perfectionist that she is, she very easily uses the eraser provided to revise her creation to satisfaction. All the time spent working and reworking strengthens her arm and back muscles to build better arm stabilisation which brings me to my next point.

Pencil Grasp and Wrist Extension

As a teacher in my previous life, while I know that every child learns and develops at their own pace, it honestly pains me to say that my 3-year-old still uses the palmar grasp when holding a drawing implement, as opposed to a more developed tripod grasp. My 2-year-old uses the latter perfectly even though she is 16 months younger so the teacher in me cringes inwardly every time I see my 3-year-old gripping the marker tightly in her palm.

I love that we now have a no-prep permanent vertical surface that will provide endless opportunities for her to extend her wrist and practise hand and arm stabilisation which will eventually help with developing a better pencil grip and more control of writing implements.

Gross Motor Skills

Working on a vertical surface means that the child is rarely ever fixed in one position. As mentioned earlier, my 3-year-old is often actively moving between the ground and board (which stands upright), alternating between standing, kneeling, squatting, sitting and everything else in between. She uses her whole body when she bends to pick up the playmag pieces on the floor, brings them over to the board, and traces their outlines. She's also taken to using our playmags to build a slide coming down from the board, even creating a step ladder to ensure that her peg dolls have a way of getting to the top of the slide.

Bilateral Coordination and Midline Crossing

One of my 3-year-old's favourite ways to use the board is with our much-loved magnetic tiles. She enjoys experimenting with constructing different 2D creations using the tiles and has often extended on the play by tracing around her creations with whiteboard markers.

This activity sounds simple enough but it is honestly such a challenging task as she needs a solid amount of hand and arm strength to hold the pieces in place, not to mention having to concentrate on coordinating both hands in order to trace figures using her dominant hand that stretch across her body's midline. These are both essential developmental skills needed for everyday tasks like tying shoelaces, buttoning up a top or reaching for things across a table.

Hand-eye Coordination and Spatial Awareness

Here in this picture, my 3-year-old has attempted to draw portraits of our entire family and covering the entire board in the process. Writing or drawing vertically brings the surface closer to the eye; doing so focuses the child's attention on the task at hand and therefore improves both concentration and attention span. This proximity also allows a more practical understanding of directions, like up and down, left and right as we hold conversations about her drawing throughout the process.

Cognitive Development

While my oldest girl is often busy doodling away or using playmags with the board and developing wonderful creativity and problem-solving skills, my 2-year-old prefers to engage with the board by using it with the magnetic aids we ordered. Her favourite activity is to find the matching pieces of the animal puzzle we've got and fit together the upper and lower body parts of the animals. The 3-year-old occasionally enjoys matching uppercase letters to their lowercase counterparts and has recently taken to exploring and experimenting with the concept of time-telling using the clock and numbers manipulatives.

Overall Review

Large Work Surface Area

I really love that the working surface is so big and it is my opinion that this is probably one of the best things about it! There's ample of space for both my children to be working on it at the same time in different ways, so it allows for both individuality and social interaction.

For instance, in this picture, my 3-year-old is building a house for her peg dolls while my 2-year-old works on finding the matching pair to a puzzle. All that said, the amount of space is perfect for my 2 children now, but I foresee fights and the jostle for space in the future, especially when the baby is old enough to join in.

Duality in Function

Another great aspect of the board is its dual function as both whiteboard AND magnetic board, making it a great open-ended resource as it offers possibilities of play the girls didn't have before. Pre-Momsboard, we only had our Ikea chalkboard/whiteboard easel that is not magnetic for drawing on, and our fridge if we wanted a place to work with magnets but the space on both of these options are pretty limited.

Open-Ended & Multi-Purpose

My children are still very young so we've only been using this board for unstructured play and child led activities. However the open-ended nature of this board means that it will continue to grow with the children as they mature, develop and come up with new ways for using it. I'm also really excited about the more structured home learning purposes we will eventually use it for in our future homeschooling journey.

Because the board is multi-purpose and open-ended, it has the potential to stimulate so much creativity and heightened imagination for the varied ways that it can possibly be used for. As such, I believe that this will become a much-loved resource in our home that will encourage hours of creative, engaged and independent play.

Note: For my international readers, whilst Momsboard ships worldwide, this is only for the M-sized board and not the L. For those of you based in Singapore, if you have more than 2 children, I would highly recommend getting the L.

Want more?

✓ Tips & Strategies for raising creative, independent and engaged children in a play-centered home.

✓ Lists & Checklists of my recommended toys, art supplies and resources.

p.s. If you enjoyed reading this blog post or found any of it helpful, I'd be so grateful (and I'm sure your friends will be too!) if you shared it via one of the social media icons down below. Thank you!

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The Benefits of Working on A Vertical Surface for Children's Development - Stories of Play

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I'm all for raising creative and independent children through play and I believe the easiest way to accomplish that is having a prepared environment in the form of open-ended toys and resources. There is so much that a good-quality open-ended toy or resource can do in terms of encouraging independent play and creativity.

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"The space has to be a sort of aquarium that mirrors the ideas, values, attitudes, and cultures of the people who live in it." - Loris Malaguzzi, The Hundred Languages of Children.

The start of the school year is an exciting time for teachers, children, and families. I remember the joy of putting together an inviting, student-centered room. Early in my teaching career this meant shopping for folders, name tags, borders and cutouts, and countless hours designing bulletin boards and displays. Later, impacted by research I read about student-centered classrooms, I would make a few welcoming displays but leave wall and shelf space mostly empty, for students to design and fill with their ideas, thinking, interests and work.

The Investigations curriculum states that "creating supportive and productive learning environments involves deciding how to set up the classroom, how to make math tools readily available, and how to establish routines and expectations." (TERC, p. 29) Aguirre et. al. challenge us to also be thinking about ways to distribute math authority among students, teachers, and text, and to encourage student-to-student interaction and broad-based participation (p. 47). And Godfrey reminds us that "No student should be asked to leave any part of who they are at the door. This includes race, languages, and ways of knowing, as well as the family and community knowledge and skills students bring with them." ( 2021)

So, how do we create a classroom that says to students YOU are welcome here and this is OUR room and we will co-design it? How can the design of our room, the displays and seating arrangements, promote the distribution of math authority, equitable participation, and respect for different learners? How do we ensure that students see themselves in the classroom?

In Building Thinking Classrooms in Mathematics, Liljedahl summarizes research by Cobb, Wood, and Yackel (1991) that describes how "the normative structures that permeate classrooms in North America, and around the world, are so robust, and so entrenched, that they transcend the idea of classroom norms." (p. 11) These institutional norms impact how we think classrooms should look and function. Even though we have new technology, desks, whiteboards, etc. we still see the "foundational structure of schools" (p. 12)-forward-facing, teacher-focused seating arrangements-in many classrooms. To be responsive to our students, we need to consider the ways the physical environment can disrupt norms that interfere with learning. As we make decisions about classroom setup, it's important to encourage productive movement around the room and to support students in recognizing and calling on their individual and cultural strengths. When we design our classroom spaces with these considerations in mind, we support students' agency and feelings of belonging.

In thinking specifically about a classroom setup that supports a math class focused on discourse and sense-making, there are some questions to consider:
In what ways does the physical space encourage individual, partner, and small group work? Collaboration with peers? Productive whole group discussions?
"It is important to consider that students in an Investigations classroom work individually, in partners, small groups and as a whole class." (TERC, p. 29) Sometimes students are all working on the same thing; at other times, they are choosing which activity to work on, for how long, and in what order (i.e. Math Workshop). If we value an environment that encourages students to share and respond to mathematical ideas and to each other, to make responsible choices, and to work productively, we need to consider how the physical layout of the room fosters this kind of collaboration and participation.

A classroom that allows students to easily see and hear each other takes into account where desks, tables and chairs are placed. There should be spaces that allow students to work in pairs and small groups, as well as spaces where students can work independently or privately. Clusters of desks or tables allow the classroom space to be used for various purposes. They can serve as designated seating for students or as shared common space, for multiple uses. Some classrooms use "office spaces" when students are working alone or with a partner-open spaces around the room that students can choose from depending on their needs and preferences for a working environment. The use of clipboards, white boards, or non-permanent vertical spaces allow students to move and work in different ways.

Bringing the whole class together for discussions is an important part of creating a classroom community. We want to create a space that is conducive to conversation, where students can see each others' faces (rather than the backs of heads). Some classrooms have a rug or open area where students can easily sit in a circle or horseshoe arrangement. Some teachers establish protocols for moving chairs so that students can see and hear each other; others facilitate discussions with students at desks or tables. Ultimately, "students should sit in such a way, so that everyone is focused on the discussion and can see each other and any work that is being shared." (TERC, p. 30) Students should be able to "turn and talk" to a classmate, reach and use materials, and respond and connect to one another. This encourages student-to-student interactions, disrupting the teacher-student-teacher interaction patterns that can contribute to inequitable participation. It can also diminish students' perceptions of the teacher as the sole authority in the classroom. The goal is to have a seating arrangement that decentralizes the teacher and invites students to speak and listen to each other respectfully and productively.
How does the physical arrangement of the classroom promote equal status, independence, and individual decision making (agency)? How does it help distribute math authority "among students, the teacher, and text"? (Aguirre, p. 47)
One thing to consider is where the teacher stands, sits, and displays tasks or student work. If the teacher is always the center of attention, this can contribute to the perception that they are the sole authority and the one responsible for carrying the work of classroom conversations. We can think about how to "de-front" the classroom by finding spaces where we can stand and sit with our students. If we are depending on teaching stations that incorporate technology, think about how to move among our students as we are sharing. A clicker can allow us to interact with the technology from different parts of the room and frees us from being in one place. Such moves are essential when challenging spaces of marginality since these are "practices that embrace student competencies, diminish status and value multiple mathematical contributions." (Aguirre et. al. p. 43)
I always love it when someone comes into the classroom, and they have to search for me. My students love saying, "Oh, Ms. Wagner is over there on the floor with that group!" Or "She must be working at a table with another group." When we gather for whole group discussions, I also am careful not to sit above my students but to take a place that lets them know we all are equal in this discussion.
Another aspect to consider is how students will access math materials. As the curriculum states, "All students benefit from being able to use materials to model and solve problems and explain their thinking. If materials are used only when someone is having difficulty, students can get the mistaken idea that using materials is a less sophisticated and less valued way of solving a problem or modeling a solution. Therefore, they should see how different people, including the teacher, use a variety of materials to solve the same problem." (TERC, p. 31)

The more available materials are, the more likely students are to use them, so it's important to think about where they will be stored and accessed, for example on students' desks or on a classroom table or shelf, where students can retrieve them as needed. Students benefit from a visible organization, clear information about particular materials that are needed that day, and clear expectations about use and storage. All of this supports them in becoming responsible for selecting, using, and caring for the tools that will best support their thinking.
Most years, I organize my math materials, in labeled boxes, in a central place. But one year, after introducing the many math tools available (e.g. cubes, tiles, graph paper, dice), one student responded, "We are in fifth grade; we don't need those things anymore!" Many students chimed in. I was struck by their perceptions about the use of tools. After that exchange, I realized I was probably not going to see anyone getting up to get tools! So the next day, I put baskets on every table, each with a variety of math tools. I told the class, "Today you have tools right at your table. Your group can decide when and how to use any of the tools in your basket. We will take a walk around to other tables in a bit to see how people used the tools." As students worked, I noticed many curiously looking in their baskets and pulling out tools to consider in their work. What messages are present about what it means to be a doer of mathematics?
As soon as students step into a classroom, they look for ways to connect to their new environment. The space sends messages to students and others regarding what we value in behavior and learning (Savage, 1999; Weinstein, 1992). We can think about how the environment helps us manage student interaction and behaviors, but also as an extra "teacher," one that encourages and motivates students to learn about themselves and others (Strong-Wilson, pp. 40-47). We can draw from our students' cultures, communities, and interests to fill the classroom with interesting and useful materials and resources that both support their math identities and the work of ambitious mathematics. Students should see on the walls documentation of their learning experiences including their questions, wonderings, conjectures and claims.

https://twitter.com/EdAntiRacism/status/1421523679545069571?s=20

We can take a tour of our classrooms and take note of the displays, books, posters, pictures, student work and materials that are available. What do you notice about what is visible and what is missing? Some questions to consider:

Whose work gets displayed (and whose does not)?

Is there a variety of student work? Finished and in progress? Correct and in process?

Can students choose what work they want to display?

Are a variety of cultures and contributors to the mathematics community represented?

How do displays mirror the cultural capital that your students bring to the class? How do they offer windows into the cultural knowledge of others?

In what ways is the community in which your students live evident in the classroom environment?

Conclusion
Author and educator Mike Hopkins "urges teachers to forget about the way things have always been done and to visit museums, libraries, other schools, and colleagues' classrooms to identify different ways of organizing learning space." (Hopkins, in Shalaway)

We can foster an environment that is inclusive and responsive by beginning to examine the way our room is set up and observing and reflecting on how it is used by the class. Classroom routines and norms that inspire students to behave in equitable, powerful ways are connected to and impacted by the physical space. The design of our classroom environment sends messages about authority, identity and equitable engagement. As Lynne Godfrey reminds us, "Classrooms are microcosms of a larger society in which racism, power and privilege converge to empower some students and disenfranchise others." ( 2021) As we reflect on and then reconceptualize how our classroom space is contributing to equitable participation and positive identities, we can move one step closer to our goal of more equitable learning communities.
References
Aguirre, J., Mayfield-Ingram, K., & Martin, D. B. (2013). The Impact of Identity in K-8 Mathematics. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Cobb, Wood, & Yackel (1991). Analogies from the philosophy and sociology of science for understanding classroom life. Science Education, 75.

Godfrey, Lynne. (2021). Establishing an Equitable Learning Community in the Investigations Classroom. Retrieved from: https://investigations.terc.edu/establishing-an-equitable-learning-community-in-the-investigations-classroom/

Liljedahl, Peter. (2021). Building Thinking Classrooms in Mathematics. Corwin Press, Inc.

Malaguzzi, L. (1996). The Hundred Languages of Children: The Reggio Emilia Approach to Early Childhood Education. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Savage, T. V. (1999). Teaching self-control through management and discipline. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Shalaway, Linda. Classroom Organization: The Physical Environment. Retrieved from: https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/articles/teaching-content/classroom-organization-physical-environment/

Strong-Wilson, T. & Ellis, J. (2009). Children and Place: Reggio Emilia's Environment As Third Teacher. Theory Into Practice, pp. 40-47.

TERC. (2017). Implementing Investigations in Grade X. Investigations in Number, Data, and Space ®, (3rd ed.). Savvas Learning Company.

Weinstein, C. S. (1992). Designing the instructional environment: Focus on seating. Series on Highly Effective Practices-Classroom Environment 5 Bloomington, IN: Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Presentations at the Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 348 039) .

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A Space for All of Us: Setting Up the Classroom Environment - Investigations3

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"The space has to be a sort of aquarium that mirrors the ideas, values, attitudes, and cultures of the people who live in it." - Loris Malaguzzi, The Hundred Languages of Children. The start of the school year is an exciting time for teachers, children, and families.

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Teacher Perceptions of the Impact of Vertical Non-Permanent Surfa

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Rethinking the Classroom Landscape: Creating Environments that Connect Young Children, Families, and Communities

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The Importance of Acoustics in School Classroom Design - Public Sector Build Journal

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Schoolrooms have always been sanctuaries of knowledge, the setting for teachers to impart knowledge and students to absorb new information.

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A space for learning: An analysis of research on active learning spaces

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Active Learning Classrooms (ALCs) are learning spaces specially designed to optimize the practice of active learning and amplify its positive effects in learners from young children through university-level learners. As interest in and adoption of ALCs…

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Maximising Space in Educational Institutions: Effective Storage Ideas - Your Thurrock

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Efficient storage is crucial in educational institutions to ensure that both students and staff can access the resources they need without unnecessary clutter. Schools often face the challenge of limited space, which can lead to disorganisation and inefficiency. Proper storage solutions can significantly improve the learning environment by creating orderly, accessible spaces that enhance the […]

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Front Psychol. 2015; 6: 368.

Abstract

In the past decade there has been increased interest in research on color and psychological functioning. Important advances have been made in theoretical work and empirical work, but there are also important weaknesses in both areas that must be addressed for the literature to continue to develop apace. In this article, I provide brief theoretical and empirical reviews of research in this area, in each instance beginning with a historical background and recent advancements, and proceeding to an evaluation focused on weaknesses that provide guidelines for future research. I conclude by reiterating that the literature on color and psychological functioning is at a nascent stage of development, and by recommending patience and prudence regarding conclusions about theory, findings, and real-world application.

Keywords: color, psychological functioning, hue, lightness, chroma

The past decade has seen enhanced interest in research in the area of color and psychological functioning. Progress has been made on both theoretical and empirical fronts, but there are also weaknesses on both of these fronts that must be attended to for this research area to continue to make progress. In the following, I briefly review both advances and weaknesses in the literature on color and psychological functioning.

Theoretical Work

Background and Recent Developments

Color has fascinated scholars for millennia ( Sloane, 1991; Gage, 1993). Theorizing on color and psychological functioning has been present since Goethe (1810) penned his Theory of Colors, in which he linked color categories (e.g., the "plus" colors of yellow, red-yellow, yellow-red) to emotional responding (e.g., warmth, excitement). Goldstein (1942) expanded on Goethe's intuitions, positing that certain colors (e.g., red, yellow) produce systematic physiological reactions manifest in emotional experience (e.g., negative arousal), cognitive orientation (e.g., outward focus), and overt action (e.g., forceful behavior). Subsequent theorizing derived from Goldstein's ideas has focused on wavelength, positing that longer wavelength colors feel arousing or warm, whereas shorter wavelength colors feel relaxing or cool ( Nakashian, 1964; Crowley, 1993). Other conceptual statements about color and psychological functioning have focused on general associations that people have to colors and their corresponding influence on downstream affect, cognition, and behavior (e.g., black is associated with aggression and elicits aggressive behavior; Frank and Gilovich, 1988; Soldat et al., 1997). Finally, much writing on color and psychological functioning has been completely atheoretical, focused exclusively on finding answers to applied questions (e.g., "What wall color facilitates worker alertness and productivity?"). The aforementioned theories and conceptual statements continue to motivate research on color and psychological functioning. However, several other promising theoretical frameworks have also emerged in the past decade, and I review these frameworks in the following.

Hill and Barton (2005) noted that in many non-human animals, including primate species, dominance in aggressive encounters (i.e., superior physical condition) is signaled by the bright red of oxygenated blood visible on highly vascularized bare skin. Artificial red (e.g., on leg bands) has likewise been shown to signal dominance in non-human animals, mimicking the natural physiological process ( Cuthill et al., 1997). In humans in aggressive encounters, a testosterone surge produces visible reddening on the face and fear leads to pallor ( Drummond and Quay, 2001; Levenson, 2003). Hill and Barton (2005) posited that the parallel between humans and non-humans present at the physiological level may extend to artificial stimuli, such that wearing red in sport contests may convey dominance and lead to a competitive advantage.

Other theorists have also utilized a comparative approach in positing links between skin coloration and the evaluation of conspecifics. Changizi et al. (2006) and Changizi (2009) contend that trichromatic vision evolved to enable primates, including humans, to detect subtle changes in blood flow beneath the skin that carry important information about the emotional state of the conspecific. Increased red can convey anger, embarrassment, or sexual arousal, whereas increased bluish or greenish tint can convey illness or poor physiological condition. Thus, visual sensitivity to these color modulations facilitates various forms of social interaction. In similar fashion, Stephen et al. (2009) and Stephen and McKeegan (2010) propose that perceivers use information about skin coloration (perhaps particularly from the face, Tan and Stephen, 2012) to make inferences about the attractiveness, health, and dominance of conspecifics. Redness (from blood oxygenization) and yellowness (from carotenoids) are both seen as facilitating positive judgments. Fink et al. (2006) and Fink and Matts (2007) posit that the homogeneity of skin coloration is an important factor in evaluating the age, attractiveness, and health of faces.

Elliot and Maier (2012) have proposed color-in-context theory, which draws on social learning, as well as biology. Some responses to color stimuli are presumed to be solely due to the repeated pairing of color and particular concepts, messages, and experiences. Others, however, are presumed to represent a biologically engrained predisposition that is reinforced and shaped by social learning. Through this social learning, color associations can be extended beyond natural bodily processes (e.g., blood flow modulations) to objects in close proximity to the body (e.g., clothes, accessories). Thus, for example, red may not only increase attractiveness evaluations when viewed on the face, but also when viewed on a shirt or dress. As implied by the name of the theory, the physical and psychological context in which color is perceived is thought to influence its meaning and, accordingly, responses to it. Thus, blue on a ribbon is positive (indicating first place), but blue on a piece of meat is negative (indicating rotten), and a red shirt may enhance the attractiveness of a potential mate (red = sex/romance), but not of a person evaluating one's competence (red = failure/danger).

Meier and Robinson (2005) and Meier (in press) have posited a conceptual metaphor theory of color. From this perspective, people talk and think about abstract concepts in concrete terms grounded in perceptual experience (i.e., they use metaphors) to help them understand and navigate their social world ( Lakoff and Johnson, 1999). Thus, anger entails reddening of the face, so anger is metaphorically described as "seeing red," and positive emotions and experiences are often depicted in terms of lightness (rather than darkness), so lightness is metaphorically linked to good ("seeing the light") rather than bad ("in the dark"). These metaphoric associations are presumed to have implications for important outcomes such as morality judgments (e.g., white things are viewed as pure) and stereotyping (e.g., dark faces are viewed more negatively).

For many years it has been known that light directly influences physiology and increases arousal (see Cajochen, 2007, for a review), but recently theorists have posited that such effects are wavelength dependent. Blue light, in particular, is posited to activate the melanopsin photoreceptor system which, in turn, activates the brain structures involved in sub-cortical arousal and higher-order attentional processing ( Cajochen et al., 2005; Lockley et al., 2006). As such, exposure to blue light is expected to facilitate alertness and enhance performance on tasks requiring sustained attention.

Evaluation and Recommendations

Drawing on recent theorizing in evolutionary psychology, emotion science, retinal physiology, person perception, and social cognition, the aforementioned conceptualizations represent important advances to the literature on color and psychological functioning. Nevertheless, theory in this area remains at a nascent level of development, and the following weaknesses may be identified.

First, the focus of theoretical work in this area is either extremely specific or extremely general. A precise conceptual proposition such as red signals dominance and leads to competitive advantage in sports ( Hill and Barton, 2005) is valuable in that it can be directly translated into a clear, testable hypothesis; however, it is not clear how this specific hypothesis connects to a broader understanding of color-performance relations in achievement settings more generally. On the other end of the spectrum, a general conceptualization such as color-in-context theory ( Elliot and Maier, 2012) is valuable in that it offers several widely applicable premises; however, these premises are only vaguely suggestive of precise hypotheses in specific contexts. What is needed are mid-level theoretical frameworks that comprehensively, yet precisely explain and predict links between color and psychological functioning in specific contexts (for emerging developments, see Pazda and Greitemeyer, in press; Spence, in press; Stephen and Perrett, in press).

Second, the extant theoretical work is limited in scope in terms of range of hues, range of color properties, and direction of influence. Most theorizing has focused on one hue, red, which is understandable given its prominence in nature, on the body, and in society ( Changizi, 2009; Elliot and Maier, 2014); however, other hues also carry important associations that undoubtedly have downstream effects (e.g., blue: Labrecque and Milne, 2012; green: Akers et al., 2012). Color has three basic properties: hue, lightness, and chroma ( Fairchild, 2013). Variation in any or all of these properties could influence downstream affect, cognition, or behavior, yet only hue is considered in most theorizing (most likely because experientially, it is the most salient color property). Lightness and chroma also undoubtedly have implications for psychological functioning (e.g., lightness: Kareklas et al., 2014; chroma: Lee et al., 2013); lightness has received some attention within conceptual metaphor theory ( Meier, in press; see also Prado-León and Rosales-Cinco, 2011), but chroma has been almost entirely overlooked, as has the issue of combinations of hue, lightness, and chroma. Finally, most theorizing has focused on color as an independent variable rather than a dependent variable; however, it is also likely that many situational and intrapersonal factors influence color perception (e.g., situational: Bubl et al., 2009; intrapersonal: Fetterman et al., 2015).

Third, theorizing to date has focused primarily on main effects, with only a modicum of attention allocated to the important issue of moderation. As research literatures develop and mature, they progress from a sole focus on "is" questions ("Does X influence Y?") to additionally considering "when" questions ("Under what conditions does X influence Y and under what conditions does X not influence Y?"). These "second generation" questions ( Zanna and Fazio, 1982, p. 283) can seem less exciting and even deflating in that they posit boundary conditions that constrain the generalizability of an effect. Nevertheless, this step is invaluable in that it adds conceptual precision and clarity, and begins to address the issue of real-world applicability. All color effects undoubtedly depend on certain conditions - culture, gender, age, type of task, variant of color, etc. - and acquiring an understanding of these conditions will represent an important marker of maturity for this literature (for movement in this direction, see Schwarz and Singer, 2013; Tracy and Beall, 2014; Bertrams et al., 2015; Buechner et al., in press; Young, in press). Another, more succinct, way to state this third weakness is that theorizing in this area needs to take context, in all its forms, more seriously.

Empirical Work

Background and Recent Developments

Empirical work on color and psychological functioning dates back to the late 19th century ( Féré, 1887; see Pressey, 1921, for a review). A consistent feature of this work, from its inception to the past decade, is that it has been fraught with major methodological problems that have precluded rigorous testing and clear interpretation ( O'Connor, 2011). One problem has been a failure to attend to rudimentary scientific procedures such as experimenter blindness to condition, identifying, and excluding color deficient participants, and standardizing the duration of color presentation or exposure. Another problem has been a failure to specify and control for color at the spectral level in manipulations. Without such specification, it is impossible to know what precise combination of color properties was investigated, and without such control, the confounding of focal and non-focal color properties is inevitable ( Whitfield and Wiltshire, 1990; Valdez and Mehrabian, 1994). Yet another problem has been the use of underpowered samples. This problem, shared across scientific disciplines ( Maxwell, 2004), can lead to Type I errors, Type II errors, and inflated effect sizes ( Fraley and Vazire, 2014; Murayama et al., 2014). Together, these methodological problems have greatly hampered progress in this area.

Although some of the aforementioned problems remain (see "Evaluation and Recommendations" below), others have been rectified in recent work. This, coupled with advances in theory development, has led to a surge in empirical activity. In the following, I review the diverse areas in which color work has been conducted in the past decade, and the findings that have emerged. Space considerations require me to constrain this review to a brief mention of central findings within each area. I focus on findings with humans (for reviews of research with non-human animals, see Higham and Winters, in press; Setchell, in press) that have been obtained in multiple (at least five) independent labs. Table ​Table1 1 provides a summary, as well as representative examples and specific references.

Table 1

Area of research

Central finding

Example

References

In research on color and selective attention, red stimuli have been shown to receive an attentional advantage (see Folk, in press, for a review). Research on color and alertness has shown that blue light increases subjective alertness and performance on attention-based tasks (see Chellappa et al., 2011, for a review). Studies on color and athletic performance have linked wearing red to better performance and perceived performance in sport competitions and tasks (see Maier et al., in press, for a review). In research on color and intellectual performance, viewing red prior to a challenging cognitive task has been shown to undermine performance (see Shi et al., 2015, for a review). Research focused on color and aggressiveness/dominance evaluation has shown that viewing red on self or other increases appraisals of aggressiveness and dominance (see Krenn, 2014, for a review). Empirical work on color and avoidance motivation has linked viewing red in achievement contexts to increased caution and avoidance (see Elliot and Maier, 2014, for a review). In research on color and attraction, viewing red on or near a female has been shown to enhance attraction in heterosexual males (see Pazda and Greitemeyer, in press, for a review). Research on color and store/company evaluation has shown that blue on stores/logos increases quality and trustworthiness appraisals (see Labrecque and Milne, 2012, for a review). Finally, empirical work on color and eating/drinking has shown that red influences food and beverage perception and consumption (see Spence, in press, for a review).

Evaluation and Recommendations

The aforementioned findings represent important contributions to the literature on color and psychological functioning, and highlight the multidisciplinary nature of research in this area. Nevertheless, much like the extant theoretical work, the extant empirical work remains at a nascent level of development, due, in part, to the following weaknesses.

First, although in some research in this area color properties are controlled for at the spectral level, in most research it (still) is not. Color control is typically done improperly at the device (rather than the spectral) level, is impossible to implement (e.g., in web-based platform studies), or is ignored altogether. Color control is admittedly difficult, as it requires technical equipment for color assessment and presentation, as well as the expertise to use it. Nevertheless, careful color control is essential if systematic scientific work is to be conducted in this area. Findings from uncontrolled research can be informative in initial explorations of color hypotheses, but such work is inherently fraught with interpretational ambiguity ( Whitfield and Wiltshire, 1990; Elliot and Maier, 2014) that must be subsequently addressed.

Second, color perception is not only a function of lightness, chroma, and hue, but also of factors such as viewing distance and angle, amount and type of ambient light, and presence of other colors in the immediate background and general environmental surround ( Hunt and Pointer, 2011; Brainard and Radonjić, 2014; Fairchild, 2015). In basic color science research (e.g., on color physics, color physiology, color appearance modeling, etcetera; see Gegenfurtner and Ennis, in press; Johnson, in press; Stockman and Brainard, in press), these factors are carefully specified and controlled for in order to establish standardized participant viewing conditions. These factors have been largely ignored and allowed to vary in research on color and psychological functioning, with unknown consequences. An important next step for research in this area is to move to incorporate these more rigorous standardization procedures widely utilized by basic color scientists. With regard to both this and the aforementioned weakness, it should be acknowledged that exact and complete control is not actually possible in color research, given the multitude of factors that influence color perception ( Committee on Colorimetry of the Optical Society of America, 1953) and our current level of knowledge about and ability to control them ( Fairchild, 2015). As such, the standard that must be embraced and used as a guideline in this work is to control color properties and viewing conditions to the extent possible given current technology, and to keep up with advances in the field that will increasingly afford more precise and efficient color management.

Third, although in some research in this area, large, fully powered samples are used, much of the research remains underpowered. This is a problem in general, but it is particularly a problem when the initial demonstration of an effect is underpowered (e.g., Elliot and Niesta, 2008), because initial work is often used as a guide for determining sample size in subsequent work (both heuristically and via power analysis). Underpowered samples commonly produce overestimated effect size estimates ( Ioannidis, 2008), and basing subsequent sample sizes on such estimates simply perpetuates the problem. Small sample sizes can also lead researchers to prematurely conclude that a hypothesis is disconfirmed, overlooking a potentially important advance ( Murayama et al., 2014). Findings from small sampled studies should be considered preliminary; running large sampled studies with carefully controlled color stimuli is essential if a robust scientific literature is to be developed. Furthermore, as the "evidentiary value movement" ( Finkel et al., 2015) makes inroads in the empirical sciences, color scientists would do well to be at the leading edge of implementing such rigorous practices as publically archiving research materials and data, designating exploratory from confirmatory analyses, supplementing or even replacing significant testing with "new statistics" ( Cumming, 2014), and even preregistering research protocols and analyses (see Finkel et al., 2015, for an overview).

Conclusion

In both reviewing advances in and identifying weaknesses of the literature on color and psychological functioning, it is important to bear in mind that the existing theoretical and empirical work is at an early stage of development. It is premature to offer any bold theoretical statements, definitive empirical pronouncements, or impassioned calls for application; rather, it is best to be patient and to humbly acknowledge that color psychology is a uniquely complex area of inquiry ( Kuehni, 2012; Fairchild, 2013) that is only beginning to come into its own. Findings from color research can be provocative and media friendly, and the public (and the field as well) can be tempted to reach conclusions before the science is fully in place. There is considerable promise in research on color and psychological functioning, but considerably more theoretical and empirical work needs to be done before the full extent of this promise can be discerned and, hopefully, fulfilled.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

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Articles from Frontiers in Psychology are provided here courtesy of Frontiers Media SA

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Color and psychological functioning: a review of theoretical and empirical work

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In the past decade there has been increased interest in research on color and psychological functioning. Important advances have been made in theoretical work and empirical work, but there are also important weaknesses in both areas that must be addressed ...

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Think of the last product you purchased. What color was it? Did you consciously pick that hue, or were you just drawn to it for some reason? According to research done by the Institute for Color Research, customers make a snap judgment of a product within 90 seconds of the first glance, and 62% and 90% of their opinions is solely based on color. That's how powerful the psychology of color is.

What is Color Psychology?

Color psychology is the study of how colors and hues play an integral part in affecting our emotions, behavior, and perceptions. It is based on the idea that different colors can evoke different psychological and emotional responses in people and that individual, cultural, and societal factors can influence these responses. For instance, when you associate red with boldness, passion, or even anger, that's color psychology at work.

While they are fundamentally similar, color psychology differs from color theory because each focuses on different aspects of color. The former focuses on how hues influence emotions or behavior, while the latter concerns technical principles. Color theory acts as a guide about how different colors interact with one another and how they can be used in unison to create hues, shades, and tones that work together visually. It shows you the difference between complementary colors and contrasting ones.

Color psychology, on the other hand, focuses on meaning and emotions. It delves into perception. When you use a specific color, how will your brand be perceived? Is it too cold and distant, or is it warm and inviting? We go through some of the most common color perceptions below so you will know how to take advantage of color psychology for your projects.

The Emotional Rollercoaster

Red: passion, energy, excitement - Red is all about creating a sense of urgency. It preys on impulse, which is why it's one of the most used logo colors in retail and fast-food establishments.

Orange: warmth, playfulness, energy - Orange is best associated with excitement, energy, playfulness, and warmth. It gives off a feeling of being active but runs the risk of looking immature and aloof.

Yellow: cheerfulness, optimism, caution - cheerful and welcoming are for yellow. It's the color for a sunny disposition, after all. It conveys friendliness and familiarity.

Green: growth, nature, tranquility - Green is associated most with health and nature. It gives off the feeling that the brand is eco-friendly, outdoorsy, or full of freshness. It also has a calming characteristic, making it the perfect color for businesses in the medical field.

Blue: calmness, trustworthiness, stability - For blue, the most important thing is establishing trust, authority, and respect. It gives off the feeling of being dependable and reliable. Most tech and automotive companies use different shades of blue.

Purple: luxury, creativity, mystery - A color associated most with royalty and luxury. It represents wealth, opulence, and a rich history. Purple can also convey wisdom and intelligence.

Pink: femininity, romance, sensitivity - For better or worse, pink is attached to all things feminine. While the color evokes feelings of warmth, care, and softness, it must be used strategically, as it may alienate potential customers.

Harnessing the Power of Colors For Your Business

When used correctly, color psychology can amplify the strength of your message exponentially. This can be applied to essential marketing or specific campaigns. Still, struggling to see how it fits? Here are a couple of popular brands that have been using color psychology to get the right emotions out of customers:

Coca-Cola - Red is as bold as it can get. Coke uses this to immediately grab your attention and not-so-subtly coax you to make an impulse buy. The color red can also make you hungry, so think of all the fast-food joints that use it. Spoiler alert - pretty much all of them use red.

Nickelodeon - Nick is as whimsical as it gets. Their orange paint splatter logo tells you everything you need to know - they're playful, fun, and don't take themselves too seriously.

McDonald's - Mickey D's yellow is one of the most well-known logos on the planet. Their choice of color evokes cheerfulness and optimism. It gives you a happy feeling whenever you see it. It's stimulating and attention-grabbing. Use this with caution, though, as too much can give feelings of fear and anxiety.

Starbucks - Starbucks uses green to make you think of freshness and that every cup is from farm to table. This color also gives feelings of calm and relaxation, which is precisely what a coffee shop strives for. It's very easy on the eyes.

Facebook and Twitter - Both companies use shades of blue for their logo to convey authority, intelligence, and trust. It shows they're dependable and trustworthy, which is crucial as they hold much of your private data.

Picking the right color for your line of business

Now that you've gotten a brief glimpse of the basics of color psychology, how can you take advantage of this for your business? Go back to the start. Think about your core customers and how you want them to perceive you. Do you want to give off an authoritative air, or do you want to look friendly and hold their hand as they complete a purchase? The answers to these introspective questions will guide you toward the best colors to use for your business.

Once you've decided how your brand will be perceived, you can pick a color for your logo or web design. Aside from what we've discussed in this article, you can also refer to these helpful guides: Designing Logos With Color Psychology and Color Theories to Back-up Your Design.

Don't settle on primary hues, either. Use the whole color spectrum to your advantage. You can broaden your color vocabulary and pick the right shade that best conveys your brand's messaging.

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UCreative.com - Color Theory for Designers: Understanding the Psychology of Color | UCreative.com

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Color Theory for Designers: Understanding the Psychology of Color" is a comprehensive guide that explores the profound impact of color on our emotions and perceptions. It serves as a toolbox for designers, enabling them to select colors that harmonize well and convey the desired mood or message in their work.

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Color Psychology: Does It Affect How You Feel? 

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Color Psychology: Does It Affect How You Feel? 

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Do you feel anxious in a yellow room? Does the color blue make you feel calm and relaxed? Artists and interior designers have long believed that color can dramatically affect moods, feelings, and emotions. "Colors, like features, follow the changes of the emotions," the artist Pablo Picasso once remarked.

Color is a powerful communication tool and can be used to signal action, influence mood, and even influence physiological reactions. Certain colors have been associated with physiological changes, including increased blood pressure, increased metabolism, and eyestrain.

This article discusses what color psychology means and how colors affect the mind and body. It also explores research on the effect of color and the psychological reactions people may experience.

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What Is Color Psychology?

Color psychology is the study of how different colors affect human mood and behavior. It explores how colors can influence emotional responses, as well as how responses to color are affected by factors such as age and cultural background.

Different topics that are of interest in this area include:

The meanings of colors

How colors impact physiological responses

Emotional reactions to color

Factors that impact color preferences

Cultural differences in the meanings and associations of different colors

Whether colors can impact mental health

How colors can influence behaviors

Ways that colors can be utilized to promote well-being

How colors can be used to improve safety and design more optimal home and work environments

History of Color Psychology

The scientific exploration of color psychology is relatively new, but people have long been interested in the nature and impact of color. In ancient cultures, colors were often used to treat different conditions and influence emotions. They also played a role in different spiritual practices.

It was in 1666 that the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton discovered that when pure white light passes through a prism, it separates into all visible colors. Newton also found that each color is made up of a single wavelength and cannot be separated any further into other colors.

Further experiments demonstrated that light could be combined to form other colors. For example, red light mixed with yellow light creates an orange color. Some colors, such as green and magenta, cancel each other out when mixed, resulting in white light.

"Given the prevalence of color, one would expect color psychology to be a well-developed area," researchers Andrew Elliot and Markus Maier noted in a review of the existing research on the psychology of color. "Surprisingly, little theoretical or empirical work has been conducted to date on color's influence on psychological functioning, and the work that has been done has been driven mostly by practical concerns, not scientific rigor."

Much of the evidence in this emerging area is anecdotal at best, but researchers and experts have made a few important discoveries and observations about the psychology of color and its effect on moods, feelings, and behaviors.

The Psychological Effects of Color

Why is color such a powerful force in our lives? What effects can it have on our bodies and minds? While perceptions of color are somewhat subjective, some color effects have universal meanings.

Colors in the red area of the color spectrum are known as warm colors and include red, orange, and yellow. These warm colors evoke emotions ranging from feelings of warmth and comfort to feelings of anger and hostility.

Colors on the blue side of the spectrum are known as cool colors and include blue, purple, and green. These colors are often described as calm, but can also call to mind feelings of sadness or indifference.

Symbolic Color Meanings

One 2020 study that surveyed the emotional associations of 4,598 people from 30 different countries found that people commonly associate certain colors with specific emotions. According to the study results:

Black: 51% of respondents associated black with sadness

White: 43% of people associated white with relief

Red: 68% associated red with love

Blue: 35% linked blue to feelings of relief

Green: 39% linked green to contentment

Yellow: 52% felt that yellow means joy

Purple: 25% reported they associated purple with pleasure

Brown: 36% linked brown to disgust

Orange: 44% associated orange with joy

Pink: 50% linked pink with love

The study's researchers suggested that such results indicated that color-emotion associations appear to have universal qualities. These shared meanings may play an essential role in aiding communication.

Color Psychology as Therapy

Several ancient cultures, including the Egyptians and Chinese, practiced chromotherapy, or the use of colors to heal. Chromotherapy is sometimes referred to as light therapy or colorology.

Colorology is still used today as a holistic or alternative treatment. In this treatment:

Red is used to stimulate the body and mind and to increase circulation.

Yellow is thought to stimulate the nerves and purify the body.

Orange is used to heal the lungs and to increase energy levels.

Blue is believed to soothe illnesses and treat pain.

Indigo shades are thought to alleviate skin problems.

While more research is needed, a 2020 study suggested that chromotherapy may be an effective way to help combat feelings of compassion fatigue and post-traumatic stress in intensive care unit nurses.

Modern Research on Color Psychology

Most psychologists view color therapy with skepticism and point out that the supposed effects of color are often grossly exaggerated. Colors also have different meanings in different cultures.

However, existing research has found that color can impact people in a variety of surprising ways:

While-colored pills are associated with greater pain relief., while red pills are associated with having greater stimulant properties.

Red causes people to react with greater speed and force, something that might be helpful during athletic activities according to researchers.

Black-uniformed players are more likely to receive penalties in competitive sporting events.

Additional Research Is Still Needed

Interest in the subject of color psychology is growing, but there remain several unanswered questions. How do color associations develop? How powerful is the influence of these associations on real-world behavior?

Can color be used to increase worker productivity or workplace safety? What colors have an impact on consumer behavior? Do certain personality types prefer specific colors? As researchers continue to explore such questions, we may soon learn more about color's impact on human psychology.

Zena O'Connor, a faculty member in the Department of Architecture, Design, and Planning at the University of Sydney, suggests that people should be wary of many of the claims they see about the psychology of color.

"Many of these claims lack substantiation in terms of empirical support, exhibit fundamental flaws (such as causal oversimplification and subjective validation), and may include factoids presented as facts," O'Connor explains. "In addition, such claims often refer to outdated research without referring to current research findings."

Recap

Color Can Influence Performance

Studies have also shown that certain colors can have an impact on performance. No one likes to see a graded test covered in red ink, but one study found that seeing the color red before taking an exam actually hurt test performance.﻿﻿

While the color red is often described as threatening, arousing or exciting, many previous studies on the impact of the color red have been largely inconclusive. The study found, however, that exposing students to the color red prior to an exam has been shown to have a negative impact on test performance.

In the first of the six experiments described in the study, 71 U.S. colleges students were presented with a participant number colored either red, green or black prior to taking a five-minute test.

Color and Consumer Purchases

Color psychology suggests that various shades can have various effects, from boosting our moods to causing anxiety. But could the color of the products you purchase ever say something about your personality? For example, could the color of the car you buy somehow relate to some underlying personality traits or quirks?

When buying items, your color preferences might say something about the image you are trying to project. Color preferences, from the clothes you wear to the car you drive, can sometimes make a statement about how we want other people to perceive us. Other factors, such as age and gender, can also influence our color choices.

White: As many of our readers have suggested, the color white can feel fresh and clean. The color is often used to evoke a sense of youth and modernity.

Black: Our readers often describe black as a "powerful" color, which might be the reason why black is the most popular color for luxury vehicles. People often describe the color as sexy, powerful, and mysterious.

Silver: It's the third most popular vehicle color and is linked to a sense of innovation and modernity. High-tech products are often silver, so the color is often seen as new, modern, and cutting-edge.

Red: Red is a bold, attention-getting color, so preferring this type of car might mean you want to project an image of power, action, and confidence.

Blue: People often describe blue as the color of stability and safety. Driving a blue car or SUV might indicate that you are dependable and trustworthy.

Yellow: According to the experts, driving a yellow vehicle might mean you are a happy person in general and perhaps a bit more willing than the average person to take risks.

Gray: The experts suggest that people who drive gray cars don't want to stand out and instead prefer something more subtle.

A person might prefer brighter, more attention-getting colors when they are younger, but find themselves drawn to more traditional colors as they grow older. The personality of the buyer can play an important role in color selection, but buyers are often heavily influenced by factors such as price as well as availability.

For example, purchasing a white vehicle might be less about wanting people to think that you are young and modern and more about the climate you live in; people who live in hot climates typically prefer light-colored vehicles over dark ones.

A Word From Verywell

Color can play an important role in conveying information, creating certain moods, and even influencing the decisions people make. Color preferences also exert an influence on the objects people choose to purchase, the clothes they wear, and the way they adorn their environments.

People often select objects in colors that evoke certain moods or feelings, such as selecting a car color that seems sporty, futuristic, sleek, or trustworthy. Room colors can also be used to evoke specific moods, such as painting a bedroom a soft green to create a peaceful mood.

So what's the bottom line? Experts have found that while color can have an influence on how we feel and act, these effects are subject to personal, cultural, and situational factors. More scientific research is needed to gain a better understanding of color psychology.

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Can Color Affect Your Mood and Behavior?

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Color is all around us, but what impact does it really have on our moods, emotions, and behaviors? Color psychology seeks to answer this question.

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Choosing the color palette for a space is important-- being exposed to certain colors influences different behaviors, mood, and perceptions ("Color Psychology: How Do Colors Affect Mood & Emotions?", 2020). That being the case, choosing the color palette for learning environments is particularly important, as color is 1 of 6 design parameters that have a 25% impact on learning (Barrett, Davies, Zhang & Barrett, 2015). While creating aesthetically pleasing learning spaces is one reason to utilize color in schools, the effect of color on learning is a much more compelling motivation to implement particular colors in school environments. Each color in a learning space can have a different effect on students' behavior and moods, making it an important part of the learning environment.

Red is a very stimulating color and is often associated with strength and courage. Red in a learning space can increase alertness, creativity, and excitement. A learning environment with red in the color palette can be energizing, motivating students and teachers to act and increasing attention to detail.

Orange is an energetic color that can increase alertness, excitement, and engagement. This hue signifies optimism and self-confidence, promoting happiness and energy. Orange may also promote collaboration in learning spaces.

Green is a natural color and brings a sense of balance and harmony into a space. The calmness of green can symbolize relaxation, healing, and stability. A learning environment with green in the color palette may help relieve stress and provide a sense of security.

Blue is typically associated with trust, integrity, and peace. This color creates a positive, calming emotional response, generally reducing stress and making people happier. Blue in learning spaces may also inspire student creativity and exploration of new ideas.

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The Effect of Color on Learning: How 4 Different Colors Affect Student Moods and Behaviors

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The effect of color on learning is a much more compelling motivation to implement particular colors in school environments.

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7 relaxing colors and how they affect your mood! - Times of India

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Colors are also connected to your moods. Few colors can make you feel good while others can make you angry. Find the best colors for better mood.

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How Color Psychology Impacts Child Development

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A Comprehensive Guide to Colorful Beginnings: The Role of Color Psychology in Child Development. Color is more than just a visual experience; it is a powerful psychological tool that can influence mood, behavior, and even cognitive function.

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Color education: A study on methods of influence on memory

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This study examines the mechanisms and expertise of color-based method implementation in a present-day academic process and different forms of learning. This study aimed to identify the effectiveness of color education in the study of the humanities…

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Color Psychology for Education: How Does Color Enhance the Learning Environment?

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School furniture has an impact on color psychology for education. Learn more about which colors to use to promote a healthy learning environments.

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A review of the findings and theories on surface size effects on visual attention

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That surface size has an impact on attention has been well-known in advertising research for almost a century; however, theoretical accounts of this effect have been sparse. To address this issue, we review studies on surface size effects on eye…