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The Human Error - The Chernobyl Disaster 

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The Human Error - The Chernobyl Disaster 

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On April 26, 1986, Reactor No. 4 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant near Pripyat, Ukraine (apart of the Soviet Union) exploded during a late-night safety test. The blast released massive amounts of radioactive materials into the air—hundreds of times more radiation than the Hiroshima bomb. Firefighters rushed to the scene without protective gear, unaware of the deadly radiation levels. The disaster forced more than 100,000 people to evacuate and became the worst nuclear accident in history, symbolizing both human error and the dangers of secrecy during the Cold War.

The explosion released radioactive isotopes, the most dangerous being:

Iodine-131 (¹³¹I): Emits beta and gamma radiation, which accumulates in the thyroid gland, increasing thyroid cancer risk.

Formula: I₂ breaks into ¹³¹I during fission of uranium.

Cesium-137 (¹³⁷Cs): Highly soluble in water and spreads easily through soil and food chains.

Formula: Cs; from uranium fission products.

Strontium-90 (⁹⁰Sr): Chemically similar to calcium, so it replaces it in bones and teeth, causing leukemia and bone cancer.

Formula: Sr; formed from nuclear fission.

Plutonium-239 (²³⁹Pu): Long-lived alpha emitter. Remains in the environment for millennia.

Graphite fire: The graphite moderator caught fire, sending radioactive material high into the air.

The reactor’s fuel was uranium dioxide. During the accident, a sudden power surge caused the fuel rods to overheat and react with zirconium cladding, producing hydrogen gas so then the hydrogen built up and exploded, blowing apart the reactor and spreading radioactive materials into the atmosphere.

Human Impact:

Around 30 workers and firefighters died within weeks from acute radiation syndrome (ARS).

Over 4,000 thyroid cancer cases have been linked to radioactive iodine exposure.

Long-term mental health effects and displacement continue to affect survivors.

Environmental Impact:

Forests near Chernobyl became the “Red Forest” due to intense radiation killing trees and turning them reddish-brown.

Contamination spread across Europe—especially Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia.

Over time, scientists discovered that some fungi and mushrooms in the Exclusion Zone have adapted to survive—and even thrive—in radioactive soil.

Certain black fungi species, like Cladosporium sphaerospermum, can absorb radiation using melanin, much like plants use chlorophyll for sunlight.

These “radiotrophic mushrooms” convert radiation into chemical energy through a process called radiosynthesis, helping them grow in areas too toxic for most life.

the Exclusion Zone has surprisingly become a living laboratory, where biologists study how ecosystems recover and adapt in extreme conditions.

Chernobyl also showed that life can adapt in unexpected ways. The discovery of radiation-resistant mushrooms inspired research into bioremediation—using fungi or bacteria to absorb and reduce radioactive contamination. This could one day help clean up nuclear waste or protect astronauts from cosmic radiation in space. (I love fungi)

Industrial & Global Impact:

The event exposed flaws in Soviet reactor design (RBMK type) and poor safety culture.

It pushed for global nuclear safety reforms and international monitoring (IAEA safety standards).

After Chernobyl, nuclear industries worldwide made major changes:

Improved reactor designs: Modern reactors have containment domes and automatic shutdown systems.

Transparency & reporting: Governments and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) established open communication systems for nuclear incidents.

Emergency response systems: Better radiation monitoring, evacuation plans, and protective gear for workers and firefighters.

Public education: Awareness of radiation safety and long-term monitoring of affected populations.

SOURCES

World Health Organization. (2006). Health effects of the Chernobyl accident: An overview. WHO Press.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). (2021). Chernobyl: The true scale of the accident. Retrieved from https://www.iaea.org

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). (2008). Report on the Chernobyl accident. United Nations.

Dadachova, E., Bryan, R. A., Huang, X., Moadel, T., Schweitzer, A. D., Aisen, P., & Casadevall, A. (2007). Ionizing radiation changes the electronic properties of melanin and enhances the growth of melanized fungi. PLoS ONE, 2(5), e457. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000457

NASA. (2020). Fungi that thrive in radiation could help protect astronauts in space. NASA Science News. https://science.nasa.gov/

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From 1962 to 1971, during the Vietnam War, Agent Orange was used by U.S. military against enemies. The dangerous chemical was created in 1940, before America's involvement in World War II. Its original purpose was to defoliate forests for agricultural decline and control of vegetation during the war, but later on, it had a few unexpected effects.

Agent Orange is made of 2 main chemicals. Its chemical formula would be 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T). Both chemicals are compounds with their own chemical equations. Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid appears as a white-ish yellow powder commonly used for gardening against weeds. Its chemical equation is C8H6Cl2O3. Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid is also known as a weed killer, but it became widely unpopular after scientists discovered it's high toxicity. Its chemical equation is C8H5Cl3O3.

Though the demographic impact is unclear, considering the fact that US military dispersed 3 times the recommended amount of this chemical, it is estimated that over 6 million people were affected. Dioxin, a compound found in Agent Orange is able to damage vital organs, the immune system, cells, hormones, and can also cause cancer. Agent Orange is associated with over 15 diseases, ranging in severity. Agent Orange still remains relevant today in Vietnam, dioxin hotspots can be found in 58 out of 63 provinces within the country. Devastatingly, the health conditions can affect future generations and be passed on.

In 1978, after noticing the damage, VA (Veterans Affairs) created the Agent Orange Registry. Medical examinations allowed them to gather more information for treatment depending on the symptoms/disease detected. As time passed, the US department established many informative documents, pamphlets, videos, and more to spread awareness. In the 1980s, studies relating to specific compounds in Agent Orange, specifically, dioxin, were published in an effort to provide documented scientific evidence.

Agent Orange's legacy continues through newer generations. Even after decades, the United States' liability is still being debated.

The Origins of the Agent Orange Act of 1991 - VA History. (2025, August 21). VA History. https://department.va.gov/history/featured-stories/the-origins-of-the-agent-orange-act-of-1991/

Cleveland Clinic. (2023, February 10). Agent orange effects & symptoms. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/24689-agent-orange-effects

H.R.556 - 102nd Congress (1991-1992): Agent Orange Act of 1991. (1991, February 6). Www.congress.gov. https://www.congress.gov/bill/102nd-congress/house-bill/556

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The Origins of the Agent Orange Act of 1991 - VA History

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On February 6, 1991, President George H. W. Bush signed the Agent Orange Act of 1991. This act was the first piece of legislation to officially establish a

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Introduction

In April 2010, the Deep water Horizon oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico exploded, causing one of the worst environmental disasters in history. For 87 days, oil gushed into the ocean, releasing nearly 5 million barrels and coating the water with thick black slicks of oil. This tragedy not only killed 11 workers but also devastated marine life and coastal communities. It shows how human mistakes and weak safety systems can have massive consequences for both and the environment.

The chemicals involved in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill were primarily hydrocarbons (mainly alkanes l and the oil spill itself is a mixture of thousands of chemical compounds, which contributed to the problem due to their varied properties and the large volume that was released into the environment.

Alkanes-C₈H₁₈ and C₁₀H₂₂

Hydrocarbons-carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO) ,and sulfur compounds

They used a chemical dispersant containing 2-butoxyethanol (C₆H₁₄O₂) and propylene glycol (C₃H₈O₂), to break oil into smaller droplets.

Consequences

The spill killed thousands of fish, dolphins, sea turtles, and birds. Coral reefs and wetlands were smothered in oil, taking years to recover.Fishing and tourism industries in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Florida lost billions of dollars, and many locals faced long-term health problems from exposure to the oil and dispersants. It also caused  Cleanup workers and residents reported headaches, nausea, and breathing issues from exposure to oil and chemicals. BP the company responsible for the oil spill had to pay fines around 60 billion dollars.

Lessons Learned

After everything BP enforced better safety checks, stricter rules, and stronger equipment maintenance.They also, improved blowout preventers with stronger sensors and multiple backups and added underwater robots to detect leaks early. As of today New safety laws and worker training to make drilling safer.
The biggest lesson learned was that environmental safety must come before profit. Today, scientists and engineers continue to improve oil drilling systems to prevent another Deepwater Horizon from happening.

Multi Media

If you want to learn more

Theres a movie called the DeepWater Horizon SORRY FOR THE FIRST COUPLE SECONDS!!!

Heres a graph

Here's a article that will help you under stand it better

https://www.britannica.com/event/Deepwater-Horizon-oil-spill

Sources

NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Coastal Pollution Tutorial

Human Health and Socioeconomic Effects of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico

NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Coastal Pollution Tutorial

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Right before midnight, on December 2, 1984, a MIC tank had risen by 8 psig in 30 minutes, which was not ideal. It caused a leak, sending  a deadly chemical gas cloud set over the city of Bhopal, India. Dispersing quickly, the gas cloud killed around 10,000 people in 3 days, becoming what would become one of the greatest chemical disasters of its time.

The chemical released from the plant was

Methyl isocyanate (MIC) and its Chemical Equation is CH3NCO. It is a highly flammable, colorless liquid used as a chemical intermediate, mainly for the production of pesticides and polyurethane foams. It is also extremely toxic and corrosive, with even short term exposure impacts, and even worse long term.

Methyl isocyanate is made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen.

Today, an estimated 22,000 people have died from the leak and half a million sustain permanent effects. Many people are still affected by this disaster as most of the children born to parents that are exposed to that gas have birth defects. The UCC was an American company that ran the plant. They were not obligated to clear up any of the disaster, leaving it to seep into the drinking water of locals, affecting people today. The plant did not have any precautionary measures, which were required in North America and in Europe, to cut back on costs. With these precautionary measures, the night operator at the plant would have known the MIC tank had risen by 8 psig in 30 minutes, and would have been able to prevent the disaster. After this Bhopal Disaster, many governments around the world would impose stricter but safer industrial laws, while Industries would focus on hiring qualified workers and installing better security measures, all to prevent disasters like this from happening again

Dutta, M. (2024, December 11). The Bhopal Chemical Gas Disaster | Origins. Origins. https://origins.osu.edu/read/bhopal-chemical-gas-disaster

Bhopal gas leak in pictures: 40 years since the tragedy killed thousands in India. (2024, December 2). BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cp35vlg3zvxo

‌

Dummett, M. (2024, December 2). Bhopal Gas Tragedy: 40 years of Injustice. Amnesty International. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/12/bhopal-gas-tragedy-40-years-of-injustice/

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Britannica. (2019). Bhopal disaster. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Bhopal-disaster

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Mustard gas - the deadliest weapon of World War 1

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Mustard gas - the deadliest weapon of World War 1

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During World War 1, soldiers faced a brand new terrifying weapon, Mustard Gas. It was first used by Germany in 1917. When Mustard gas was first released, it would make soldier's skin blister, Burn their eyes, and damaged their lungs. It wasn't just deadly though, Mustard Gas caused terrible pain and suffering. The gas would stay on the ground of battlefields, making them unsafe for combat.

Mustard Gas's real name is Sulfur mustard. Its chemical formula is C₄H₈Cl₂S. Mustard gas is a yellow oily liquid that smells like garlic and mustard, thats how it gets its name. Mustard gas lasts extremely long, it stays on clothes grass, and metal. Mustard gas was so deadly because of how hard it was to get out of things. When you breath in mustard gas or if it touches your skin, it reacts with water in your body and heavily damages your cells and DNA. This is what makes your skin blister and your throat swell.

Consequences

Painful blisters on the skin

Eyes burning or going blind

Coughing and trouble breathing

Very slow healing and lots of infections

Lung problems that last for life

Higher risk of cancer

Scars on skin

Emotional trauma for survivors

There were thousands of soldiers that were killed by Mustard Gas and the entire world was affected by it in some way.

After World War 1, people were horrified by the effects of mustard gas. In 1925, many countries signed the Geneva Protocol, which says chemical weapons are not permitted in war. The Chemical Weapons Convention outlawed chemical weapons in their entirety.

Sources

https://www.cdc.gov/chemical-emergencies/chemical-fact-sheets/mustard-gas.html

https://www.sciencehistory.org/stories/magazine/a-brief-history-of-chemical-war/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK304425/

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Radium Girls, Working Women Poisoned Over Time 

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Radium Girls, Working Women Poisoned Over Time 

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During the 20th century young women in the states of New Jersey, Illinois, and Connecticut, suffer radium poisoning as a result of painting watch dials. After World War one, wrist watches became a staple among men. However small nimble hands were needed to paint the delicate numbers on the faces of the watches, due to this many women were hired in factories to paint on these numbers. They were instructed to use the “lip pointing” technique, which had them put their paint brushed in their mouths to make a fine point. Over time this caused them to consume small amounts of radium daily, leading to health problems.

In 1898 Marie Curie and Pierre discovered a radioactive element known as Radium. After being discovered Radium was used widely in medicine, for things such as cancer treatments. However it was also used in items such as the paint for wrist watches, due to its luminescent glow. What they did not know however, was that Radium is highly dangerous. While Marie Curie was working with it she suffered dangerous burns, and eventually died due to the repeated exposure. Radium acts similarly to calcium, so when ingested, the body mistakes it for calcium and incorporates it into the bones. This can cause things like bone cancer over time depending on the dosage amount, which in the case of the Radium girls, was very high.

One of the first girls to start experiencing symptoms was Amelia Maggia, who worked in New Jersey. She started off with a toothache which then later had to be removed, then the tooth next to it had to be removed. Next the disease moved to her lower jaw, which then had to be removed. Eventually she died on September 12, 1922, scientists were puzzled about what caused her death. After her many other girls started experiencing deathly symptoms similar to Amelia, and for 2 years the company denied any relation with the symptoms and Radium. When business started greatly declining the company decided to conduct an independent study, in which they found out that the deaths were caused by Radium exposure. However the company did not want to accept that the two were linked. Finally in 1925, a man named Harrison Martland conducted a test that proved that the radium caused the girls’ deaths. The company tried to claim that his findings were false, however the radium girls also fought against the company.

The Radium girls had a long lasting legacy, their case was one of the first where the company was held accountable for the health and safety of their employees. Along with leading to the creation of the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Because of the Radium girls we have an understanding of how harmful Radium can be when exposed to the human body. And according to scientists, we owe almost all of our knowledge about Radium inside the human body to the girls. Now that the world is aware of how harmful Radium can be, we can avoid any interaction with it.

References

Bryan-Quamina, G. (2023, April 11). The Radium Girls. Science Museum Group Blog. https://blog.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/the-radium-girls/

Burrows, W., & Scarpelli, D. G. (2019). Disease - Control of disease. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/disease/Control-of-disease

Prisco, J. (2017, December 19). The dark times of luminous watches. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2017/12/19/style/radium-girls-radioactive-paint

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The Love Canal disaster was a major environmental and public health crisis in Niagara Falls, NY, where a neighborhood was built on top of a former chemical waste dump. From 1942 to 1953, Hooker Chemical Company buried over 21,000 tons of hazardous waste in the abandoned Love Canal, including many carcinogens. When the land was sold and developed for housing and a school, the buried chemicals began to leach into the soil, water, and basements. By the late 1970s, residents experienced severe health problems, which led to public outcry, government intervention, evacuations, and ultimately, the creation of the national Superfund program to address such toxic waste sites.

After the dumping of toxic chemicals into the Love Canal, the toxic waste began to seep into basements, yards, and sewers which exposed residents to hazardous substances.

Dioxin (C4H4O2):

Properties: Extremely toxic, highly persistent in the environment, and accumulates in the food chain. Dioxin was a dangerous byproduct of the trichlorophenol manufacturing process at the site.

Harm caused: Considered one of the most toxic man-made chemicals, and it was linked to an increased risk of cancer, birth defects, and other severe health problems.

Benzene (C6H6):

Properties: A volatile organic compound and a known carcinogen. Its volatility allowed it to easily vaporize and contaminate the air in basements and homes.

Harm caused: Exposure is linked to acute myeloid leukemia, aplastic anemia, and other blood disorders.

Methylene Chloride (CH2CI2):

Properties: A solvent that produces carbon monoxide when metabolized by the body.

Harm caused: High exposure can lead to respiratory distress and anesthesia and could eventually lead to death.

Chloroform (CHCI3):

Properties: A volatile organic compound that is an irritant and a suspected carcinogen.

Harm Caused: Can cause central nervous system depression, damage the liver and kidneys, and irritate the respiratory system and skin.

As a result of the extremely toxic chemicals being dumped into the canal there were many long term and short term consequences. Regarding short term health problems, there were high rates of miscarriages, stillbirths, and birth defects. There were also long term consequences as a result of the Love Canal dumping. For people's health long term, there was an increase in deaths from conditions like acute myocardial infarction, higher risks of leukemia, chronic ear problems, and respiratory issues that developed. Additionally as a result of the disaster the creation of the Superfund program was made. This program was established to clean up hazardous waste sites across the country.

People responded to the Love Canal disaster through community activism. Residents like Lois Gibbs who led the activism, formed the Love Canal Homeowners Association, which used protests and public pressure to demand government action, health studies, and relocation. Their efforts resulted in President Jimmy Carter declaring a national emergency and the creation of the Superfund Act in 1980.

The Love Canal disaster resulted from a failure of waste management, land‑use planning, and regulatory oversight — and if those failures had been addressed before houses and a school were put on the canal, the scale of the harm could have been greatly reduced.

Sources

Beck, E. (1979, January). The Love Canal Tragedy. EPA.

THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC HEALTH Chairman: State of Department New York of Health.

Women, Children, and the Poor – Love Canal Disaster. (n.d.).

Chapter 25 - Love canal: a classic case study of a contaminated community. (2022, March 17). Sustainable Development Goals - Resource Centre.

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What Is It

Acid Rain occurred first in 1852 discovered by Scottish chemist Robert Angus Smith. Acid rain is the result of billions of humans burning fossil fuels which comes back as acid rain. Acid rain can also be caused by “rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes” according to National Geographic, another cause is also “coal burning power plants, factories and automobiles”. Acid rain contains high levels of nitric sulfuric acids with a pH of 4.2 and 4.4 while regular rain has a pH balance of 5.6.

This diagram from How Does Acid Rain Affect the Environment by Sammy Witchall illustrates the movement and transformation of air pollutants from both man-made and natural sources. Pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NO) are released into the atmosphere, where they form gaseous and particulate pollutants that can travel long distances. These pollutants eventually return to the Earth's surface through dry or wet deposition, contributing to environmental issues like acid rain.

Short and long term effects

Many long term effects include ecological damage on lakes, streams, wet lands and other aquatic ecosystems and environments. Acid rain makes such waters more acidic which can result in aluminum in soil. According to the article How Does Acid Rain Affect the Environment by Sammy Witchall long term effects for humans are pollutant particles of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide that it is formed can lead to health problems including asthma, heart disease and eye irritation.

How did people respond?

In response to acid rain, scientists in the 1950s–1970s discovered that pollution from burning fossil fuels, especially sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), was making rainwater acidic and damaging lakes, forests, and buildings. Governments acted by passing environmental laws and forming international agreements to reduce emissions. In the United States, the Clean Air Act of 1970 and its 1990 amendments created the Acid Rain Program, which used a cap-and-trade system to cut SO₂ emissions. Canada and the U.S. also signed the 1991 Air Quality Agreement, and European countries joined the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. These efforts led to major reductions in pollution and helped ecosystems recover, making the fight against acid rain a major environmental success.

How can this be prevented

According to Iberdrola here are some ways that YOU can prevent acid rain from deforesting health and nature.

To prevent acid rain, humans must reduce pollutant emissions through coordinated government, corporate, and individual actions. Key measures include:

Treating factory wastewater before releasing it into rivers.

Cutting industrial emissions and shifting to renewable energy sources.

Lowering overall energy consumption and promoting cleaner technologies.

Planting trees to help absorb air pollutants.

Raising public awareness about saving energy at home.

Promoting electric and non-polluting vehicles like bicycles.

Resources

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/acid-rain

https://earth.org/how-does-acid-rain-affect-the-environment/

https://www.iberdrola.com/sustainability/acid-rain

https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/acid-rain-program?utm_source

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In the 1970s and 1980s around 6000 people with bleeding disorders were treated with contaminated blood containing HIV and hepatitis. Due to this, people would die quicker with more viruses.

The contamination was caused by pooling human blood plasma of over 40000 donors, but due to this huge pooling of donors, if one person was contagious, the whole batch was therefore ruined. This ruined plasma was ignored by leading clinicians and government who failed to take appropriate action to end their use and return to safer products. doctors failed to share information about risks with patients and most people got infected without knowing.

In 1982 the first death of a man infected with AIDS was reported in the United States. A baby was also confirmed to have contracted AIDS through blood transfusion in 1982, many experts believed this proved the new disease was blood borne.

By 1984, heat treated blood products, where the viruses would be killed, started to become common. This, combined with better donors, meant that by 1986 UK patients were receiving safer treatment, although not all risks could be removed.

Late in the 1990s the use of synthetic clotting factors, known as recombinant, started to become widespread in the UK effectively eliminating the risks from viruses and other contaminants.

Sources

Buerger, Collin S, and Hanish Jain. “Infectious Complications of Blood Transfusion.” Nih.gov, StatPearls Publishing, 31 July 2023, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK585035. Accessed 21 Oct. 2025.

CDC. “Clinical Guidance for Bacterial Contamination and Blood Safety.” Blood Safety, 16 May 2024, www.cdc.gov/blood-safety/hcp/clinical-guidance/index.html.

Justiz, Angel A, et al. “Transfusion Transmitted Disease.” Nih.gov, StatPearls Publishing, 20 Mar. 2024, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538427. Accessed 21 Oct. 2025.

“The Contaminated Blood Scandal - the Haemophilia Society.” The Haemophilia Society, 19 Sept. 2024, haemophilia.org.uk/public-inquiry/the-infected-blood-inquiry/the-contaminated-blood-scandal. Accessed 21 Oct. 2025.

“Tranfusion-Transmitted Bacterial Infection | Lifeblood.” Www.lifeblood.com.au, www.lifeblood.com.au/health-professionals/clinical-practice/adverse-events/transfusion-transmitted-bacterial-infection.

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What is Sarin?

Sarin( chemical name: isopropyl methylphonofluoridate) is a dangerous toxic nerve agent first developed 1938 in Germany by scientists working for a company. The chemical is colorless,odorless, and tasteless, making it extremely dangerous because civilians can be exposed to the chemical without realizing it. Sarin attacks the nervous system, which controls your breathing, movement, and other functions. It also blocks an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase. This normally breaks down acetylcholine, a chemical that transmits nerve signals, but when sarin prevents this breakdown the nerves keep firing uncontrollably, leading to muscle spasms, paralysis, and death if not treated quickly. Sarin symptoms are known to act very quickly, usually within seconds to minutes. To prevent sudden death from the chemical the victims need oxygen and ventilation support to help them breathe. Also need Atrophine and pralidoxime (2-PAM) to use as an antidote.

Mild exposure:
Runny nose, watery eyes

Small pupils (pinpoint eyes)

Chest tightness or difficulty breathing

Nausea and vomiting

Confusion or dizziness

Severe exposure:

Convulsions (seizures)

Loss of consciousness

Paralysis

Respiratory failure (unable to breathe)

Death within minutes if untreated

The Sarin gas has two major impacts on chemical weapon incidents where sarin was used against civilians in Japan in the 1990s.  The date is June 27, 1994 in Mastsumoto Japan. Members of a cult called Aum Shinrikyo. The cult released sarin gas in a residential neighborhood using a converted refrigerator truck, killing 8 people and injuring more than 500 people. The attack was meant to kill judges handling a real-estate case involving the cult. The next attack was only a year later on March 20, 1995 during morning rush hour in Tokyo subway.  Five cult members carried liquid sarin in plastic bags, punctured them with umbrella tips, and left them on trains. 13 people killed and over 1,000 injured, and more than 6,000 reported temporarily effected
Why is it dangerous?

This chemical is very dangerous because it evaporates quickly, which makes it effective for use in confined spaces. Sarin is classified as a Weapon of Mass Destruction under Chemical Weapons Convention.

Resources:
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9660289/

https://www.cdc.gov/chemical-emergencies/chemical-fact-sheets/sarin.html

https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/public-health/sarin-chemical-attacks

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● What happened?

Officials failed to prevent the corrosion of the lead pipes, which caused lead from the pipes to leech into the water, exposing around 100,000 residents to it. Due to the switch of water sources, a possible contamination of Legionella bacteria happened too.

● Which chemicals were involved?

Lead. It is worth mentioning that the federal level for lead is around 15 ppb (the amount of lead should be below this level). In some homes the level of lead was 13200 pbb (880 times the federal level) (citation 1)

● What were the short-term and long-term consequences?

Long term consequences include the contamination of the water, the long term effects of lead in children(reduced IQ, increased  issues with mental and physical health, and an increased chance for Alzheimer's). There aren't any short term effects unless you count the 34 felony counts and 7 misdemeanors filed against the former governor of Michigan and other officials.

● How did people respond?

During the early days of the crisis, residents were advised to boil their water. During the crisis, residents had to use bottled water and filters. During the end, residents were wary of the water and still are due to the lack of trust.

● Could this have been prevented?

Yes, if the people of the EPA (environmental protection agency) and the MDEQ(michigan department of quality control) had listened to the warnings from Miguel Del Toral, who is a manager in the EPA.

● What lessons were learned from this event, and how has science/technology adapted to prevent similar issues?

To not use lead pipes and to instead replace them if they are there.

1. "The Virginia Tech Research Team". Flint Water Study. 2017. Archived from the original on February 1, 2017. Retrieved February 6, 2017.

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The Poison Beneath Hinkley - The PG&E Water Contamination

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The Poison Beneath Hinkley - The PG&E Water Contamination

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Parents in the tiny desert community of Hinkley, California, began noticing more and more people getting sick. They had no idea that Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) had been using a chemical called chromium-6 to stop rust in the cooling towers at their gas compressor facility. Instead of disposing of the chemical safely, the company was releasing wastewater into open ponds with no liners. Years passed, and the chemical seeped into the groundwater of the town and infected the wells of the community.

The people drank this water every day without knowing that it was contaminated. Years passed, and Erin Brockovich, a legal assistant, helped the town prove that PG&E's waste was physically affecting the health problems. Her work led to a $333 million settlement in 1996, one of the biggest environmental lawsuits in U.S. history.

Consequences

For people:

Residents suffered from health problems like rashes, nosebleeds, and different types of cancer. Families lived in fear for years, unsure if the water they used every day was safe.

For the environment:

The groundwater became heavily polluted, and cleanup took years. The pollution also affected the soil and nearby ecosystems, leaving long-lasting effects on the area.

For industry

The case became a warning for other companies about the dangers of ignoring chemical waste. It led to stronger environmental regulations and closer monitoring of industrial chemicals.

How This Could Have Been Prevented

The Hinkley water contamination could have been avoided if PG&E had handled its waste more carefully. Using lined ponds or proper treatment methods would have kept chromium-6 from seeping into the groundwater. This case also taught many scientists and regulators how fast chemicals like chromium-6 can travel through soil and water, leading to the stricter testing and safety rules for industrial waste. Thanks to the residents standing up and Erin Brockovich's investigation, new water quality standards were created, and companies are now more careful with toxic chemicals to protect people and the environment.

Sources:

Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Chromium in drinking water. EPA. https://www.epa.gov/dwstandardsregulations/chromium-drinking-water

California Regional Water Quality Control Board. (n.d.). Activities update for chromium cleanup at PG&E’s compressor station attention! Activities update for chromium cleanup at PG&E’s compressor station. https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/rwqcb6/water_issues/projects/pge/docs/factsheet8_08.pdf

ABC News Network. (n.d.). Chromium in drinking water. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/erin-brockovich-real-story-town-decades/story?id=78180219&utm_source=chatgpt.com

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picture of the water contamination:

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In the 1980s, scientists discovered that a man-made chemical called CFC, or chlorofluorocarbon, was causing serious harm to the ozone layer. The ozone layer is a thin part of Earth’s atmosphere that protects people, animals, and plants from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. Without it, more UV light reaches the surface, which can cause skin cancer, eye problems, and damage to crops and ocean life. CFCs were used in many everyday products like refrigerators, air conditioners, and spray cans. People thought they were safe because they didn’t burn or smell bad, but they were very stable, meaning they stayed in the air for a long time and eventually rose up into the upper atmosphere.

When CFCs rose high into the atmosphere, these chemicals reacted with the ozone and broke it down, making the layer thinner and weaker over time. As the damage continued, more of the sun’s harmful rays were able to reach the Earth’s surface. Scientists,Molina and Sherwood Rowland, warned years earlier that this could happen, but many people didn’t take it seriously at first. It wasn’t until 1985, when researchers found a large thinning area in the ozone layer, often called the “ozone hole,” that the world finally realized how big the problem was.

After that, countries around the world decided to work together to fix the problem. In 1987, they created an agreement called the Montreal Protocol, which made countries stop using CFCs. Even though a lot of damage had already been done, this plan worked. Since then, the amount of CFCs in the air has slowly gone down, and the ozone layer has started to heal. Scientists think it could return to normal in a few decades. The story of CFCs and the ozone hole shows that when people listen to science and work together, they can solve big environmental problems.

“Ozone depletion | Facts, Effects, & Solutions” (Britannica) https://www.britannica.com/science/ozone-depletion

“Remember the Ozone Hole? Now There’s Proof It’s Healing.” (National Geographic)

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/antarctic-ozone-hole-healing-fingerprints

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ozone depletion, gradual thinning of Earth's ozone layer in the upper atmosphere caused by the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from industry and other human activities. The thinning is most pronounced in the polar regions, especially over Antarctica. Ozone depletion is a major environmental problem because it increases the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches Earth's surface, which increases the rate of skin cancer, eye cataracts, and genetic and immune system damage. The Montreal Protocol, ratified in 1987, was the first of several comprehensive international agreements enacted to halt the production and use of ozone-depleting chemicals. As a result of continued international cooperation on this issue, the ozone layer is expected to recover over time.

History

In 1969 Dutch chemist Paul Crutzen published a paper that described the major nitrogen oxide catalytic cycle affecting ozone levels. Crutzen demonstrated that nitrogen oxides can react with free oxygen atoms, thus slowing the creation of ozone (O ₃), and can also decompose ozone into nitrogen dioxide (NO ₂) and oxygen gas (O ₂). Some scientists and environmentalists in the 1970s used Crutzen's research to assist their argument against the creation of a fleet of American supersonic transports (SSTs). They feared that the potential emission of nitrogen oxides and water vapour from these aircraft would damage the ozone layer. (SSTs were designed to fly at altitudes coincident with the ozone layer, some 15 to 35 km [9 to 22 miles] above Earth's surface.) In reality, the American SST program was canceled, and only a small number of French-British Concordes and Soviet Tu-144s went into service, so that the effects of SSTs on the ozone layer were found to be negligible for the number of aircraft in operation.

In 1974, however, American chemists Mario Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland of the University of California at Irvine recognized that human-produced chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)- molecules containing only carbon, fluorine, and chlorine atoms-could be a major source of chlorine in the stratosphere. They also noted that chlorine could destroy extensive amounts of ozone after it was liberated from CFCs by UV radiation. Free chlorine atoms and chlorine-containing gases, such as chlorine monoxide (ClO), could then break ozone molecules apart by stripping away one of the three oxygen atoms. Later research revealed that bromine and certain bromine-containing compounds, such as bromine monoxide (BrO), were even more effective at destroying ozone than were chlorine and its reactive compounds. Subsequent laboratory measurements, atmospheric measurements, and atmospheric-modeling studies soon substantiated the importance of their findings. Crutzen, Molina, and Rowland received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1995 for their efforts.

Human activities have had a significant effect on the global concentration and distribution of stratospheric ozone since before the 1980s. In addition, scientists have noted that large annual decreases in average ozone concentrations began to occur by at least 1980. Measurements from satellites, aircraft, ground-based sensors, and other instruments indicate that total integrated column levels of ozone (that is, the number of ozone molecules occurring per square metre in sampled columns of air) decreased globally by roughly 5 percent between 1970 and the mid-1990s, with little change afterward. The largest decreases in ozone took place in the high latitudes (toward the poles), and the smallest decreases occurred in the lower latitudes (the tropics). In addition, atmospheric measurements show that the depletion of the ozone layer increased the amount of UV radiation reaching Earth's surface.

This global decrease in stratospheric ozone is well correlated with rising levels of chlorine and bromine in the stratosphere from the manufacture and release of CFCs and other halocarbons. Halocarbons are produced by industry for a variety of uses, such as refrigerants (in refrigerators, air conditioners, and large chillers), propellants for aerosol cans, blowing agents for making plastic foams, firefighting agents, and solvents for dry cleaning and degreasing. Atmospheric measurements have clearly corroborated theoretical studies showing that chlorine and bromine released from halocarbons in the stratosphere react with and destroy ozone.

The most severe case of ozone depletion was first documented in 1985 in a paper by British Antarctic Survey (BAS) scientists Joseph C. Farman, Brian G. Gardiner, and Jonathan D. Shanklin. Beginning in the late 1970s, a large and rapid decrease in total ozone, often by more than 60 percent relative to the global average, has been observed in the springtime (September to November) over Antarctica. Farman and his colleagues first documented this phenomenon over their BAS station at Halley Bay, Antarctica. Their analyses attracted the attention of the scientific community, which found that these decreases in the total ozone column were greater than 50 percent compared with historical values observed by both ground-based and satellite techniques.

As a result of the Farman paper, a number of hypotheses arose that attempted to explain the Antarctic "ozone hole." It was initially proposed that the ozone decrease might be explained by the chlorine catalytic cycle, in which single chlorine atoms and their compounds strip single oxygen atoms from ozone molecules. Since more ozone loss occurred than could be explained by the supply of reactive chlorine available in the polar regions by known processes at that time, other hypotheses arose. A special measurement campaign conducted by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in 1987, as well as later measurements, proved that chlorine and bromine chemistry were indeed responsible for the ozone hole, but for another reason: the hole appeared to be the product of chemical reactions occurring on particles that make up polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) in the lower stratosphere.

During the winter the air over the Antarctic becomes extremely cold as a result of the lack of sunlight and a reduced mixing of lower stratospheric air over Antarctica with air outside the region. This reduced mixing is caused by the circumpolar vortex, also called the polar winter vortex. Bounded by a stratospheric jet of wind circulating between approximately 50° and 65° S, the air over Antarctica and its adjacent seas is effectively isolated from air outside the region. The extremely cold temperatures inside the vortex lead to the formation of PSCs, which occur at altitudes of roughly 12 to 22 km (about 7 to 14 miles). Chemical reactions that take place on PSC particles convert less-reactive chlorine-containing molecules to more-reactive forms such as molecular chlorine (Cl ₂) that accumulate during the polar night. (Bromine compounds and nitrogen oxides can also react with these cloud particles.) When day returns to Antarctica in the early spring, sunlight breaks the molecular chlorine into single chlorine atoms that can react with and destroy ozone. Ozone destruction continues until the breakup of the polar vortex, which usually takes place in November.

A polar winter vortex also forms in the Northern Hemisphere. However, in general, it is neither as strong nor as cold as the one that forms in the Antarctic. Although polar stratospheric clouds can form in the Arctic, they rarely last long enough for extensive decreases in ozone. Arctic ozone decreases of as much as 40 percent have been measured. This thinning typically occurs during years when lower-stratospheric temperatures in the Arctic vortex have been sufficiently low to lead to ozone-destruction processes similar to those found in the Antarctic ozone hole. As with Antarctica, large increases in concentrations in reactive chlorine have been measured in Arctic regions where high levels of ozone destruction occur.

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Ozone depletion | Facts, Effects, & Solutions

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Ozone depletion, gradual thinning of Earth's ozone layer caused by the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from industry and other human activities. The thinning is most pronounced in the polar regions, especially over Antarctica.