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A colorful exploration of Renaissance innovations and the brilliant minds behind them, perfect for middle school readers.

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This painter, inventor, and all-around supergenius rocked Renaissance Italy. Check out the timeline below to learn about the life of this legend.

1452

Leonardo da Vinci is born in Vinci, Italy. (Get it? Da Vinci? From Vinci?) As a child, outdoorsy Leo loves hanging out in nature.

1460s

Teenaged Leonardo moves to Florence, Italy, where he takes painting lessons. Using a technique called tempera, the artist mixes color pigments with water and egg yolk to make paint.

1480s

The genius starts scribbling down some 20,000 pages of ideas. (Can you say writer's cramp?) He spells words backward and reverses each letter so his notes only look normal when reflected in a mirror. "Mirror writing" might have helped protect his ideas from snoops.

1490s

Leonardo sketches designs of a flying machine. His blueprints make him the first known person to seriously study ways for humans to take flight.

1495

Asked by the Duke of Milan to paint a mural for a dining room, Leonardo creates "The Last Supper." People love the piece and Leonardo rockets to superstardom.

1503

Leonardo starts work on the "Mona Lisa," a painting famous for its eyes that seem to follow viewers wherever they move. Creepy!

1516

Asked to be the King of France's official painter, Leonardo goes to, um, France, where he stays for the rest of his life.

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This painter, inventor, and all-around supergenius rocked Renaissance Italy. Check out the timeline below to learn about the life of this legend.

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An online educational resource exploring everyday life and cultural values during the Renaissance period.

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Habits of a Renaissance Man: Learning How to Learn from Leonardo da Vinci | Leonardo da Vinci | PBS LearningMedia

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Ignite student curiosity and critical thinking with this exploration of Leonardo da Vinci and what it means to be a “Renaissance Man.” By examining Leonardo’s multifaceted genius, students will deconstruct traditional notions of a well-rounded individual and construct a more inclusive and relevant definition for today’s world. Documentary clips from Ken Burns, Sarah Burns, and David McMahon’s Leonardo da Vinci illustrate Leonardo’s spirit of inquiry, habits of mind, and achievements across disciplines.
Teachers can choose an extension activity in which students synthesize their understanding. In one option, students can produce a documentary or infographic highlighting modern-day Renaissance figures, using their developed criteria to evaluate these individuals’ achievements, or they can create a PSA inspiring peers to cultivate a diverse range of skills and interests. Alternatively, in another option, students are invited to reimagine their school environment, envisioning a space that fosters passion, interdisciplinary learning, and a love of knowledge, akin to Leonardo da Vinci’s own intellectual journey.
About the Author: Passionate about fostering critical thinking and informed citizenship, Mary Kate Lonergan serves as the K-6 Social Studies Curriculum Specialist at Fayetteville-Manlius Central Schools. Her previous experience teaching 8th grade Social Studies, High School World History, and Participation in Government fuels her commitment to student learning. Mary Kate empowers students to critically engage with media and information by making media literacy the throughline of her Social Studies curriculum. Mary Kate has developed and implemented media and digital literacy professional development courses and has presented at conferences from the national to local levels. She is a KQED Media Literacy Innovator, serves as a Teacher Collaborator with Ithaca College’s Project Look Sharp, and is a faculty member of the Media Education Lab’s Summer Institute in Digital Literacy.

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Leonardo Da Vinci's Influences on the Renaissance

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Leonardo Da Vinci's Influences on the Renaissance

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Gain insight into the mind of a genius and the fundamental scientific and artistic principles he discovered.

The Renaissance Man

Who Was Leonardo Da Vinci?
While Leonardo da Vinci is best known as an artist, his work as a scientist and an inventor make him a true Renaissance man. He serves as a role model applying the scientific method to every aspect of life, including art and music. Although he is best known for his dramatic and expressive artwork, Leonardo also conducted dozens of carefully thought out experiments and created futuristic inventions that were groundbreaking for the time.

His keen eye and quick mind led him to make important scientific discoveries, yet he never published his ideas. He was a vegetarian who loved animals and despised war, yet he worked as a military engineer to invent advanced and deadly weapons. He was one of the greatest painters of the Italian Renaissance, yet he left only a handful of completed paintings.

Navigate this website to learn more about Leonardo's brilliant and imaginative mind, and the art, inventions, and discoveries that he made.
Learn More >

Leonardo sought a universal language in painting. Using perspective and his experiences with scientific observation, Leonardo tried to create faithful renditions of life. This call to objectivity became the standard for painters who followed in the 16th century.

Da Vinci - The Artist >

Throughout his life, Leonardo had brilliant and far-out ideas, ranging from the practical to the prophetic. Leonardo recognized that levers and gears, when applied properly, could accomplish astonishing tasks.

Da Vinci - The Inventor >

Da Vinci bridged the gap between the shockingly unscientific medieval methods and our own trusty modern approach. The sheer range of topics that came under his inquiry is staggering: anatomy, zoology, botany, geology, optics, aerodynamics and hydrodynamics among others.

Da Vinci - The Scientist >

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Gain insight into the mind of a genius and the fundamental scientific and artistic principles he discovered.

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humanism, system of education and mode of inquiry that originated in northern Italy during the 13th and 14th centuries and later spread through continental Europe and England. The term is alternatively applied to a variety of Western beliefs, methods, and philosophies that place central emphasis on the human realm. Also known as Renaissance humanism, the historical program was so broadly and profoundly influential that it is one of the chief reasons why the Renaissance is viewed as a distinct historical period. Indeed, though the word Renaissance is of more recent coinage, the fundamental idea of that period as one of renewal and reawakening is humanistic in origin. But humanism sought its own philosophical bases in far earlier times and, moreover, continued to exert some of its power long after the end of the Renaissance.

Origin and meaning of the term humanism

The ideal of humanitas

The history of the term humanism is complex but enlightening. It was first employed (as humanismus) by 19th-century German scholars to designate the Renaissance emphasis on Classical studies in education. These studies were pursued and endorsed by educators known, as early as the late 15th century, as umanisti-that is, professors or students of Classical literature. The word umanisti derives from the studia humanitatis, a course of Classical studies that, in the early 15th century, consisted of grammar, poetry, rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy. The studia humanitatis were held to be the equivalent of the Greek . Their name was itself based on the Roman statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero's concept of , an educational and political ideal that was the intellectual basis of the entire movement. Renaissance humanism in all its forms defined itself in its straining toward this ideal. No discussion of humanism, therefore, can have validity without an understanding of humanitas.

Humanitas meant the development of human virtue, in all its forms, to its fullest extent. The term thus implied not only such qualities as are associated with the modern word humanity-understanding, benevolence, compassion, mercy-but also such more assertive characteristics as fortitude, judgment, prudence, eloquence, and even love of honour. Consequently, the possessor of humanitas could not be merely a sedentary and isolated philosopher or man of letters but was of necessity a participant in active life. Just as action without insight was held to be aimless and barbaric, insight without action was rejected as barren and imperfect. Humanitas called for a fine balance of action and contemplation, a balance born not of compromise but of complementarity.

The goal of such fulfilled and balanced virtue was political, in the broadest sense of the word. The purview of Renaissance humanism included not only the education of the young but also the guidance of adults (including rulers) via philosophical poetry and strategic rhetoric. It included not only realistic social criticism but also utopian hypotheses, not only painstaking reassessments of history but also bold reshapings of the future. In short, humanism called for the comprehensive reform of culture, the transfiguration of what humanists termed the passive and ignorant society of the "dark" ages into a new order that would reflect and encourage the grandest human potentialities. Humanism had an evangelical dimension: it sought to project humanitas from the individual into the state at large.

The wellspring of humanitas was Classical literature. Greek and Roman thought, available in a flood of rediscovered or newly translated manuscripts, provided humanism with much of its basic structure and method. For Renaissance humanists, there was nothing dated or outworn about the writings of Aristotle, Cicero, or Livy. Compared with the typical productions of medieval Christianity, these pagan works had a fresh, radical, almost avant-garde tonality. Indeed, recovering the classics was to humanism tantamount to recovering reality. Classical philosophy, rhetoric, and history were seen as models of proper method-efforts to come to terms, systematically and without preconceptions of any kind, with perceived experience. Moreover, Classical thought considered ethics qua ethics, politics qua politics: it lacked the inhibiting dualism occasioned in medieval thought by the often-conflicting demands of secularism and Christian spirituality. Classical virtue, in examples of which the literature abounded, was not an abstract essence but a quality that could be tested in the forum or on the battlefield. Finally, Classical literature was rich in eloquence. In particular, humanists considered Cicero to be the pattern of refined and copious discourse, as well as the model of eloquence combined with wise statesmanship. In eloquence humanists found far more than an exclusively aesthetic quality. As an effective means of moving leaders or fellow citizens toward one political course or another, eloquence was akin to pure power. Humanists cultivated rhetoric, consequently, as the medium through which all other virtues could be communicated and fulfilled.

Humanism, then, may be accurately defined as that Renaissance movement that had as its central focus the ideal of humanitas. The narrower definition of the Italian term umanisti notwithstanding, all the Renaissance writers who cultivated humanitas, and all their direct "descendants," may be correctly termed humanists.

Other uses

It is small wonder that a term as broadly allusive as humanism should be subject to a wide variety of applications. Of these (excepting the historical movement described above) there are three basic types: humanism as Classicism, humanism as referring to the modern concept of the humanities, and humanism as human-centredness.

Accepting the notion that Renaissance humanism was simply a return to the Classics, some historians and philologists have reasoned that Classical revivals occurring anywhere in history should be called humanistic. St. Augustine, Alcuin, and the scholars of 12th-century Chartres have thus been referred to as humanists. In this sense the term can also be used self-consciously, as in the New Humanism movement in literary criticism led by Irving Babbitt and Paul Elmer More in the early 20th century.

The word humanities, which like the word umanisti derived from the Latin studia humanitatis, is often used to designate the nonscientific scholarly disciplines: language, literature, rhetoric, philosophy, art history, and so forth. Thus, it is customary to refer to scholars in these fields as humanists and to their activities as humanistic.

Humanism and related terms are frequently applied to modern doctrines and techniques that are based on the centrality of human experience. In the 20th century the pragmatic humanism of Ferdinand C.S. Schiller, the Christian humanism of Jacques Maritain, and the movement known as secular humanism, though differing from each other significantly in content, all showed this anthropocentric emphasis.

Not only is such a large assortment of definitions confusing, but the definitions themselves are often redundant or impertinent. There is no reason to call all Classical revivals "humanistic" when the word Classical suffices. To say that professors in the many disciplines known as the humanities are humanists is to compound vagueness with vagueness, for these disciplines have long since ceased to have or even aspire to a common rationale. The definition of humanism as anthropocentricity or human-centredness has a firmer claim to correctness. For obvious reasons, however, it is confusing to apply this word to Classical literature.

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Humanism | Definition, Principles, History, & Influence

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Humanism, system of education and mode of inquiry that originated in northern Italy during the 13th and 14th centuries and later spread through western Europe. The term is alternatively applied to a variety of Western beliefs, methods, and philosophies that place central emphasis on the human realm.

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The Medici family, also known as the House of Medici, first attained wealth and political power in Florence, Italy, in the 13th century through its success in commerce and banking. Beginning in 1434 with the rise to power of Cosimo de Medici (or Cosimo the Elder), the family's patronage of the arts and humanities made Florence into the cradle of the Renaissance, Europe's scientific, artistic and cultural rebirth. The Medicis produced four popes (Leo X, Clement VII, Pius IV and Leo XI), and their genes have been mixed into many of Europe's royal families. The last Medici ruler died without a male heir in 1737, ending the family dynasty after almost three centuries.

Birth of the Medici Family

The Medici story began around the 12th century when family members from the Tuscan village of Cafaggiolo emigrated to Florence. Through banking and commerce, the Medicis rose to become one of the most important families in Florence.

Their influence had declined by the late 14th century, however, when Salvestro de Medici (then serving as gonfaliere, or standard bearer, of Florence) was banished from the city in 1382 due to his oppressive policies and was forced to live in exile.

Cosimo de Medici

Another branch of the family, descended from Salvestro's distant cousin Giovanni di Bicci de Medici, would begin the great Medici dynasty. Giovanni's elder son, Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464), rose to political power in 1434 and ruled Florence as an uncrowned monarch for the rest of his life.

Known to history as Cosimo the Elder, he lived a spartan life but was a devoted patron of the humanities, supporting artists such as Lorenzo Ghiberti, Filippo Brunelleschi, Donatello and Fra Angelico. During Cosimo's time, as well as that of his sons and particularly his grandson Lorenzo de Medici, the Italian Renaissance flourished, and Florence became the cultural center of Europe.

Did you know? When Cosimo I moved the Florentine administrative offices into a building known as the Uffizi, he also established a small museum. The building is now the site of Florence's famed Uffizi Gallery, home to many great Renaissance-era treasures amassed by the Medicis since the time of Cosimo the Elder.

Lorenzo de Medici

Lorenzo de Medici (1449-1492), also known as Lorenzo the Magnificent, was a poet himself, and supported the work of such Renaissance masters as Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo (whom the Medicis commissioned to complete their family tombs in Florence).

After Lorenzo's premature death at the age of 43, his eldest son Piero succeeded him, but he soon infuriated the public by accepting an unfavorable peace treaty with France. After only two years in power, he was forced out of the city in 1494, and died in exile.

In 1512, thanks in part to the efforts of Piero's younger brother Giovanni (a cardinal at the time and the future Pope Leo X), the Medici family was able to return to Florence. The next few years marked the high point of Medici influence in Europe, as Leo X followed in his father's humanistic footsteps and devoted himself to artistic patronage.

Catherine de Medici

Piero's son, also named Lorenzo, regained power in Florence, and his daughter Catherine de Medici (1519-1589) would become queen of France after marrying King Henry II; three of her four sons would rule France as well.

By the early 1520s, few descendants of Cosimo the Elder remained. Giulio de Medici, the illegitimate son of Lorenzo the Magnificent's brother Giuliano, abdicated power in 1523 to become Pope Clement VII, and the short and brutal rule of Alessandro (reputed to be Giulio's own illegitimate son) ended with his assassination in 1537.

A New Medici Branch Comes to Power

At this point, the descendants of Cosimo the Elder's brother (known as Lorenzo the Elder) came forward to launch a new Medici dynasty. Lorenzo's great-great-grandson Cosimo (1519-1574) became duke of Florence in 1537, then grand duke of Tuscany in 1569. As Cosimo I, he established absolute power in the region, and his descendants would rule as grand dukes into the 1700s.

Cosimo's elder son Francis succeeded his father, but proved a less effective ruler. His daughter Marie would become queen of France when she married Henry IV in 1600; her son would rule as Louis XIII from 1610-43. Francis' younger brother Ferdinand, who became grand duke in 1587, restored Tuscany to stability and prosperity. He also founded the Villa Medici at Rome and brought many priceless works of art to Florence.

Medici Family in Decline

In general, the later Medici line renounced the older generation's republican sympathies and established more authoritarian rule, a change that produced stability in Florence and Tuscany, but led to the region's decline as a cultural hub.

After Ferdinand's son Cosimo II (who supported the work of the mathematician, philosopher and astronomer Galileo Galilei) died in 1720, Florence and Tuscany suffered under ineffectual Medici rule.

When the last Medici grand duke, Gian Gastone, died without a male heir in 1737, the family dynasty died with him. By agreement of the European powers (Austria, France, England and the Netherlands), control over Tuscany passed to Francis of Lorraine, whose marriage to Hapsburg heiress (and mother of Marie Antoinette) Maria Theresa of Austria would begin the long European reign of the Hapsburg-Lorraine family.

Sources

How the Medici Used Portraits as Propaganda. Smithsonian Magazine.
The Medici Family. The Galileo Project. Rice University.
Medici Family: Origins and History. The Medici Family.

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Medici Family: Cosimo, Lorenzo & Catherine - HISTORY

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The Medici family was a powerful dynasty that ruled Florence, Italy, and soon spread their artistic and economic influence throughout Renaissance Europe.

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During the Renaissance, most works of fine art were commissioned and paid for by rulers, religious and civic institutions, and the wealthy. Producing statues, frescoes, altarpieces, and portraits were just some of the ways artists made a living. For the more modest client, there were ready-made items such as plaques and figurines. Unlike today, the Renaissance artist was often expected to sacrifice their own artistic sentiments and produce precisely what the customer ordered or expected. Contracts were drawn up for commissions which stipulated the final cost, the timescale, the quantity of precious materials to be used, and perhaps even included an illustration of the work to be undertaken. Litigations were not uncommon but, at least, a successful piece helped spread an artist's reputation to the point where they might be able to have more control over their work.

Who Were the Patrons of Art?

During the Renaissance, it was the usual practice for artists to only produce works once they had been asked to do so by a specific buyer in a system of patronage known as mecenatismo. As the skills required were uncommon, the materials costly, and the time needed often long, most works of art were expensive to produce. Consequently, the customers of an artist's workshop were typically rulers of cities or dukedoms, the Popes, male and female aristocrats, bankers, successful merchants, notaries, higher members of the clergy, religious orders, and civic authorities and organisations like guilds, hospitals, and confraternities. Such customers were keen not only to surround their daily lives and buildings with nice things but also to demonstrate to others their wealth, good taste, and piety.

There was a great rivalry between cities like Florence, Venice, Mantua, & Siena and they hoped any new art produced would enhance their status in Italy & Abroad.

Rulers of cities like the Medici in Florence and the Gonzaga in Mantua wanted to portray themselves and their family as successful and so they were keen to be associated with, for example, heroes of the past, real or mythological. Popes and churches, in contrast, were eager for art to help spread the message of Christianity by providing visual stories even the illiterate could understand. During the Renaissance in Italy, it also became important for cities as a whole to cultivate a certain character and image. There was a great rivalry between cities like Florence, Venice, Mantua, and Siena, and they hoped any new art produced would enhance their status within Italy or even beyond. Publicly commissioned works might include portraits of a city's rulers (past and present), statues of military leaders, or representations of classical figures particularly associated with that city (for example, King David for Florence). For the same reasons, cities frequently tried to poach renowned artists away from one city to work in their city instead. This revolving market of artists also explains why, particularly in Italy with its many independent city-states, artists were always very keen to sign their work and so contribute to their own burgeoning reputation.

Rulers of cities, once they had found themselves a good artist, might keep him at their court indefinitely for a great number of works. A 'court artist' was more than just a painter and could be involved in anything remotely artistic, from decorating a bedroom to designing the liveries and flags of their patron's army. For the very best artists, payment for their work at a particular court could go far beyond mere cash and include tax breaks, palatial residences, patches of forest, and titles. This was just as well because the majority of surviving correspondence we have from such artists as Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519 CE) and Andrea Mantegna (c. 1431-1506 CE) involves respectful but repeated demands for the salary their illustrious, yet tight-fisted patrons, had originally promised them.

Whoever the client of Renaissance art, they could be very particular about what the finished article looked like.

Modest art, say a small votive statue or plaque, was within the means of more humble citizens, but such purchases would have been only for special occasions. When people got married, they might employ an artist to decorate a chest, some parts of a room, or a fine item of furniture in their new home. Relief plaques to leave in churches in thanks for a happy occurrence in their lives was a common purchase, too, for ordinary folk. Such plaques would have been one of the few types of art produced in larger quantities and made readily available 'over the counter'. Other options for cheaper art included secondhand dealers or those workshops which offered such minor items as engraving prints, pennants, and playing cards which were ready for sale but could be personalised by, for example, adding a family coat of arms or a name to them.

Expectations & Contracts

Whoever the client of Renaissance art, they could be very particular about what the finished article looked like. This was because art was not merely produced for aesthetic reasons but to convey meaning, as mentioned above. It was no good if a religious order paid for a fresco of their founding saint only to find the finished artwork contained an unrecognisable figure. Simply put, artists could be imaginative but not go so far from convention that nobody knew what the work meant or represented. The re-interest in classical literature and art which was such an important part of the Renaissance only emphasised this requirement. The wealthy possessed a common language of history regarding who was who, who did what, and what attributes they had in art. For example, Jesus Christ has long hair, Diana carries a spear or bow, and Saint Francis must have some animals nearby. Indeed, a painting packed with classical references was highly desirable as it created a conversation piece for dinner guests, allowing the well-educated to display their deeper knowledge of antiquity. The Primavera painting by Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510 CE), commissioned by Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, is an excellent and subtle example of this common language of symbolism.

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As a consequence of the expectation of patrons, and in order to avoid disappointment, contracts were commonly drawn up between artist and patron. The design, whether of a statue, painting, baptistery font, or tomb, might be agreed on in detail beforehand. There could even be a small scale model or a sketch made, which then became a formal part of the contract. Below is an extract from a contract signed in Padua in 1466 CE which included a sketch:

Let it be manifest to anyone who will read this paper that Mr Bernardo de Lazzaro had contracted with Master Pietro Calzetta, the painter, to paint a chapel in the church of St. Anthony which is known as the chapel of the Eucharist. In this chapel he is to fresco the ceiling with four prophets or Evangelists against a blue background with stars in fine gold. All the leaves of marble which are in that chapel should also be painted with fine gold and blue as should the figures of marble and their columns which are carved there...In the said altarpiece, Master Pietro is to paint a history similar to that in the design which is on this sheet...He is to make it similar to this but to make more things than are in the said design...Master Pietro promises to finish all the work written above by next Easter and promises that all the work will be well made and polished and promises to ensure that the said work will be good, solid, and sufficient for at least twenty-five years and in case of any defect in his work he will be obliged to pay both the damage and the interest on the work...

(Welch, 104)

The fees for a project were set out in the contract and, as in the example above, the completion date was established, even if negotiations might continue long after to amend the contract. Missing the promised delivery date was perhaps the most common reason for litigation between patrons and artists. Some works necessitated the use of expensive materials (gold leaf, silver inlay, or particular dyes, for example) and these might be limited in quantity by the contract to avoid the artist overindulging and going over budget. In the case of goldwork or a fine marble sculpture, the minimum weight of the finished work could be specified in the contract. For paintings, the price of the frame might be included in the contract, an item that frequently cost more than the painting itself. There might even be a get-out clause that the patron could avoid paying altogether if the finished piece did not gain favour with a panel of independent art experts. After a contract was signed, a copy was each kept by the patron, artist, and public notary.

Following the Project

Once the terms and conditions were settled, the artist might still face some interference from his patron as the project developed into a reality. Civic authorities could be the most demanding of all patrons as elected or appointed committees ( opere) discussed the project in detail, perhaps held a competition to see which artist would do the job, signed the contract, and then, after all that, established a special group to monitor the work throughout its execution. A particular problem with opere was that their members changed periodically (although not their chief, the operaio) and so commissions, although not perhaps cancelled, could be seen as less important or too expensive by different officials from those who originally started the project. Fees became an ongoing issue for Donatello (c. 1386-1466 CE) with his Gattamelata in Padua, a bronze equestrian statue of the mercenary leader ( condottiere) Erasmo da Narni (1370-1443 CE), and this despite Narni having left in his will a provision for just such a statue.

Some patrons were very particular indeed. In a letter from Isabella d'Este (1474-1539 CE), wife of Gianfrancesco II Gonzaga (1466-1519 CE), then ruler of Mantua, to Pietro Perugino (c. 1450-1523 CE), the painter was left very little margin for imagination in his painting the Battle between Love and Chastity. Isabella writes:

Our poetic invention, which we greatly want to see painted by you, is a battle of Chastity and Lasciviousness, that is to say, Pallas and Diana fighting vigorously against Venus and Cupid. And Pallas should seem almost to have vanquished Cupid, having broken his golden arrow and cast his silver bow underfoot; with one hand she is holding him by the bandage which the blind boy has before his eyes, and with the other she is lifting her lance and about to kill him...

the letter continues like this for several paragraphs and concludes with:

I am sending you all these details in a small drawing so that with both the written description and the drawing you will be able to consider my wishes in this matter. But if you think that perhaps there are too many figures in this for one picture, it is left to you to reduce them as you please, provided that you do not remove the principal basis, which consists of the four figures of Pallas, Diana, Venus and Cupid. If no inconvenience occurs I shall consider myself well satisfied; you are free to reduce them, but not to add anything else. Please be content with this arrangement.

(Paoletti, 360)

Portraiture must have been a particularly tempting area for patron interference and one wonders what customers thought of such innovations as Leonardo da Vinci's three-quarter view of his subjects or the absence of conventional status symbols like jewellery. One of the bones of contention between the Pope and Michelangelo (1475-1564 CE) while he was painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling was that the artist refused to let his patron see the work until it was completed.

Finally, it was not unusual for patrons to appear somewhere in the work of art they had commissioned, an example being Enrico Scrovegni, kneeling in the Last Judgement section of Giotto's frescoes in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua. Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510 CE) even managed to get in a whole family of senior Medici in his 1475 CE Adoration of the Magi. At the same time, the artist might put themselves in the work, see, for example, the bust of Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455 CE) in his bronze panelled doors of Florence's Baptistery.

Post-Project Reaction

Despite the contractual restrictions, we can imagine that many artists tried to push the boundaries of what had been previously agreed upon or simply experimented with novel approaches to a tired subject matter. Some patrons, of course, may even have encouraged such independence, especially when working with more famous artists. However, even the most renowned artists could get into trouble. It was not unknown, for example, for a fresco not to be appreciated and so be painted over and then redone by another artist. Even Michelangelo faced this when completing his frescoes in the Sistine Chapel. Some of the clergy objected to the amount of nudes and proposed to replace them entirely. A compromise was settled on and 'trousers' were painted on the offending figures by another artist. However, the fact that many artists received repeat commissions would suggest that patrons were more often satisfied than not with their purchases and that, like today, there was a certain respectful deference for artistic license.

Patrons certainly could be disappointed by an artist, most commonly by them never finishing the work at all, either because they walked out over a disagreement on the design or they simply had too many projects ongoing. Michelangelo fled Rome and the interminable saga that was the design and execution of the tomb of Pope Julius II (r. 1503-1513 CE), while Leonardo da Vinci was notorious for not finishing commissions simply because his overactive mind lost interest in them after a while. In some cases, the master artist might have deliberately left some parts of the work to be finished by his assistants, another point which a wise patron could guard against in the original contract. In short, though, litigations for breaches of contract were not an uncommon occurrence and, just like commissioning an artist today, it seems that a Renaissance patron could be delighted, surprised, perplexed, or downright outraged at the finished work of art they had paid for.

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During the Renaissance, most works of fine art were commissioned and paid for by rulers, religious and civic institutions, and the wealthy. Producing statues, frescoes, altarpieces, and portraits were just some of the ways artists made a living. For the more modest client, there were ready-made items such as plaques and figurines.

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Ferdinand Magellan's Early Years

Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480-1521) was born in Sabrosa, Portugal, to a family of minor Portuguese nobility. At age 12 Ferdinand Magellan ( Fernão de Magalhães in Portuguese and Fernando de Magallanes in Spanish) and his brother Diogo traveled to Lisbon to serve as pages at Queen Leonora's court. While at the court Magellan was exposed to stories of the great Portuguese and Spanish rivalry for sea exploration and dominance over the spice trade in the East Indies, especially the Spice Islands, or Moluccas, in modern Indonesia. Intrigued by the promise of fame and riches, Magellan developed an interest in maritime discovery in those early years.

Did you know? Clove was the most valuable spice in Europe during Magellan's day. It was used to flavor food, but Europeans also believed that its essence could improve vision, its powder could relieve fevers and that it could enhance intercourse when mixed with milk.

In 1505, Magellan and his brother were assigned to a Portuguese fleet headed for India. Over the next seven years, Magellan participated in several expeditions in India, Southeast Asia, and Africa and was wounded in several battles. In 1513 he joined the enormous 500-ship, 15,000-soldier force sent by King Manuel to Morocco to challenge the Moroccan governor who refused to pay its yearly tribute to the Portuguese empire. The Portuguese easily overwhelmed the Moroccan forces, and Magellan stayed on in Morocco. While there he was seriously wounded in a skirmish, which left him with a limp for the rest of his life.

Magellan: From Portugal to Spain

In the 15th century, spices were at the epicenter of the world economy, much like oil is today. Highly valued for flavoring and preserving food as well as masking the taste of meat gone bad, spices like cinnamon, clove, nutmeg and especially black pepper were extremely valuable. Since spices could not be cultivated in cold and arid Europe, no effort was spared to discover the quickest sea route to the Spice Islands. Portugal and Spain led the competition for early control over this critical commodity. Europeans had reached the Spice Islands by sailing east, but none had yet to sail west from Europe to reach the other side of the globe. Magellan was determined to be the first to do so.

By now an experienced seaman, Magellan approached King Manuel of Portugal to seek his support for a westward voyage to the Spice Islands. The king refused his petition repeatedly. In 1517, a frustrated Magellan renounced his Portuguese nationality and relocated to Spain to seek royal support for his venture.

When Magellan arrived in Seville in October 1517, he had no connections and spoke little Spanish. He soon met another transplanted Portuguese named Diogo Barbosa, and within a year he had married Barbosa's daughter Beatriz, who gave birth to their son Rodrigo a year later. The well-connected Barbosa family introduced Magellan to officers responsible for Spain's maritime exploration, and soon Magellan secured an appointment to meet the king of Spain.

The grandson of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who had funded Christopher Columbus 's expedition to the New World in 1492, received Magellan's petition with the same favor shown by his grandparents. Just 18 years old at the time, King Charles I granted his support to Magellan, who in turn promised the young king that his westward sea voyage would bring immeasurable riches to Spain.

Strait of Magellan

On August 10, 1519 Magellan bade farewell to his wife and young son, neither of whom he would ever see again, and the Armada De Moluccas set sail. Magellan commanded the lead ship Trinidad and was accompanied by four other ships: the San Antonio, the Conception, the Victoria and the Santiago. The expedition would prove long and arduous, and only one ship, the Victoria, would return three years later across the Pacific, carrying a mere 18 of the fleet's original crew of 270.

In September 1519 Magellan's fleet sailed from Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Spain, and crossed the Atlantic Ocean, which was then known simply as the Ocean Sea. The fleet reached South America a little more than one month later. There the ships sailed southward, hugging the coast in search of the fabled strait that would allow passage through South America. The fleet stopped at Port San Julian where the crew mutinied on Easter Day in 1520. Magellan quickly quelled the uprising, executing one of the captains and leaving another mutinous captain behind. Meanwhile Magellan had sent the Santiago to explore the route ahead, where it was shipwrecked during a terrible storm. The ship's crew members were rescued and assigned out among the remaining ships. With those disastrous events behind them, the fleet left Port San Julian five months later when fierce seasonal storms abated.

On October 21, 1520 Magellan finally entered the strait that he had been seeking and that came to bear his name. The voyage through the Strait of Magellan was treacherous and cold, and many sailors continued to mistrust their leader and grumble about the dangers of the journey ahead. In the early days of the navigation of the strait, the crew of the San Antonio forced its captain to desert, and the ship turned and fled across the Atlantic Ocean back to Spain. At this point, only three of the original five ships remained in Magellan's fleet.

The Magellan Expedition: Circumnavigation the Globe

After more than a month spent traversing the strait, Magellan's remaining armada emerged in November 1520 to behold a vast ocean before them. They were the first known Europeans to see the great ocean, which Magellan named Mar Pacifico, the Pacific Ocean, for its apparent peacefulness, a stark contrast to the dangerous waters of the strait from which he had just emerged. In fact, extremely rough waters are not uncommon in the Pacific Ocean, where tsunamis, typhoons and hurricanes have done serious damage to the Pacific Islands and Pacific Rim nations throughout history.

Little was known about the geography beyond South America at that time, and Magellan optimistically estimated that the trip across the Pacific would be rapid. In fact, it took three months for the fleet to make its way slowly across the vast Mar Pacifico. The days dragged on as Magellan's crew anxiously waited to utter the magic words "Land, ho!" At last, the fleet reached the Pacific island of Guam in March 1521, where they finally replenished their food stores.

Magellan's fleet then sailed on to the Philippine archipelago landing on the island of Cebu, where Magellan befriended the locals and, struck with a sudden religious zeal, sought to convert them to Christianity. Magellan was now closer than ever to reaching the Spice Islands, but when the Cebu asked for his help in fighting their neighbors on the island of Mactan, Magellan agreed. He assumed he would command a swift victory with his superior European weapons, and against the advice of his men, Magellan himself led the attack. The Mactanese fought fiercely, and Magellan fell when he was shot with a poison arrow. Ferdinand Magellan died on April 27, 1521.

Magellan would never make it to the Spice Islands, but after the loss of yet another of his fleet's vessels, the two remaining ships finally reached the Moluccas on November 5, 1521. In the end, only the Victoria completed the voyage around the world and arrived back in Seville, Spain, in September 1522 with a heavy cargo of spices but with only 18 men from the original crew, including Italian scholar and explorer Antonio Pigafetta. The journal Pigafaetta kept on the voyage is a key record of what the crew encountered on their journey home.

Impact of Ferdinand Magellan

Seeking riches and personal glory, Magellan's daring and ambitious voyage around the world provided the Europeans with far more than just spices. Although the trip westward from Europe to the east via the Strait of Magellan had been discovered and mapped, the journey was too long and dangerous to become a practical route to the Spice Islands. Nevertheless, European geographic knowledge was expanded immeasurably by Magellan's expedition. He found not only a massive ocean, hitherto unknown to Europeans, but he also discovered that the earth was much larger than previously thought. Finally, although it was no longer believed that the earth was flat at this stage in history, Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe empirically discredited the medieval theory conclusively.

Though Magellan is often credited with the first circumnavigation of the globe, he did so on a technicality: He first made a trip from Europe to present-day Malaysia, eastward via the Indian Ocean, and may have continued further east to the Spice Islands. He then later made his famous westward voyage that brought him to the Philippines. So he did cover the entire terrain, but it was not a strict point A to point A, round-the-world trip, and it was made in two different directions. His enslaved servant Enrique was born in the region, possibly near Malacca or Cebu, and had come to Europe with Magellan by ship. Enrique reached Cebu (and possibly Mallaca) on the expedition's westward voyage, meaning he may have been the first person to circumnavigate the world in one direction to return to the same starting point.

HISTORY Vault: Columbus the Lost Voyage

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Ferdinand Magellan - Early Years, Expedition & Legacy

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Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe and became the first European to cross the Pacific Ocean.

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Almost 500 years ago, the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus wrote a book saying that Earth and the other planets travel around the Sun. This was an important change in…

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Renaissance Architecture is a style of architecture that emerged in early 15th-century Florence, Italy. Ushering in a revival of ancient Greek and Roman Classical architectural forms, it supplanted the prevailing Gothic medieval aesthetic.

What Is Renaissance Architecture?

The Renaissance ("rebirth") spanned two centuries, encompassing not only architecture but art and human ideals, producing multi-disciplinary giants including Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. The lasting cultural legacy of the Renaissance makes it one of the most transformative periods in western history.

History of Renaissance Architecture

Renaissance architecture developed as part of the rebirth of classicism in Florence, Italy, circa 1400 that evolved over the next 200 years as it spread throughout Italy and then Europe. Renaissance architects in Italy took inspiration from ancient Greco-Roman ruins and early structures like the Pantheon and the Colosseum in Rome, as well as the writings of Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius (80 BC-15 BC), which were published in 1486. Rather than simply reproducing the past, Renaissance architects sought to use classical elements to innovate new structures that were rooted in history but adapted to a modern world and the development of cities.

Renaissance Architecture is generally broken down into three main periods, starting with the Early Renaissance that began around 1400 when architects began to look to antiquity for inspiration and reintroduce Classical Roman and Greek elements such as arches, columns, and domes into buildings. Early Renaissance buildings had symmetrical facades and clear, streamlined volumes that marked a change from the more complex Gothic proportions that preceded them.

Starting around 1500, the High Renaissance was a period in which the use of Classical elements adapted to contemporary 16th-century building styles was in full bloom. During the Late Renaissance starting around 1520 (also called Mannerism), the use of decorative and ornamental classical elements such as domes and cupolas became more widespread.

Renaissance architecture was followed by the emergence of the Baroque period around 1600. Nevertheless, hundreds of years later the architectural fruits of the Renaissance are considered some of the world's greatest built structures and its guiding principles continue to influence architects, artists, and thinkers to this day.

Key Characteristics of Renaissance Architecture

Focus on classical notions of beauty based on proportion and symmetry mixed with a humanist perspective on architecture

Renaissance architecture strove to create harmony between humans and mathematical proportions by creating a human-scale classical geometry

Characterized by square, symmetrical building plans

Exteriors typically featured ashlar masonry

Employed the use of Classical elements such as domes, columns, pilasters, lintels, arches, and pediments in an orderly and repetitive fashion, adapted to then contemporary purposes

Use of Roman orders of Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite columns

Early Renaissance buildings focused on bringing in air and light, which was also a nod to the dawning of Renaissance ideals and thought

Notable Examples of Renaissance Architecture

Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, Italy. Considered the first Renaissance architect, Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) is the early Renaissance pioneer responsible for the famous red brick Duomo at the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. Construction of the cathedral began in the Gothic period in 1296 and was completed in 1436. The majestic dome is not only the building's crowning feature, it is a feat of engineering that was ahead of its time and that influenced many religious buildings in Italy and around the world. Considered by many to be the first Renaissance building, it is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the city's most striking and significant landmarks.

Saint Peter's Basilica in Vatican City, Italy. Located in the heart of Rome-adjacent Vatican City, Saint Peter's Basilica is a masterpiece of Renaissance architecture. Constructed between 1506 and 1615, and overseen at one point by the great Renaissance sculptor, painter, and sometime architect Michelangelo (1475-1564), who spent his final years overseeing the project, this holy pilgrimage site and tourist attraction is one of the most recognizable Renaissance buildings in the world.

Biblioteca Marciana in Venice, Italy. Completed in 1564, the Marciana research library in Venice is a quintessential example of Renaissance architecture, built in the Palladian style by architect Jacopo Sansovino. One of the most breathtaking public libraries ever built, this gem is located on the popular Piazza San Marco.

Palazzo Medici in Florence, Italy. This quintessential Renaissance palace, which is also called the Palazzo Medici Riccardi, was completed in 1484 by architect Michelozzo di Bartolomeo for the head of the Medici banking family. Today it is a museum and the seat of the Metropolitan City of Florence.

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Renaissance Architecture is a style of architecture that emerged in early 15th-century Florence, Italy. Ushering in a revival of ancient Greek and Roman Classical architectural forms, it supplanted the prevailing Gothic medieval aesthetic. The Renaissance ("rebirth") spanned two centuries, encompassing not only architecture but art and human ideals, producing multi-disciplinary giants including Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.

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Amerigo Vespucci was a 16th-century Italian merchant and explorer remembered not only for his voyages that altered the course of history but for bestowing the New World with the name "America."

Vespucci's mapping of coastlines and constellations, cultural observations and identification of equatorial ocean currents led to the realization that his travels had taken him to a new continent, challenging the previously held belief that Christopher Columbus had reached the uncharted eastern edge of Asia.

Early Life and Education

Born March 9, 1454, in Florence, Italy, during the height of the Renaissance, Vespucci came from a prominent family with ties to the Medici dynasty. His father, a government notary, and his uncle, respected humanist Dominican friar Giorgio Antonio Vespucci, played influential roles in his education. Immersed in a world of trade and maritime culture from a young age, Vespucci developed interests and aptitude in astronomy, math, navigation and foreign languages.

Early in his career, Vespucci worked for the Medici family as a banker and later supervised ship operations in Seville, Spain. Accounts vary, but many believe that Vespucci met Christopher Columbus in Seville in 1496, after Columbus's historic 1492 voyage, and assisted Columbus in preparing for future expeditions.

Did you know? Thefirst use of the name "America" was in 1507, when a new world map was created based on the explorations of Amerigo Vespucci.

Vespucci's Voyages

Fueled by his own passion for discovery, Vespucci joined a Spanish expedition while in his 40s, serving as an astronomer and mapmaker in search of a passage to India. Led by Spanish explorer Alonso de Ojeda, they set sail from Cadiz, Spain, in May 1499 and reached the northeastern coast of South America.

Despite their belief that they had arrived in Asia, Ojeda explored the coast of Venezuela while Vespucci ventured south to coastal Brazil. During the voyage, Vespucci charted the constellations, noting their differences from those seen in Europe. He also documented the diverse flora and fauna, made extensive observations about the indigenous tribes he encountered and described what he thought was the Ganges River, but is now known to be the mouth of the Amazon River.

In a letter recounting the journey, he wrote of discovering "an infinite number of birds or various forms and colors and trees so beautiful and fragrant that we thought we had entered the earthly Paradise."

In May 1501, Vespucci embarked on another voyage, this time under the patronage of King Manuel I of Portugal, again seeking passage to India. Sailing along the Brazilian and Argentinian coasts, Vesupucci ventured further south to present-day Rio de Janeiro and the La Plata River. Once again, he observed unfamiliar constellations, unexplained equatorial currents and an absence of the riches he expected to find in India. Realizing that he was not in India or on an undiscovered island but on a separate continent across the Atlantic Ocean, he dubbed the land Mundus Novus, or the New World.

There are varying accounts and unconfirmed reports of Vespucci undertaking a third voyage to the New World in 1503, also in the name of Portugal.

Although Vespucci's discoveries were not considered highly significant at the time, the publication of his correspondence with friends and colleagues chronicling his voyages, known as the "Vespucci Letters," played a pivotal role in dispelling the belief that Columbus had reached Asia. The letters brought Vespucci fame (although some believe the letters are fake).

Vespucci's Namesake and Reputation

The term "America" first took shape in 1507, when German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller drew a map of the newly recognized continent and labeled it "Americus" in Vespucci's honor. This map, often referred to as "America's birth certificate," marked the usage of the name "America."

Vespucci, who became a naturalized citizen of Spain in 1505, was given the prestigious title of master navigator of Spain in 1508. Charged with training and recruiting navigators and managing the country's map collections, he held the position until he died of malaria in Seville on February 22, 1512, at the age of 58.

Sources

"The Map That Named America," U.S. Library of Congress
"Amerigo Vespucci," by Frederick A.Ober
"Amerigo Vespucci: Italian explorer who named America," LiveScience"
Amerigo Vespucci," T he Martimers' Museum and Park

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Amerigo Vespucci was a 16th-century Italian merchant and explorer remembered not only for his voyages that altered the course of history but for bestowing the New World with the name "America."

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Printing Press - Invented, Gutenberg, Significance | HISTORY

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The printing press, which allows for the mass production of printed matter, originated in China before Johannes Guten…

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Galileo Galilei and the Scientific Method

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Galileo Galilei and the Scientific Method

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Galileo Galilei - New Mexico Museum of Space History

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Galileo Galilei pioneered the experimental scientific method and was the first to use a refracting telescope to make important astronomical discoveries. He is often referred to as the “father of […]

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(1469–1527). Italian political writer and statesman Niccolò Machiavelli was active during the Italian Renaissance. He wrote powerful, influential, and thoughtful prose. He…

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The Political Situation in The Renaissance

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The Political Situation in The Renaissance

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The political situation in the Italian Renaissance: instability and opportunity.

Understand the complexity of politics during the Italian Renaissance period, with its challenges and opportunities for artists and leaders.

The Italian Renaissance, which developed between the 14th and 15th centuries, was a period of great transformation not only in art and culture, but also in politics. During this period, the political situation in Italy was highly fragmented and unstable, with numerous city-states fighting among themselves for power and influence.

One of the main problems that plagued Italy during the Renaissance was the division into many small and competitive city-states, such as Florence, Venice, Milan and Rome. This made it difficult to create a strong central authority that could govern the entire Italian territory. Moreover, many of these city-states were ruled by powerful and ambitious families who struggled for power and influence.

The Renaissance period also saw the rise of many European powers, such as France, Spain and the Austrian Empire, which sought to extend their power over Italy. This led to many wars between Italian city-states and European powers, which further weakened Italy's political situation.

However, not everything was bad during the Renaissance. Many of the great artists and intellectuals of the period were also important political leaders and philosophers. For example, Niccolò Machiavelli, author of "The Prince," was an important Florentine politician and diplomat who explored many of the political and philosophical issues of his time.

In conclusion, the political situation in the Italian Renaissance period was very complex and fragmented. The division into many rival city-states, the threat of European powers, and internal struggles for power created an unstable and uncertain political environment. However, even in this context, some of the most talented artists and intellectuals of the Renaissance were able to influence the politics and society of their time.

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The Political Situation In The Italian Renaissance

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Understand the complexity of politics during the Italian Renaissance period, with its challenges and opportunities for artists and leaders.

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Botticelli Drawings presents the beloved Renaissance artist like never before

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Major exhibition draws together the complete graphic output of one of the world’s most famous artists for the first time Legion of Honor \ November 19, 2023–February 11, 2024

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The Renaissance is one of the most incredible periods in our human history, when significant advancements were made across all aspects of society, including science, literature, philosophy, mathematics and art. During this momentous period in time many exciting inventions were made, all in the quest to better understand the world around us. Of all the inventions that were made during the Renaissance period, which ones stand out as the most significant and important of all time? Let's take a look through some of the best, many of which we still rely on today.

1. The Pencil: Humble Yet Mighty

Ah, the humble pencil, not to be taken for granted. It was invented during the Renaissance in 1560 by an Italian couple named Simonio and Lyndiana Bernacotti, who discovered that graphite sticks could be inserted into a hollowed out stick of juniper wood to keep it neat and handy. This early pencil was intended mainly for carpenters so it was oval in shape, to stop in rolling away. Even today, many carpenter's pencils are still made in this very same shape. Pencils went on to become mass produced items which were, and still are incredibly popular worldwide, often with the hexagon shape we recognise today, an updated version of the early oval which is even less likely to roll away!

2. The Printing Press: Perhaps the Most Significant Tool of the Renaissance

The printing press was one of the most significant inventions of the Renaissance period, allowing for great advancements in communication to take place. It was German goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg who invented the first printing press in 1436. He combined moveable panels of metal type with a pressing machine, creating a machine known as the Gutenberg press. Thanks to Gutenberg, newspapers, magazines and books could be reproduced relatively quickly and cheaply, replacing the painstaking scribe work of monks in monasteries. Gutenberg's press was operated entirely by hand, a slow process by today's electronic standards, but he paved the way for the future to come.

3. The Microscope: An Ingenious Discovery

An ingenious spectacle maker of the Renaissance period named Zacharias Janssen is credited with creating the first microscope in 1590. Although Zacharias was a mere teenager at the time, it is thought he and his father created the first microscope prototype together. Their microscope was known as a 'compound' microscope made from at least two lenses, one to pick up the image, and the other to magnify it so we can actually see it with the human eye. The wondrous discovery they made meant we could explore, understand and cultivate the world in a whole new way, and life has never been the same since. When news spread throughout Europe about microscopes, the concept was quickly picked up on and adapted by others, including astronomer, physicist and engineer Galileo Galilei in the early 17th century.

4. The Telescope: Extending the Human Senses

Another canny spectacle maker of the Renaissance era from Holland, named Hans Lippershey, also invented the first telescope in 1608. He initially called his new device a "kijker" (Dutch for "looker"), describing its function, "for seeing things far away as if they were nearby." It was the first instrument of its kind to extend one of the human senses, fascinating and inspiring many to develop his idea further. Following on Lippershey's discovery, Galileo Galilei was quick off the mark again - he went on to make his own updated version of the telescope in around 1609, which he used to make some radical findings about the universe. These include finding Jupiter's four moons, discovering that the sun was the centre of the universe, and that the Earth's moon is not completely spherical - amazing, right? Isaac Newton also succeeded in creating one of the world's first telescopes in 1668, using a reflective mirror mechanism.

5. The Steam Engine: One of the Most Important Inventions of the Renaissance

Today we might think of the steam engine as a symbol of a bygone era, but during the Renaissance, it was one of the hottest discoveries to be made. One of the most important inventions in the centuries leading up to the Industrial Revolution, the steam engine allowed for major developments to be made in agriculture, mining, manufacture and transportation. So, who do we have to thank for this mighty invention? The great English engineer Thomas Savery made the first practical and effective steam engine, designed for pumping out water in 1698, a process he concisely termed "water by fire." His invention relied on steam pressure, which had a tendency to blow up, so it wasn't entirely foolproof. In 1712, an English ironmonger and inventor named Thomas Newcomen came up with a better version, which contained safety valves, and his nifty invention remained in use for over 50 years.

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What Were the Best Inventions of the Renaissance? (Top 5)

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The Renaissance was an incredible period of artistic and scientific breakthrough, and these are the best inventions of the era.

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Upper elementary students learn about inventions of the Renaissance.

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Kids learn about the Reformation of the church during the Renaissance. What was it and who was Martin Luther?

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Renaissance Humanism was an intellectual movement typified by a revived interest in the classical world and studies which focussed not on religion but on what it is to be human. Its origins went back to 14th-century Italy and such authors as Petrarch (1304-1374) who searched out 'lost' ancient manuscripts. By the 15th century, humanism had spread across Europe.

Humanists believed in the importance of an education in classical literature and the promotion of civic virtue, that is, realising a person's full potential both for their own good and for the good of the society in which they live. The difficulty in defining humanism and its ever-evolving character have not prevented it being widely regarded as the defining feature of 1400 to 1600 Europe and the very reason why that period can be identified as a Renaissance or 'rebirth' of ideas.

Defining Humanism

Humanism was a term invented in the 19th century to describe the Renaissance idea that directly studying the works of antiquity was an important part of a rounded education (but not the only part). From this position came the idea that the study of humanity should be a priority as opposed to religious matters (which need not be neglected or contradicted by humanist studies). Important classical ideals which interested humanists included the importance of public and private virtue, Latin grammar, techniques of rhetoric, history, conventions in literature and poetry, and moral philosophy. This education did not create an all-encompassing philosophy or worldview in its adherents. Someone who had a humanist education might be a Catholic or a Protestant, for example, and many students went on to study very different branches of thought such as theology, law, or medicine.

The idea really took off that the ancient world had something very valuable to teach the people of the 15th century.

In modern times, the term 'humanism' has gained a different meaning (a rational and non-religious way of life) and so to safeguard its original purpose, when applied to 1400-1600, it is often clarified as 'Renaissance Humanism'. It is important to remember, though, that Renaissance thinkers did not themselves use the term humanism, and neither did they agree on all subjects. Due to these problems of definition, some historians prefer to use the term studia humanitatis, coined by the Roman statesman Cicero (106-43 BCE) and revived by the Florentine scholar Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406). Studia humanitatis refers to studies which, rather than concentrating on religious matters, focus instead on what it is to be human, and more precisely, consider what is a virtuous individual in its widest sense and how may that individual fully participate in public life.

The main elements of Renaissance humanism include:

an interest in studying literature and art from antiquity

an interest in the eloquent use of Latin and philology

a belief in the importance and power of education to create useful citizens

the promotion of private and civic virtue

a rejection of scholasticism

the encouragement of non-religious studies

an emphasis on the individual and their moral autonomy

a belief in the importance of observation, critical analysis, and creativity

a belief that poets, writers, and artists can lead humanity to a better way of living

an interest in the question 'what does it mean to be human'?

Origins of the Classical Revival

The humanist movement can be traced back to a trio of Italian authors who lived before the Renaissance period had even begun: Dante Alighieri (1265-1321 CE), Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375). All three would receive new interest in their work during the Renaissance when they were recognised as its founding fathers. Dante was the first, and his Divine Comedy (c. 1319), although a book with a central message on how to reach salvation, was a subtle shift from entirely religious-focussed works to those considering humanity's role in God's universe. The Divine Comedy had many overtly classical elements, from the Roman poet Virgil (70-19 BCE) acting as a guide to the many ancient historical figures mentioned.

Next came Petrarch, who was an equally religious man but in his work criticised some elements of the Catholic Church such as its corruption and excessive love of show. Petrarch rejected scholasticism which grimly held on to Church dogma and created endless rounds of fruitless debate amongst scholars. He made perhaps his greatest contribution to the study of antiquity by finding manuscripts which had become 'lost' in obscure monastic libraries. Amongst his famous discoveries were several works and letters by Cicero.

Petrarch believed that a new golden age of thought and politics could be achieved by returning to the ideals of antiquity and by permitting poets and scholars to lead a revolution in education. His idea that the period in which he lived was an intermediary period between antiquity and this new dawn, what he called disparagingly 'a slumber' was latched onto by later Renaissance thinkers and did much to foster the idea that the Middle Ages was somehow a period of cultural darkness. Further, Petrarch's work with ancient manuscripts encouraged the scholarship of non-religious subjects with humanity at its centre, and this became a legitimate activity for intellectuals. Consequently, Petrarch is often cited as the father of humanism.

Giovanni Boccaccio also searched out 'lost' manuscripts relevant to antiquity. In addition, his Decameron ( Ten Days), a collection of tales compiled between c. 1348 and 1353, appealed to later humanists because it dealt with everyday human experiences in great detail. Bocaccio also created works that were of great use to humanist scholars such as his Ancestry of the Pagan Gods.

All three of these writers promoted the use of the Tuscan vernacular (at least in poetical works), and this eventually led to the dominance of Latin being challenged. Humanists, though, continued to favour Latin for scholarly purposes and modelled their Latin on that of Cicero for prose and Virgil for poetry. The arrival of the printing press in Europe in 1450 was another boost to the trio of authors mentioned above and the democratisation of knowledge. Renaissance humanism gave great importance to invention, and here, again, Dante with his creation of terza rima (poems formed of stanzas of three rhyming lines) and Boccaccio's innovative promotion in written form of the ottava rima (where stanzas are formed of eight 11-syllable lines) fit that sentiment perfectly.

The Classical Ideal

After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, many Greek scholars fled the collapsing Byzantine Empire and brought classical texts with them to Europe, especially Italy. These were a very welcome addition to the Latin texts scholars like Petrarch had found in monastic libraries. Consequently, by 1515 the works of all major classical authors were available in print. Looking at these works as a whole, one idea which especially interested Renaissance thinkers was virtus (virtue or excellence) and civic duty. Petrarch had studied this half a century before but now the idea really took off that the ancient world had something very valuable to teach the people of the 15th century. Renaissance humanists now wanted to use, analyse, and critique ancient sources to improve one's public life in service of the state. Theoretical knowledge was not enough, what was gained from study had to be put into practice for the good of the state and all who lived in it. Consequently, the great question, what does it mean to be human that preoccupied Renaissance scholars provoked answers that included religious, philosophical, scientific, and artistic considerations.

It today seems rather odd that scholars took such an interest in ancient sources which might be considered outdated and irrelevant to contemporary society. For humanist thinkers, though, antiquity, as seen in so many newly discovered manuscripts, presented a fresh and vibrant alternative to the stagnant pool of thought so jealously guarded by the medieval church. The new horizons offered by these texts and the seemingly unbiased approach of ancient scholars in discussing and explaining the world without any preconceived ideas made the whole Renaissance process seem, like its very name indicates, an intellectual rebirth. Humanist scholars were not uncritical of ancient sources, on the contrary, just like many ancient thinkers, they approached any subject with critical analysis. Further, to approach a given subject objectively, one must be intellectually free and with this idea came that of the free-thinking individual, one unrestrained by religious or political bias. There were even those who thought that God had given humanity the world as a test, to make of it what they will and apply their virtue into making it a better place. In this way, humanism was not in opposition to religion for many thinkers, but it did lead to the idea of a morally-autonomous individual, which in turn led to individualism.

There was yet another reason to admire the ancients: their eloquence of argument. Cicero was taken as the example par excellence of superb writing in Latin. Rhetoric - another term that modernity has twisted out of all recognition from its original meaning - was then the art of presenting eloquent argument. Further, this was not merely a trick to be used by scholars in their writing, this was a tool to be used in everyday life. In other words, rhetoric is persuasion, and with persuasion comes power. Rhetoric could become the means by which humanists spread their ideas, persuading everyone from a literate merchant to the ruler of a dukedom that theirs was the best way to be educated, live, work, and rule.

The Spread of Humanism

The printing press helped spread humanist ideas from their origins in Italy to the north of Europe. Indeed, the most celebrated humanist scholar of his day was Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (c. 1469-1536). Erasmus believed that education was the answer to the Catholic Church's problems (and not a radical Reformation). To this end, he compiled editions of classical authors and provided a new Latin and Greek translation of the New Testament. Erasmus' sharp and critical examination of original texts to produce this, his textual analysis of current versions, and his interest in philology would be influential on other Renaissance scholars.

Although early humanists were often Christians, the movement's emphasis on critical inquiry did lead to an inevitable clash with Church authorities who depended on mass and uncritical acceptance of secondhand interpretations of doctrine. That some humanist scholars became champions of pagan texts was another bone of contention.

In the north of Europe, humanist scholars were more interested in religious reforms compared to elsewhere, hence their brand of humanism is often called Religious Humanism. Sir Thomas More (1478-1535), the English scholar and statesman, was one figure in this movement. A defender of the Catholic Church against the Reformists, he famously wrote Utopia in 1516 about an ideal society set on an imaginary island. More likely intended the work as a thinly-veiled criticism of the reign of Henry VIII of England (r. 1509-1547), but its radical presentation of a society where everyone works for the common good and shares equally in its success rang a note of recognition in the minds of humanist scholars elsewhere. The obvious link with Plato's Republic was another point of favour with the classical-loving humanists.

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A Humanist Education

Erasmus was important in one other area: education for everybody. It was all very well for scholars to debate the ideals of education in theory but more practical offerings were needed to achieve the humanist goal of widening education. Erasmus, therefore, wrote many textbooks such as his hugely popular On Copia (1512), which taught students how to argue, revise texts, and produce new ones. His 1521 On Writing Letters taught how to best write letters, aim for specific audiences, and employ eloquent expressions. Erasmus even produced guides for those wishing to establish a school and compiled recommended syllabuses.

Humanists emphasised the importance of an education which covered the liberal arts of rhetoric, moral philosophy, grammar, history, and poetry. Physical exercise, just like in ancient Greece, was also considered an essential part of a rounded education that resulted in young people being able to realise their potential and become good citizens. In addition, a humanist education continued for life, and it was never too late to learn its benefits, especially so for rulers.

Observing, analysing, and categorising the world around us was an important part of humanist thought, just as it had been in antiquity. For this reason, science made great leaps forward during the Renaissance, powered at first by developments in mathematics. The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed that the solar system was heliocentric, amongst other innovative ideas, in his On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, published in 1543. Copernicus was a classic Renaissance scholar as he studied the works of antiquity, observed what he could in the world personally, collated all that had been studied thus far in his field, and then came up with a new view of the subject at hand. Perhaps the greatest contribution humanism made to science was its thirst for answers and the confidence that they could be found through human endeavour.

Humanism in the Arts

Rulers like Federico da Montefeltro (1422-1482 in Urbino and Cosimo I de' Medici (1519-1574) in Florence were great admirers of antiquity and built up impressive humanist libraries. They were, too, collectors of ancient art such as sculpture, sarcophagi, relief panels, and coins. Both men also became great patrons of the arts, encouraging humanist artists. This was a pattern imitated by rulers across Europe.

Renaissance painters and sculptors became very interested in classical mythology, sometimes even combining it with Christian themes such as subtly representing Venus as the Virgin Mary. Ancient thinkers were directly represented in art, perhaps most famously in the School of Athens fresco in the Vatican by Raphael (1483-1520).

There was, too, an appreciation of the skill of ancient artists, especially sculptors and their ability to capture reality in bronze or marble. Renaissance artists were keen to capture this reality themselves, a process going back as early as Giotto (b. 1267 or 1277 - d. 1337) and culminating with the hyper-realistic portraits by late Renaissance Netherlandish artists. Just like Renaissance writers, artists wanted not only to emulate the classical tradition but also to improve upon it. Consequently, the correct use of perspective became an ever-more precise endeavour for Renaissance artists. Artists were also convinced that their ancient counterparts had somehow discovered mathematical secrets of proportion, especially related to the human body.

Artists now gave emphasis to the human experience in their art. Portraits, for example, might include a classical book next to the sitter to emphasise their humanist tendencies. Even religious works of the period have a focus on the human figures and their story within the scene. Just as humanist writers knew full well the powerful effect of their words, so, too, artists knew the power they had to create a lasting aesthetic impression on the viewer. Perhaps there is no better example of this wow-factor than Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling. Finally, the emphasis on the individual within humanism found expression in the way artists now viewed themselves - superior artisans who used their intellect to study art and create masterpieces that would carry their fame for generations to come.

Humanism pervaded Renaissance architecture where buildings were designed that were elegant, symmetrical, functional, and harmonious with their surroundings, just as they had been in ancient Rome. Above all, buildings displayed the classical ratios of length and height.

Humanism, with its reverence for classical authors and what exactly a knowledge of antiquity can teach us found expression in the performance arts, notably in the plays of William Shakespeare (1564-1616) who was interested in characters that could reveal the breadth and depth of the human experience. Shakespeare is not perhaps taking any particular side in the humanist debates presented in his works but he does, at least, make full masterly use of that humanist power tool - language - to achieve his effects.

The Legacy of Renaissance Humanism

Humanism transformed education and rejuvenated the world of ideas and art with its discovery, promotion, and adaptation of classical works. It led to the creation of an international network of scholars linked by letters and books, the separation of church and politics, the critical examination of texts leading to the discovery of inaccuracies and even forgeries, and the creation of public libraries.

Perhaps inevitably, though, humanist scholars and thinkers began to divide into groups as they specialised into different areas of what was already a hopelessly broad area of human endeavour. There were realists against moralists, those who wanted to forget all about religion and those who did not, and those who were republicans and those who were royalists. There were humanists who thought the study of language an end itself while others thought it only a means to understand ideas. Some preferred a life of contemplation in contrast to those who still stuck to the idea of putting humanism into political practice. As science, the arts, history, philosophy, and theology all split away from each other, so Renaissance humanism came to an end, broken apart as scholarly specialisation won the battle against earning a comprehensive overview of the human condition.

Despite the breaking up of the humanist movement into its component parts, the essential idea that humans were worthy of serious study is one that has never gone away, of course. If anything, this idea has only widened and deepened. The subjects that were considered important to study in classical sources such as philosophy, history, and literature came to be collectively known as the humanities, and today, of course, they form major faculties in colleges and universities worldwide.

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Renaissance Humanism was an intellectual movement typified by a revived interest in the classical world and studies which focussed not on religion but on what it is to be human. Its origins went back...

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Humanists celebrated the individual and this was also evident in the artistic techniques of Renaissance painters. The sculptor Donatello used perspective and natural human postures and stances in his St. Mark statue and bronze sculpture The Feast of Herod.

The realistic portrayal of humans and use of depth and perspective is prominent in works such as The Wedding of the Virgin and Saint Catherine of Alexandria by Raphael, as well as in The Last Supper and The Mona Lisa painted by Leonardo Da Vinci.

Michelangelo's works such as The Pieta and The Reaction of Adam show human emotions and have realistic features, a common theme in renaissance humanist art.

Humanism drew its roots from Greek and Roman mythology, and Botticelli included these in his works The Birth of Venus and Venus and Mars, depicting Venus with realistic human features.

Jan Van Eyck's work depicts renaissance humanism in Northern Europe. Examples of his art such as The Arnolfini Portrait and the Madonna of Chancellor Rolin reflect humanism's intricacy with symbolism and detailed textures and lighting.

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A brief overview of Renaissance Humanism

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10 Famous Explorers Whose Discoveries Connected the World

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From Christopher Columbus to Marco Polo, these celebrated—and controversial—explorers made groundbreaking journeys across the globe.

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Juan Ponce de León, born into Spanish nobility, was a soldier and explorer who served as governor of the eastern province of Hispaniola when he decided to explore a nearby island, now known as Puerto Rico. In pursuit of a rumored fountain of youth located on an island known as Bimini, Ponce de León led an expedition to the coast of Florida in 1513. Thinking it was the island he sought, he sailed back to colonize the region in 1521, but was fatally wounded in a Native American attack soon after his arrival.

Early Life and Career

Born in 1460 into a noble family in León, Spain, Juan Ponce served as a page in the royal court of Aragon. He later became a soldier, fighting in the Spanish campaign against the Moors in Granada. After that war ended, he may have gone along on the second voyage to the West Indies led by Christopher Columbus in 1493.

Did you know? Juan Ponce de León died in Cuba, but his remains were later transferred to San Juan, Puerto Rico, where they were put to rest in San Juan Cathedral. Puerto Rico's third-largest city, Ponce, bears the explorer's name.

Nearly a decade later, he was serving as a captain in the force commanded by Nicolás de Ovando, Spain's royal governor of the island of Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic). After Ponce de León suppressed a mutiny by Native Americans, Ovando rewarded him with the governorship of the eastern province of Hispaniola.

Exploration of Puerto Rico

Rumors of a place called Boriquen - where large deposits of gold were to be found - led Ponce de León to the nearby island of San Juan Bautista, as Puerto Rico was then known. The Spanish crown to give Ponce de León permission to explore the island in 1508-09. (He may have unofficially traveled there on his own before that.)

On the official expedition, he took 50 soldiers and a single ship and founded a settlement at Caparra, near what is now San Juan. When he returned to Hispaniola for supplies, Ponce de León was named governor of Puerto Rico, though he had many rivals for influence and was soon displaced by Diego Columbus, the son of Christopher Columbus.

Fountain of Youth

Encouraged by the Spanish crown to discover more lands, Ponce de León allegedly decided to follow rumors he had heard from local natives about an island called Bimini, home to a magical spring or fountain whose waters would rejuvenate those who drank from it.

In search of this "fountain of youth," as well as more lands and gold, he set sail from Puerto Rico in March 1513. The following month, the expedition landed on the coast of what is now Florida, near the site of modern-day St. Augustine.

Ponce de León in Florida

coast of mainland North America. He named the site Florida, not only because they landed around the time of Easter (Pascua Florida in Spanish), but also because of the region's lush, florid vegetation.

On that first expedition to Florida, Ponce de León explored the coast, including the Florida Keys, and discovered the Gulf Stream, the warm ocean current that would help future Spanish ships maneuver their way home from the New World. He then returned to Puerto Rico and made his way to Spain, where he was named military governor of Florida and given permission to colonize the region.

The Spanish crown also ordered him to organize an army to subdue a native uprising on Puerto Rico, and he sailed there with a small fleet in mid-1515.

In February 1521, Ponce de León departed San Juan on his second expedition to Florida, accompanied by two ships and around 200 people - plus horses, tools, and seeds - to set up a farming colony. They landed on the southwest coast of Florida, near what is now Charlotte Harbor, with the intention of founding a colony.

The exact circumstances of what happened next are uncertain, but it appears that in July of 1521 local Natives attacked the party of settlers, leaving Ponce de León fatally wounded by an arrow in his thigh. His comrades sailed back with him to Havana, Cuba, where he died.

Legacy

Ponce de León never found the Fountain of Youth - perhaps because he never looked for such a thing, according to researchers. No mention of a mythical fountain appears in any records or documents from that era, and some historians believe it was a tall tale designed to discredit Ponce del León by making him appear foolish.

Nonetheless, there exists today a 15-acre park in St. Augustine, Florida, named Ponce de Leon's Fountain of Youth Archaeological Park. The park is located where Spanish explorers and missionaries established a small settlement beginning in 1565. Among other archaeological finds, human remains discovered on the property were identified as the earliest-known Christian burial of Native Americans in the United States.

Sources

Ponce de León: Florida's First Spanish Explorer. University of South Florida: Exploring Florida.
Ponce De Leon Never Searched for the Fountain of Youth. Smithsonian Magazine.
Juan Ponce De Leon. The Mariners' Museum and Park.
Timeline of Significant Events. Fountain of Youth Archaeological Park

Fact Check

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Ponce de Leon: Florida & Fountain of Youth - HISTORY

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Juan Ponce de León was a Spanish explorer who served as governor of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, and allegedly searched for a Fountain of Youth in Florida.

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The Renaissance was a period in history that saw a burst of innovation in science, medicine, and the arts across Europe. The Renaissance period is usually seen as being from the 14th to 17th Century. New translations of important texts from Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece provided fresh ideas and knowledge that had not previously been available.

The word renaissance means re-birth. The term was used to describe a period of European history that saw advancements in science and medicine.

All across Europe, the printing press was revolutionising access to books.

Before the printing press, access to books and the knowledge they contained was difficult.

Previously, to own a copy of a book involved paying a scribe to create a handmade copy of that book. This was time-consuming and very expensive.

The printing press meant that it was possible to mass-produce copies of books. As a result, access to books, and the knowledge they contained, was easier.

Some of the books and documents that became easier to access were rare translations of ancients texts. Some had even been translated several times - from ancient Greek into Arabic by Islamic scholars, and then again from Arabic into Latin.

New translations of important ancient medical texts by doctors such as Hippocrates, Galen, and Islamic scholars such as Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī soon became easier to get hold of.

Some of these old texts provided ideas about the working of the human body and methods of diagnosing illness that were new to European doctors.

More than this, though, it became easier for doctors to read these ancient texts and to test and question Galen 's theories by conducting their own investigations into the human body.

Much of what Renaissance doctors knew about the workings of the human body came from a doctor who practiced medicine in ancient Rome called Galen.

Vesalius proved that the jaw bone was made up of one bone rather than two, as previously stated by Galen

Galen had suggested that the breastbone was made of seven parts, Vesalius proved that there were three parts

Vesalius proved that blood did not flow into the heart through invisible holes as Galen believed

As well as scientific discoveries, the Renaissance brought about new methods of training new doctors.

Alongside being taught the works of Vesalius and Harvey, students in Edinburgh and London were expected to learn 'on the job' on the wards of the hospitals.

Medical students and doctors were also encouraged to dissect bodies to further their own knowledge and were able to use new equipment such as microscopes and thermometers to develop theories.

In 1645, a group began to meet together to discuss new scientific ideas in fields such as physics, botany, astronomy and medicine and to conduct experiments.

Alongside this, the group began to publish books and articles to encourage scientific discussion. After the restoration of the monarchy, Charles II began to attend the meetings - as a result the group became known as the Royal Society.

Despite the Renaissance period bringing many ground-breaking discoveries, not all of these were immediately accepted.

People like Harvey, Sydenham made advances in treating illness but many doctors fought against change and held onto Galen's theories. It took 50 years for Harvey's theories regarding the flow of blood to become more accepted than Galen's, by which point Harvey had died.

Despite these limitations, the Renaissance provided the opportunity to break free from outdated theories and inspired many of the advancements in medicine that we take for granted today.

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The Renaissance: the rebirth of medicine, 14th to 17th century - BBC Bitesize

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The Renaissance saw the new availability of older wisdom. How did medicine change during the Renaissance? Find out more in this 3rd level BBC Bitesize article.

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The invention of the telescope played an important role in advancing our understanding of Earth's place in the cosmos. While there is evidence that the principles of telescopes were known in the late 16th century, the first telescopes were created in the Netherlands in 1608. Spectacle makers Hans Lippershey & Zacharias Janssen and Jacob Metius independently created telescopes. The telescope emerged from a tradition of craftsmanship and technical innovation around spectacles and developments in the science of optics traced back through Roger Bacon and a series of Islamic scientists, in particular Al-Kindi (c. 801-873), Ibn Sahl (c. 940-1000) and Ibn al-Haytham (965-1040).

The story of Galileo's telescopic observations illustrates how a tool for seeing and collecting evidence can dramatically change our understanding of the cosmos.

Early telescopes were primarily used for making Earth-bound observations, such as surveying and military tactics. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was part of a small group of astronomers who turned telescopes towards the heavens. After hearing about the "Danish perspective glass" in 1609, Galileo constructed his own telescope. He subsequently demonstrated the telescope in Venice. His demonstration of the telescope earned him a lifetime lectureship.

After his initial success, Galileo focused on refining the instrument. The initial telescope he created (and the Dutch ones it was based on) magnified objects three diameters. That is, it made things look three times larger than they did with the naked eye. Through refining the design of the telescope he developed an instrument that could magnify eight times, and eventually thirty times.

This increased magnification of heavenly objects had a significant and immediate impact. These new observations were by no means exclusive to Galileo. The story of Galileo and the telescope is a powerful example of the key role that technologies play in enabling advances in scientific knowledge. With that said, the telescope isn't the only technology at play in this story. Galileo deftly used the printed book and the design of prints in his books to present his research to the learned community. This is not a story of a lone thinker theorizing and piecing together a new model of the cosmos. Quite the contrary, an array of individuals in the early 17th century took the newly created telescopes and pointed them toward the heavens. Unlike those other observers, however, Galileo rapidly published his findings. In some cases, Galileo understood the significance and importance of these observations more readily than his contemporaries. It was this understanding, and foresight to publish, that made Galileo's ideas stand the test of time.

Starry Messenger, Galileo's Rapidly Published Findings

Shortly after his first telescopic observations of the heavens, Galileo began sketching his observations. He wanted to get his findings out. His observations and interpretations of stars, the moon, Jupiter, the sun and the phases of the planet Venus, were critical in refining our understanding of the cosmos. In March of 1610, Galileo published the initial results of his telescopic observations in Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius), this short astronomical treatise quickly traveled to the corners of learned society.

The Moon is not a Perfect Sphere

The engravings of the Moon, created from Galileo's artfully drawn sketches, presented readers with a radically different perspective on the Moon. Due to Galileo's training in Renaissance art and an understanding of chiaroscuro (a technique for shading light and dark) he quickly understood that the shadows he was seeing were actually mountains and craters. From his sketches, he made estimates of their heights and depths. These observations, only possible by the magnifying power of the telescope, clearly suggested that the Aristotelian idea of the Moon as a translucent perfect sphere (or as Dante had suggested an "eternal pearl") were wrong. The Moon was no longer a perfect heavenly object; it now clearly had features and a topology similar in many ways to the Earth. The notion that the moon had a topology like the Earth led to speculation on what life might be like on the Moon.

It's now understood that English astronomer Thomas Harriot, (1560-1621) made the first recorded observations of the Moon through a telescope, a month before Galileo in July of 1609. Moreover, the map Harriot created of the Moon in 1612 or 1613 is more detailed than Galileo's. Harriot observed the Moon first, and the maps he created included more information, but he did not broadly distribute his work. However, over 500 copies of the Starry Messenger were printed and sold, solidifying Galileo's legacy in astronomy.

Jupiter has its Own Moons

When Galileo turned his telescope to observe Jupiter, he saw what he initially thought to be three previously unobserved fixed stars. After continued observations it became clear that they were not fixed, and in a matter of days he had come to the conclusion that these new stars were in fact orbiting Jupiter. He had discovered three of the largest moons of Jupiter.

The implications of this discovery, of objects orbiting a planet, were part of what pushed Galileo to argue for a sun-centered cosmos. Jupiter's moons countered a key argument against the Earth orbiting the sun. Critics of Copernicus' sun-centered cosmos asked, how could the Earth drag the moon across the heavens? Remember, the idea of the underlying mechanism of gravity wouldn't come until Newton's Principia Mathematica in 1687, which makes this both a reasonable and important question. Since there was wide agreement that Jupiter was already in motion, the fact that Jupiter clearly had its own moons offered a clear refutation of an important critique of the heliocentric system.

In Mundus Jovialis (1614), Simon Marius claimed that he, not Galileo, had first discovered the moons of Jupiter. In his times, Marius was publicly condemned as a plagiarist. Galileo had published his results already in 1610 and was rather well known and powerful in renaissance court. Only in the 19th century, would historians return to examine the evidence. It turns out that Marius had not plagiarized Galileo. Clearly his observations were different; in fact he had more accurately charted the orbits of Jupiter's moons. It's now broadly understood that Marius was an independent observer of Jupiter's moons.

A Spotted Rotating Sun

In observing the sun, Galileo saw a series of "imperfections". He had discovered sunspots. Monitoring these spots on the sun demonstrated that the sun in fact rotated. Furthermore, later observations by Francesco Sizzi in 1612 suggested that the spots on the sun actually changed over time. It would seem that the Sun, like the Moon, was not the perfect sphere that learned Europeans thought of as a key feature of their universe.

These sunspots were also independently observed by the Jesuit priest and astronomer Christoph Scheiner (1575-1650). Scheiner observed sunspots in 1611 and published his results in 1612. Over the course of their careers Galileo and Schiener feuded over who should get credit for the discovery. Unbeknownst to either of them, Thomas Harriot had observed them in 1610 and the German theologian, David Fabricius and his son Johanes likely beat both Scheiner and Galileo to the publication of the discovery with their Apparente earum cum Sole Conversione Narratio in June of 1611. However, their publication was not widely circulated and thus remained obscure in its times. Outside the western tradition of science. Chinese astronomers have long observed sunspots, going back to at least 165 BC.

Galileo's name became synonymous with the telescope. In this frontispiece to Galileo's collected works he is shown presenting the telescope and gesturing toward some of his discoveries in the heavens. The artist has depicted Jupiter and its satellites. The book did not include Galileo's most famous work, his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which had been added to the Index of Forbidden Books. Still, the artist included visual reference to this work. Below the moons of Jupiter, one can clearly see a model of a Sun-centered system. Frontispiece to Opere di Galileo Galilei.1656. Rare Book & Special Collections division.

In Starry Messenger, Galileo shared detailed drawings of different phases of the Moon. The significant magnification provided evidence of the rocky nature of the Moon. Sidereus Nuncius, Image 23 (1610) Rare Book & Special Collections"

Here, Galileo presents a sequence of his observations of the moons of Jupiter (the larger circle) and Jupiter's satellites over subsequent nights. The sequence shows the movement and disappearance of some of the satellites as they move behind Jupiter. Sidereus Nuncius, Image 47. (1610) Rare Book & Special Collections.

Here is Galileo's sketch of the sun, note the spots on it. In his times, it was widely believed that the sun was a perfect sphere, but clearly it had spots. Further, by watching the spots over time it became clear that the sun was actually rotating. Both of these observations seemed to be at odds with interpretations of Aristotelian cosmology. Three Letters on Sunspots. (1613) Rare Book & Special Collections

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Galileo and the Telescope | Modeling the Cosmos | Articles and Essays | Finding Our Place in the Cosmos: From Galileo to Sagan and Beyond | Digital Collections | Library of Congress

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The invention of the telescope played an important role in advancing our understanding of Earth's place in the cosmos. While there is evidence that the principles of telescopes were known in the late 16th century, the first telescopes were created in the Netherlands in 1608.