# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Landing the job you want in 2021 isn't easy. Many parts of the economy are still recovering from the lasting impact of COVID-19, and there's plenty of competition for good positions.

However, the best way to get a job hasn't changed. Writing a professional resume that advertises your relevant skills, experience, and achievements is the key to attracting the attention of employers and earning an interview.

But writing a good resume is easier said than done, especially if you lack formal work experience.

To help you succeed on your job hunt, we explain exactly how to write a good resume in 10 basic steps, and provide detailed examples along the way:

1. Choose the best resume format

2. List your contact information

3. Write a winning resume introduction

4. Highlight your relevant work experience

5. Create a clear education section

6. Add relevant skills for the job

7. Tie in key certifications, awards, & honors

8. Pick the ideal resume layout

9. Write a matching cover letter

10. Proofread your resume

From industry-specific resume formatting and writing suggestions to proper fonts and margins, we outline every detail of writing a resume.

Ready to learn how to make a resume that lands you your dream job?

1. Choose the most suitable format

Before you start writing anything, the first step is to decide on the right format for your resume. There are three basic resume formats used by job seekers today: reverse-chronological, functional, and combination. Each format has advantages and disadvantages based on how the resume sections are arranged:

Chronological resume format

A chronological resume is the most popular format, and is appropriate for nearly all job seekers. It lists your work history in order of when you held each position, with your most recent job listed toward the top of the page.

Functional resume format

A functional resume focuses on your skills rather than your chronological work history, and is mostly used by people who are changing careers or trying to de-emphasize a gap in their employment. The biggest feature of a functional resume is that it groups your experience under skill categories instead of job titles.

Combination resume format

A combination resume mixes elements of both a functional and chronological resume. Combination resumes are typically used by experienced candidates with extensive, specialized skill sets. This resume format features a chronological work history section along with a highly detailed skills section.

However, just because the chronological format is the most common doesn't mean it's ideal for everyone. If you're switching careers, a highly trained specialist in your field, or trying to downplay a gap in employment, you may be better off using the less traditional functional or combination resume formats.

Now that you know the format you're going to use, it's time to start your resume. First thing's first, employers need to know who you are and how to contact you.

List the following contact details in your resume header at the top of the page:

Name (largest font on the page, middle initial is optional)

Telephone number (check that you have an appropriate voicemail message)

Email address (make sure it's appropriate, don't use your happyypanda45@gmail.com account)

Link to online portfolio (optional, include if relevant)

LinkedIn profile (make sure your LinkedIn summary is up to date)

Traditionally, you would also include your mailing address on your resume. However, this is no longer mandatory because most job applications are sent via email.

Here are two examples of how you can format your contact information section:

Example 1

Example 2

3. Write a winning resume introduction

Placed at the top of your resume, a well-written resume introduction briefly introduces your key qualifications and skills, and convinces employers to continue reading your application.

There are many different types of resume introductions used by job seekers today, including the:

1. Resume objective (also known as a career objective)

2. Resume summary (also called a professional summary)

3. Summary of qualifications (or qualifications summary)

4. Resume profile (sometimes referred to as a professional profile)

5. Resume personal statement

6. Resume "About Me" section

However, the two most commonly used introduction styles (and the ones we recommend most candidates use) are the resume objective and the resume summary.

Resume objective

A resume objective (or career objective) is a 2-3 sentence statement that provides an overview of your skills and experience, and explains why you're interested in the position. This introduction is best if you're an entry-level candidate because it focuses on your career ambitions.

Resume summary

Resume summaries (sometimes referred to as "professional summaries") include four to five sentences (either in paragraph or bulleted format) that highlight your past achievements and skills.

This type of introduction is good for job seekers with some experience and an idea of how to tie numbers into that experience.

4. Highlight your relevant work experience

Your work experience section is the most essential part of your resume because it's the best representation of your qualifications.

If you lack formal work experience, however, don't worry. Simply title this section "Relevant Experience" and use it to highlight details about your volunteer work, extracurriculars, or relevant school coursework.

To create a logical and informative work experience section, list your relevant experience from most recent (at the top) to least recent (at the bottom). For each job, list the following information:

Your title

Company name

Company location (city and state)

Dates of employment (month and year)

If you're still currently working at a company, you can simply write "[month], [year]-present" for the employment dates.

A general rule is that each job title includes about 3-5 bullet points of your main duties and achievements working in that role.
3 parts of a strong bullet point:

1st: Action verb (should always be first)

2nd: Quantifiable point

3rd: Specific and relevant job duty

Example 1:

Trained 5+ cashiers, managing their cash limits and guaranteeing quality customer service at all times.

Example 2:

Spearheaded the development of the first media kit amalgamation for all company projects, increasing national sales by 8%.

One reason the above bullet points are effective is that they use action verbs to grab the attention of hiring managers. Describing your experience using strong action verbs helps illustrate to employers what you've accomplished and what kind of skills you have.

Tailor your experience to the job advertisement

One strategy for making your experience section even better is to create it with a specific job in mind.

Start by looking through the ad for the position you want. Find any skill-related keywords and occupation-specific nouns in the ad, then spread them throughout your resume when possible.

This strategy is a great way to strike a chord with the hiring manager and show them that you're the perfect candidate for their specific advertised job.

Still not sure how to tailor your experience section? Here's an example of a real marketing specialist job ad (with underlines for verbs and for nouns/skills) we took from Indeed.com:

For an aspiring marketing specialist, there are numerous language cues spread throughout this advertisement. It's up to the job seeker to capitalize on them.

Using the ad above, we've created three tailored example experience bullets for a resume where the applicant has one year of relevant experience.

3 Example experience bullets (based on the job ad)

The example below demonstrates how to candidate strategically pepper the and nouns/skills found in the job ad into your work experience section:

Taylord's Marketing Firm, Reno, NV
July 2017 - August 2018

* Collaborated with the outreach department to develop innovative marketing solutions for 6 unique products

* Developed branding materials for a new mobile app, resulting in a 14% increase in sales

* Analyzed weekly performance statistics, ensuring that effectiveness of outbound marketing activities

5. Create a clear education section

Having a clear education section is essential for your resume, especially if you're a recent college graduate or have minimal work experience.

If you lack professional experience but have a good track record in school (high grades, club participation, honors, etc.), your education section should be highly detailed to highlight all of your education-related accomplishments.

On the other hand, if you possess more than a few years of professional experience, then it's appropriate to keep your education section short and sweet.

Additionally, if you're a student or recent graduate, list your education section above the experience section of your resume. This way, you emphasize your most marketable qualifications at the top of the page.

Here are the main points to include in a standard education section:

The names of your university, community college, or technical school (Don't include high school unless you didn't attend college)

Location of the schools (city, state)

Date of graduation (month, year)

Degree(s)

GPA (only include GPA on your resume if you're writing a college graduate resume and your GPA is above 3.0. Round up to the first decimal place, and use this format: 3.5/4.0)

Additionally, include relevant coursework on your resume if you're a recent graduate and don't have much work experience yet.

Here are two examples demonstrating how to format your education section:

Example 1 (experienced candidate)

Example 2 (recent college graduate)

6. Highlight your relevant job skills

Hiring managers are on the lookout for candidates who have relevant, job-specific skills. While listing a heap of skills on your resume doesn't actually prove you're skilled, incorporating your various skills into different sections will catch the eye of whoever is vetting your application.

For instance, you can showcase your hard and soft skills in your introduction and work experience section. And of course, you should also list your most valuable abilities (particularly any software or technical skills you have) in your resume's skills section.

Hard vs. soft skills: what's the difference?

Here's the difference between hard skills and soft skills:

Hard skills

Hard skills are quantifiable, job-specific abilities learned through education, training, or on-the-job experience. Language skills, computer skills, and being able to operate heavy machinery all count as types of hard skills.

Here's a list of 24 popular hard skills to put on your resume:

24 Hard Skills for Resumes

Accounting Tools (SAP, Oracle, etc.)

SEO & SEM

Bookkeeping

Java Development

Business Intelligence

Mac, Linux, and Unix Systems

Perl / Python / Ruby

Vulnerability Analysis

Content Management Systems (CMS)

Data Engineering and Data Warehousing

Adobe Creative Suite

Database Management and Software

Cloud Apps (JSON, Rest, etc.)

Automotive Services

Statistical Analysis and Data Mining

Public Speaking

Foreign Languages

Software Development

Software QA and User Testing

Data Presentation

Web Architecture

Technical Reporting

Soft skills

Soft skills, on the other hand, are character traits that positively impact how you work and interact with other people. These are usually natural abilities that can't easily be taught in a classroom.

Skills like being a team player, being driven to succeed, or having a great attitude all fall under the umbrella of soft skills.

Below is a table of 24 soft skills that employers are on the lookout for:

24 Soft Skills for Resumes

Technical skills

Some careers, such as those in the IT or engineering fields, require specialized technical skills.

Across the tech industry, the skills you need to succeed will differ from company to company. A technical skills section is helpful in showcasing your knowledge of certain systems, so that employers at a specific company can determine if you're qualified (or not) for the job.

To prevent this section from taking up too much space, try breaking it up into categories and listing your skills within each. For example:

* Software: Proficient in Microsoft Office Suite, Visio, and Oracle

* Programming Languages: Excel at HTML, C++, and Python

Here's an example of how a Java developer organized their long list of technical skills:

Creating a resume skills section

The skills section is an essential part of your resume. However, there are several different ways to approach creating yours.

Here are a few examples demonstrating the different ways you can format your resume's skills section:

Example 1 (standard skills section)

If you have many relevant hard and soft skills, add them to your resume skills section using separate bullet points, like this:

If you're a student or recent graduate and have no significant job skills yet, there are still plenty of things you can list in your resume skills section. Here's an example of a skills section written by a candidate with no work experience:

Example 2 (skill bars)

Another way to organize your skills section is by using bars to provide employers a rough estimate of your proficiency.

This type of skills section is particularly popular with more creative professions, like graphic design or social media management:

7. Tie in key certifications, awards, & honors

By now you've already added the basic essentials to your resume. Below are a few sections you can add (if possible) to help strengthen it.

Certifications/licenses

Certifications and licenses are vital to list for some jobs and unimportant for others. For example, nursing has strict licensing requirements while customer service does not.

Just make sure you know which licenses and certifications to include in your resume before you send it off (if any), because leaving them out could ruin your application by making you seem unqualified.

If you work in a job where certifications are important, consider adding a dedicated "Certifications" section to your resume, like so:

Publications

Adding a publications section to your resume is important for graduate students (if published), academics, and authors because it lets them highlight major examples of their work.

If you're a published academic, list your articles in reverse chronological order by publishing date. And make sure you choose the referencing style that is appropriate to your discipline.

It's also acceptable to add works that have yet to be published. You may label these as "Works in Progress" or "Submitted for Publication."

Here's an example of how to list publications on your resume or academic CV:

Awards/honors/activities

If you've received awards or honors, either through your job or during college, your resume is a great place to show them off. Adding accomplishments and relevant awards on a resume helps you stand out from your competition by showing that you're a reliable, dedicated job seeker.

Here are some awards that you should consider including on your resume:

Grants

Academic honors

Scholarships

Volunteer positions

Professional affiliations

If you have the extra space on your resume, consider adding a dedicated section to highlight your awards, like this:

8. Pick the ideal resume layout

The hard part is over. You've written your resume, and are feeling confident about getting that interview. Now it's time to take a moment and consider your resume's design.

Depending on the industry you work in or the job you want, you may need to adjust your resume layout to fit the expectations of the hiring manager.

Formal resume layout

When it comes to resumes, newer isn't always better. If you work in a highly formal industry like law, finance, accounting, or politics, your resume should stick to a traditional, no-nonsense design.

Using classic serif fonts like Times New Roman or Georgia, simple lines, and dark, printer-friendly colors like navy blue are all great ways to make your resume's layout neat and professional.

Here's an example of an account executive resume that uses a highly formal layout:

Creative resume layout

If you work in a field like graphic design, photography, or social media management, it's important that your resume communicates some of your creative talents. That's where a creative resume layout comes in.

Adding splashes of colors, background art, skill bars, or icons are all great ways to make your resume more creative and better grab the attention of employers.

However, don't add too many style elements. Your resume should still be mostly text-based, and highlight all of your qualifications in a clear, easy-to-read way.

Here's an example of a graphic designer resume that manages to balance substance and style with a perfect creative resume layout:

Resume formatting rules

When putting your resume together, there are some essential resume formatting rules to ensure that it's easy to read, easy to print, and looks professional:

How many pages should a resume be?

The short answer is that one page is the ideal resume length for most candidates. However, if you have a lot of relevant work experience, it can be two or even three pages.

Just note that unless you're applying for an upper-management position or an academic post, one page will be enough for hiring managers. Even Elon Musk's resume (if he had to make one) could be tightened into one page.

What's the best font and font size for a resume?

Certain resume fonts are best suited for particular industries. There are general broad do's and don'ts when it comes to choosing your font and sizes:

For sizing, many resumes follow a 24, 12, 10 format. This means that the name is 24 pt, the body headers are 12 pt, and the bullet points are 10 pt. If you're not sure which font to choose for your resume, here are some popular font choices in both serif and sans serif styles:

What margins should a resume use?

One-inch margins are the standard for most job applicants.

However, if you have a lot of experience you need to fit on one page, then it's acceptable to reduce your resume's margins. Just don't go below .5", or your resume will look overcrowded.

9. Write a matching cover letter

Now that you know how to write your dream resume, you might be wondering: is a cover letter necessary? The answer is yes, always include a cover letter if you have the option.

Knowing how to write a good cover letter helps you round out every application you ever send out, and boosts your chances of landing an interview.

Cover letters are a valuable tool in your job-hunting arsenal because they give you an opportunity to provide context to your resume, show off your personality, and express enthusiasm for the job you're applying for.

Here's an example of what a resume paired with a matching cover letter might look like (always use a matching resume and cover letter template):

10. Proofread your resume and finish strong

Once you've written your resume and cover letter, you're in pretty good shape to send out that first application. However, you're not quite done yet.

The most important step before sending out any resume is to read it over and make sure that there are no issues (like spelling errors or formatting mistakes) that could get your application discarded.

To help make that process easier, here's a checklist you can go through to make sure your resume is looking spotless:

Feel free to use our on-page checklist, or make a copy in Google Docs and begin reviewing your resume.

Edit and proofread (more than once)

Even if you're a Harvard-educated doctoral candidate or the state spelling bee champion, proofreading and editing your application documents can still save you from potentially embarrassing mistakes.

Read your resume and cover letter over several times yourself at different times of the day to be sure everything looks good. Something that sounded great the night before might not look as professional in the morning once the sun comes up and you're better rested.

Also, hand your application materials off to a friend or family member who can give them a read. If your friends and family struggle to read your resume and cover letter, it's a good sign that you may need to make some adjustments to ensure the hiring manager can.

Save your files (in multiple formats and multiple places)

Most hiring managers today prefer you send your resume in PDF format. However, some may request a .docx file. If you're beginning a lengthy job search, save your resume in both formats just to save time.

You can also save copies on your computer, print off several for your own records, and even upload your documents to Google Drive. These precautions ensure that if anything suddenly happens to your computer, you won't have any problems accessing your resume when you need it.

Email your application

Now that you've got your resume looking polished and error-free, it's time to send it off.

Often, you'll need to email your resume and cover letter to employers. When sending your application over, make sure you include it along with a professional, courteous email to the hiring manager.

There are four keys to writing an email that gets attention from hiring managers for the right reasons:

1. Use the hiring manager's name. Avoid generic introductions like "To Whom It May Concern" and "Dear Sir or Madam", because they don't sound personable.

2. Make sure your email flows well and has no spelling or grammar errors. Re-read it yourself, and have a friend or family member take a look too.

3. Attach your application documents in the hiring manager's preferred format (use PDF if you're not sure).

4. Let them know you'd be happy to communicate via email, but give them a phone number to reach you at as well. Also, politely let the hiring manager know you'll be in touch after a week if you haven't heard from them by that point.

Additional Resume Writing Resources

In addition to our resume writing guide, we also have many other resources to help you build a competitive job application (no matter your industry or level of experience):

Resume Writing FAQs

If you still have some questions or concerns about writing your resume, here are a few commonly asked questions about resumes that we've answered in greater detail:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How to Write a Great Resume in 2021 | The Complete Guide

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A well-written resume (or CV) will get you more interviews. Our comprehensive writing guide teaches you how to make a resume that turns heads and lands jobs. Our expert's A to Z walkthrough covers every detail of the resume writing process - with this guide, you won't miss a step.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Perhaps the most challenging part of the job application process is writing an effective cover letter. And yes, you should send one. Even if only one in two cover letters gets read, that’s still a 50% chance that including one could help you. Before you start writing, find out more about the company…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A project summary template is a project management tool that helps you summarize a project's status in a time-efficient manner. They're concise, comprehensive and provide an overview of all the key details of your project.

Project summary templates can also be used as project briefs, used to present or provide updates on projects externally. In this case, they often act as project proposals and help their readers get a quick impression of a project's nature, status and overall context.

By utilizing a project summary template, project planning and execution become much more manageable, and teams can stay organized and focused on project goals.

‍

How to write a project summary template

Identify the audience

Consider who is reading the project summary, and tailor your language, tone, and level of data to their skill-set and what they need to know. Compare our project summary report example to our executive project summary and you'll see how you can apply different templates to different audiences.

Start with basic information

This includes fundamental project details like project name and/or project ID, project phase, planned project launch date and current date.

Remember to include an indication of current project phase and/or status. There are many ways to stylize this with Slite.

‍

Pro Tip: It's also a good idea to indicate key project team members on your project summary, as well as their contact information. This can include the project manager, main stakeholders, key decision makers and project sponsors.

Highlight key information

After you have determined your audience, highlight the most important information that relates to the purpose of your project summary. Set up goals, key details, metrics, and milestones in a format that lets readers grasp the necessary data quickly.

Leave space for visual aids

Your project summary report template should include a section for charts, graphs, or other visual aids to help convey complex information. Visual aids make the project summary more engaging and easier to understand. With Slite, you can add visual aids like video clips, attached files, and embedded charts, presentations, slides, spreadsheets, and graphs from other apps.

Finalize the outline

After you finalize essential items for any upcoming project summaries, use our project plan summary template to create modular sections such as project description, timeline, budget, milestones, progress updates, risks, and next steps. Refer to our sample project summary above for an example of a clear, logically structured document.

If you're using your project summary template for external purposes, it should include some project background where you address why your team is working on your chosen project, project objectives and how they are planning to approach it.

If you're using your summary report template for internal purposes, it should include a section on recent achievements and another on current project roadblocks or challenges.

‍

How it differs from a project executive summary template

An executive summary template for a project includes everything that management, investors and shareholders need to know before reviewing the business plan, including market analysis and financial information. A project summary is a comprehensive report on the project's key details and its status at the time the report is written.

Save & Share

After completing your first example of a project summary template, review it for accuracy, clarity, and completeness. Make sure all information is up to date and correct. Then save it on Slite and share it with your team.

‍

Best practices for building a Project Summary Template

There are several suggestions that you should consider when developing a project summary template:

Discuss with your project team

The best summary report templates are assembled collaboratively and with a deep understanding of the project at hand. To get things started, meet with your project team early on to brainstorm and hash out all the details that'll go into your summary.

Think about your audience

How your project recap template looks will depend on who it's being written for. Be sure to determine the key audience that will be reading your project summary and make sure it's geared towards them. If you want to keep it flexible, make sure to write a summary report template that'd be clear to any reader.

Prioritize key project milestones

While you should avoid getting bogged down in the details at this stage, make sure to prioritize your project's key milestones as if you're building a one page project summary template. This will help you and your team get oriented early on.

Create a full-fledged template for later use

A full-fledged project summary report template can be used to create a project report for many different audiences. Removing unnecessary sections is faster and easier than coming up with new ones. And a complete template ensures that you won't miss any important information when compiling your report.

Continuously revise to keep it concise

Over time and as your team's experience and mutual understanding increase, your project summary template can become leaner. Slite lets you revise old versions through its version history feature. You can go back to old documents and revise them, or create new customized versions to save time creating new documents.

‍

Why you need a Project Summary Template

Writing and developing a project summary template is an excellent action to take as part of any project plan.

Get ready for each stage of the project

Whether you use your project summary template as a means to keep your project team up to date throughout your project's lifecycle or to present key updates to project stakeholders, it will act as a map to guide you through your project's various stages. As it progresses, your project summaries will be great resources for you to refer back to.

Increases clarity

Putting together project summaries forces project teams to put all the essential elements of their projects in writing (if you use a Slite template, they can always be updated in real-time). This facilitates clarity and transparent communication from the get-go.

Internally, project summary templates can be modified to demonstrate project progress at a moment in time or making other templates for project proposals. They provide an executive summary for project managers, team members, contractors and other service providers. They communicate project milestones, metrics and project timeline updates to keep project teams on track, help them get organized and work together efficiently.

‍

Pro Tip: To make data even easier to understand, elements of project summaries are sometimes stylized as Gantt charts or other visual graphs.

Saves time

Having a project summary template handy is convenient for all kinds of project management needs. Whenever you find yourself needing to present your project to someone, internal or external, you'll have a document ready to share with ease.

‍

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Project Summary Template + Examples | Slite.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Create a project summary template to streamline your project planning & reporting process. Learn about key elements, benefits, & find project summary examples.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Critical reviews, both short (one page) and long (four pages), usually have a similar structure. Check your assignment instructions for formatting and structural specifications. Headings are usually optional for longer reviews and can be helpful for the reader.

Introduction

The length of an introduction is usually one paragraph for a journal article review and two or three paragraphs for a longer book review. Include a few opening sentences that announce the author(s) and the title, and briefly explain the topic of the text. Present the aim of the text and summarise the main finding or key argument. Conclude the introduction with a brief statement of your evaluation of the text. This can be a positive or negative evaluation or, as is usually the case, a mixed response.

Present a summary of the key points along with a limited number of examples. You can also briefly explain the author's purpose/intentions throughout the text and you may briefly describe how the text is organised. The summary should only make up about a third of the critical review.

The critique should be a balanced discussion and evaluation of the strengths, weakness and notable features of the text. Remember to base your discussion on specific criteria. Good reviews also include other sources to support your evaluation (remember to reference).

You can choose how to sequence your critique. Here are some examples to get you started:

Most important to least important conclusions you make about the text.

If your critique is more positive than negative, then present the negative points first and the positive last.

If your critique is more negative than positive, then present the positive points first and the negative last.

If there are both strengths and weakness for each criterion you use, you need to decide overall what your judgement is. For example, you may want to comment on a key idea in the text and have both positive and negative comments. You could begin by stating what is good about the idea and then concede and explain how it is limited in some way. While this example shows a mixed evaluation, overall you are probably being more negative than positive.

In long reviews, you can address each criterion you choose in a paragraph, including both negative and positive points. For very short critical reviews (one page or less), where your comments will be briefer, include a paragraph of positive aspects and another of negative.

You can also include recommendations for how the text can be improved in terms of ideas, research approach; theories or frameworks used can also be included in the critique section.

Conclusion & References

Conclusion

This is usually a very short paragraph.

Restate your overall opinion of the text.

Briefly present recommendations.

If necessary, some further qualification or explanation of your judgement can be included. This can help your critique sound fair and reasonable.

References

If you have used other sources in you review you should also include a list of references at the end of the review.

Summarising and paraphrasing for the critical review

Summarising and paraphrasing are essential skills for academic writing and in particular, the critical review. To summarise means to reduce a text to its main points and its most important ideas. The length of your summary for a critical review should only be about one quarter to one third of the whole critical review.

The best way to summarise

1. Scan the text. Look for information that can be deduced from the introduction, conclusion, title, and headings. What do these tell you about the main points of the article?

2. Locate the topic sentences and highlight the main points as you read.

3. Reread the text and make separate notes of the main points. Examples and evidence do not need to be included at this stage. Usually they are used selectively in your critique.

Paraphrasing means putting it into your own words. Paraphrasing offers an alternative to using direct quotations in your summary (and the critique) and can be an efficient way to integrate your summary notes.
The best way to paraphrase

1. Review your summary notes

2. Rewrite them in your own words and in complete sentences

3. Use reporting verbs and phrases, e.g. 'The author describes...', 'Smith argues that ...'.

4. Use quotation marks if If you include unique or specialist phrases from the text.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Critical reviews, both short (one page) and long (four pages), usually have a similar structure. Check your assignment instructions for formatting and structural specifications. Headings are usually optional for longer reviews and can be helpful for the reader.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Our society advances depending on the scientific literacy of its citizens. Scientifically literate individuals - such as science graduates - are trained to think scientifically. Not only do they understand scientific concepts, but they also know the nature of science and how we came to know what we do.

Thinking scientifically and critically - separating false claims that lack scientific evidence from scientifically valid information - is essential for everyday life. Individuals who are scientifically literate are able to make responsible decisions and participate in society in a positive way.

Citizens cannot be expected to improve their scientific literacy on their own, but many people can play a part in this important endeavour. This includes graduates from science, the medical and dental professions, the allied health disciplines, and other science-related fields including science journalism.

Improving the scientific literacy in our communities depends on the ability of science-educated individuals to reach out to our citizens and communicate science to them in such a way that has a long-lasting affect.

Your task is to inspire the community, fascinate them - and alert them when appropriate. Overall, you must help to educate the public and instil a passion that makes them want to learn more. This is how we can get people to change their behaviours in ways that will positively affect our future. Scientifically literate members of society will then go on to educate their own children, who will in turn instil scientific literacy in their children and so on.

The general public is an audience with variable educational backgrounds and scientific understanding. Initially, it may be more difficult to communicate effectively with them than with your scientific peers. But this just takes practise. Many science curriculums focus on teaching facts. Communication tasks tend to be largely restricted to the scientific community.

In this chapter, you will learn more about what some high-profile scientists have to say on the importance of scientific literacy and science communication to the general public or non-expert audience (see Box 8.1). We will share some simple tips on how you can communicate effectively with the community at large to make your impact.

Communicating science has been discussed by many eminent scientists and scientific associations.

Professor Ian Chubb

Professor Ian Chubb was Australia's Chief Scientist in 2011-15. The Chief Scientist provides high-level independent advice to the Prime Minister and other ministers about science, technology and innovation.

Science has a marketing problem. There's no question about that. The manner in which we get across the sheer awesomeness of science is often too muted. We're not constantly out there. We see single events as being enough and so, as I'm constantly saying to scientists, you know, just because you have a symposium or press release or a press conference, that's not enough in itself. - Ian Chubb

Regarding primary school children:

[Renowned astronomer Carl Sagan] once said that we take these young children, who are totally curious and we then progressively beat it out of them. And I think that one of the things that we have to do is to maintain the sense that they can go to primary school and they can get shown science, visually, how it's practised, not taught out of a book, not just, you know, follow me, this is a principle. Why? Well it doesn't matter just learn it. That they're actually shown the awesomeness of science from a very early age and when that happens all the evidence is it sticks. - Ian Chubb

Regarding climate change:

I would say part of plan B is to present the evidence in a way that's accessible to people who are interested but not necessarily trained in the disciplines of science. And that's where the message has got to go and I think that we started the run too late in that we said, you know, all of this work was done. It was kept largely - largely not exclusively - within the scientific community and it suddenly gets dumped on the public that this is a real problem that we've got to address right away. We should start earlier, we should work progressively through it, take the public with us as we go but we do need to make sure it's not the typical techo and scientific talk but it is, in fact, without at all being patronising but simply saying these are the real facts, this is what it means, these are the implications and we need to do something about it. - Ian Chubb

Professor Suzanne Cory

Professor Suzanne Cory is one of Australia's most distinguished molecular biologists. She is currently a Research Professor in the Molecular Genetics of Cancer Division at The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute and a Vice-Chancellor's Fellow of The University of Melbourne.

Every scientist I know who has been inspired to be a scientist has been inspired through a teacher ... Teaching science well at school is the way to inspire the next generation of scientists. It's also absolutely critical to have a scientifically literate community. So but science is still taught the old chalk and talk way, often by teachers who have not been trained in the subjects in which they're forced to teach. So we need to invest in this country in training more and better science teachers and give them the resources to teach with and we need to teach them ... we need to teach our students by doing science, which is what you were saying and the Government has invested in two programs that the Academy of Science has developed over the last the years. There's a Primary Connections Program and there's Science By Doing for junior secondary schools. Those programs are totally transforming the way science is taught in schools, they need to be in every school in this country. - Suzanne Cory

Professor Ian Chubb and Professor Suzanne Cory's comments are taken from a special science edition of the ABC program Q&A called 'Science: precious petals to passionate teachers' (Jones et al., 2014). The comments here are taken from the 'Keeping students interested' and 'Climate change' segments.

The Australian Academy of Science

The mission of the Australian Academy of Science (AAS, 2015) is to:

champion Australian scientific excellence

promote and disseminate scientific knowledge

provide independent scientific advice

The AAS aims to benefit of Australia and the world (Australian Academy of Science, 2015). Scientists from the AAS found that the number of students studying science in years 11 and 12 is declining: in 2012 only 50% of year 12 students studied science (Goodrum et al., 2012). The authors recommended improving student engagement in science studied in years 7-10 to generate interest that will increase numbers of senior high school students continuing to study science. The AAS also recognises the importance of developing scientific literacy in primary school students, which led to the implementation of the Primary Connections initiative that aims to engage students in science at a younger age (Primary Connections, 2013).

The National Science Foundation

The National Science Foundation (NSF, 2015) is an independent federal agency created by the United States Congress in 1950 to:

promote the progress of science

advance the national health, prosperity and welfare

secure the national defense.

In 2006, the NSF reported that the American public had a limited understanding of science and technology, despite being supportive of the fields (Kahlor & Stout, 2010). The public's lack of knowledge about science can have far-reaching negative implications, including that they are unable to evaluate scientific information presented by public and allied health agencies, pharmaceutical companies, journalists and medical practitioners (Kahlor & Stout, 2010)​.

For the student scientist, it should be clear that one of the many important things that we need to achieve is an increase in the scientific literacy of our citizens, if humanity is to have the best possible future.

So what are some relatively straightforward and simple ways that people can communicate both formally and informally to the general public - in a way that is effective? Although there is no definite and correct answer, the suggestions in Figure 8.1 should steer you in the right direction.

To help you decide what to do next, choose your starting point - one of concept, audience or mode - and refer to Figure 8.2.

If you are interested in a particular concept, follow the blue arrows in Figure 8.2.

Who needs to know about this concept?

What mode of communication is this audience most likely to respond to?

If you have identified an audience you would like to communicate to, follow the red arrows in Figure 8.2.

What is a concept this audience needs to know about?

How do you best communicate to this audience?

If you have identified a mode of communication you would like to use, follow the yellow arrows in Figure 8.2.

Who would be most likely to respond to this mode of communication?

What is a concept this audience needs to know about?

Know your audience

Successful science communicators must be able to recognise and understand their target audience, and make the science accessible to them. Examples of discrete audiences include:

preschool children

primary school children

secondary school students

university students

patients diagnosed with a particular condition

family members of patients diagnosed with a particular condition

older people

people from a particular demographic (e.g. non-English speaking background)

inactive individuals

overweight individuals

smokers

As you can see, your audience can vary a lot!

To narrow down and understand your audience, conduct an audience analysis. This will allow you to communicate with them more effectively.

One of the resources for The writer's workshop: skills for success course offered by the Business Administration Program at the University of Washington is a series of questions to help you analyse your audience (University of Washington, 2014). This resource lists three main areas to consider when analysing your audience: demographics, disposition and knowledge. These questions are written in reference to a reading audience, but they apply to all audience types. The resource also suggests that you consider how each of the factors you identify affects your readers' attitudes, expectations, and opinions about you and your topic.

The Australian Bureau of Statistics website allows you to access national and regional statistics on the Australian population. Results from the most recent census as well as statistics on social trends are available.

Ensure that your topic is significant and relevant to your audience

To have a significant and positive impact on improving scientific literacy in the community, your choice of topic should be contemporary and highly relevant to your audience. Equally as important to this, you need to communicate in such a way that - in the end - the audience truly believes the issue really matters to them. If your audience believes this, their attitude and behavior will start to change in line with what the science is telling us.

Remember that members of the general public are likely to be more interested in the implications and impact of science, rather than the nitty-gritty that we talk about with our scientific peers.

A good way to determine why a particular concept is important is by asking yourself that exact question. Is it related to a significant health issue for the Australian population, such as mental health, inactivity, poor diet, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease or cancer? Is it an important global issue, such as climate change?

At the global level, there are myriad issues that the world faces. Energy, food and water security; climate change; biodiversity; infectious diseases and conditions such those caused by the Zika COVID-19 virus and Ebola virus; health issues such as cardiovascular health and diabetes; air pollution; and mental health for trauma survivors. These are only a small percentage of the world's most important problems - many more need to be communicated to the public.

The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare website has a list of national health priority areas, as well as data on a range of health and welfare issues sorted by subject.

Contrary to what you might think, science professionals are yet to successfully communicate these issues adequately to the general public. If we improve our science communication to the public and increase scientific literacy, we increase our chances of successfully confronting these challenges both domestically and globally.

Box 8.2 provides some examples of topics, target audiences and desired outcomes.

Never forget that the knowledge we have is because of science. Wherever possible, include relevant information on how we came to know what we do. In other words, how has the science evolved that has led us to our current understandings on the issue?

It's also important to know what types of attitude and behavior changes the science is telling us should take place. Your communication should help the population move towards these changes, along with an understanding of why the changes should occur.

Type II diabetes prevention

Audience and task: Communicate to a group of newly joined Weight Watchers members on how they can reduce their risk of developing Type II diabetes. These individuals will be overweight and at an increased risk of developing the disease.

Desired outcome: increased activity and weight loss, and decreased risk of developing type II diabetes in these individuals, combined with an understanding of how poor diet and inactivity increases the risk of developing diabetes.

Cardiovascular disease prevention

Audience and task: Communicate to the general public on what the risk factors are for development of cardiovascular disease and what can be done to reduce the risk. Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of death in Australia, so in this case it would be appropriate to pitch to the general public.

Desired outcome: increased activity, weight loss in overweight individuals, a healthier diet rich in antioxidants, quit smoking or never taking it up, decreased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, combined with an understanding of the science behind the risks of cardiovascular disease.

The benefits of quitting smoking

Audience and task: Communicate to the smoking population on what the dangers of smoking are and some tips on how to stop.

Desired outcome: Quit smoking and understand the health benefits of doing so.

The benefits of not taking up smoking

Audience and task: Communicate to a group of primary school children on what the dangers of smoking are and some tips on how not to take it up.

Desired outcome: reduce rates of smoking uptake in our young population and an understanding of the health benefits of not taking up smoking.

The benefits of regular physical activity

Audience and task: Communicate to a group of primary school children on the benefits of regular physical activity before bad habits set in.

Desired outcome: increased activity levels reducing risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes and obesity, combined with an understanding of why exercise helps do this.

How to prevent the spread of the Zika virus

Audience and task: Communicate to the general public in South America and North America on what science tells us about the best way to treat and prevent the spread of Zika virus.

Desired outcome: decreased spread of Zika virus, combined with an understanding of how Zika virus spreads.

Ensure your communication platform is appropriate for your audience

Consider the vast array of available platforms for communicating about your topic to your audience:

websites

posters and brochures

newspaper and magazine articles

songs, games and videos

classroom activities

podcasts and mobile apps

artworks

It is important to engage with the audience in a genre appropriate to that audience. For example, if you would like to create a video to communicate your topic, would it be best to select a topic that would be of interest to 15-20 year olds or to 60-70 year olds? Consider how you would justify your decision. Box 8.3 provides a list of resources that can help you decide on your communication platform.

Regardless of the communication platform that you choose, take care to present your communication piece professionally - this is likely to have a greater impact on your audience.

There are many useful programs available for creating communication pieces. Many of these tools are easy to use and produce a professional looking product. This is not an exhaustive list of useful software but it's certainly a great place to start:

Adobe Spark can help you create social graphics, web stories and animated videos - in minutes

Microsoft Sway helps you make and share interactive reports, presentations and stories

iMovie or Windows Movie Maker come standard with your Apple or PC

Moovly allows you to make animated videos, presentations, infographics and videoclips

Visme allows you to create presentations and infographics

Audacity is a free, sophisticated audio recording and editing software

Canva is a free-to-access website that allows you to do simple graphic design, and create flyers, posters and presentations

PowToon allows you to create animated videos and presentations

Videoscribe offers a 7-day free trial to create whiteboard-style animations

Use language suitable to your audience

To successfully communicate your topic or concept to your target audience, you must consider the unique characteristics of your audience and their knowledge in the area.

As a part of your audience analysis, you will research the specifics of your audience. This analysis will tell you important information about the demographics, disposition and knowledge of your audience. All of these factors will impact on your choice of language for your communication piece.

There are a few do's and don'ts when communicating with non-scientific audiences:

DO use plain language

DO NOT use scientific jargon

DO use compelling arguments and scenarios

DO use symbolism and analogies.

Avoid using scientific jargon

Jargon is the specialised vocabulary of any profession, trade, science or hobby. Scientific jargon is that vocabulary specific to science, and each field of science will have its own jargon.

Any biochemist researching in the area of antioxidants and oxidative stress will be familiar with terms such as free radical, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, reactive oxygen species, superoxide, hydroxyl radical, hydrogen peroxide, SOD, GPX and H2O2.

But do not use any of this jargon when communicating with non-expert audiences. Instead, you will need to replace the relevant jargon with simple words that your audience will understand:

Low levels of alpha-tochopherol promotes endothelial dysfunction.

Becomes:

An appropriate intake of vitamin E in the diet is important to maintain healthy blood vessels. (Scientific statement translated for a group of individuals who need to improve their diet to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.)

Use compelling arguments and scenarios

Although you should never exaggerate the science when communicating with your audience, it is appropriate to tell the truth and share scenarios that may be confronting.

For example, if you are communicating with a group of smokers, it might be appropriate to show pictures of what a smokers' lung looks like. Likewise, let your audience know what their health outcome could be if they continue to smoke heavily.

Compelling arguments and scenarios are more likely to affect the audience and - as we already know - this brings potential for action and positive change.

Use symbolism such as analogies

Using symbolism or analogies is not a necessity when communicating science to the public, but it may be appropriate in some circumstances.

An analogy is a comparison between one thing and another, typically to explain or clarify something.

Given that scientific concepts may be difficult for the general public to grasp, using an example of something the audience is already familiar with can help them to understand what you are trying to tell them.

In Video 8.1 you will see the clever use of analogy and art to communicate science.

As you can see from the examples in this section, the ideas for communicating effectively are endless.

It might be easier than you think to create something that will have an impact on a population group and help increase the scientific literacy in our society. What are you waiting for?

Dr. Michiko Maruyama applied for medical school after surviving a rare cancer - an experience she doodled about and submitted as a comic strip for her medical school application. Now, she regularly uses art to communicate with her patients, and she dreams of opening a studio dedicated to integrating art, design and medicine. You can view Dr. Michiko's art on their website the Art of Learning.

Note: Closed captions are available by clicking the CC button below.

Magazine article explaining research findings to a non-expert audience

You need to write a 500-word article for the non-expert audience explaining the pathophysiology of a disease. In addition, you include recent research findings from a published journal article: Vance, E., Is Estrogen the New Ritalin?, in Scientific American Mind. 2010, Munn & Co.: New York, NY. p. 6. Below are some new stories explaining research finding to a non-expert audience.

News story published on a website explaining exciting new scientific inventions for studying disease and what this means for patients

Source: Cincinnati Children's. (2014). Lab-developed intestinal organoids form mature human tissue in mice. Available from: http://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/news/release/2014/lab-grown-intestines-10-19-2014/.

News story published on a website about a new potent antibiotic that doesn't encounter any detectable resistance

Source: Kelland, K. (2015). "Scientists discover 'game-changing' new antibiotic for first time in 30 years." Available from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-01-09/scientists-discover-new-antibiotic-for-first-time-in-30-years/6007730

News story published on a website explaining an important discovery of a genetic mutation

Source: Kelland, K. (2015). "Gene mutations key to heart muscle disease identified." Available from http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2015/01/15/4162649.htm.

News story published on a website announcing the trial of an Ebola vaccine

Source: Lapook, J. (2014). "Ebola vaccine human trials begin." Available from http://www.cbsnews.com/news/ebola-vaccine-being-tested-in-rapid-fashion-say-researchers/

Classroom activity/lesson plan to help explain a concept to primary school students

A primary school teacher needs a lesson they can use in one a 1-hour class. You could provide a solution that includes a few PowerPoint slides, an activity for the students to do and some questions at the end so they can test how well they did.

The game Synaptic tag helps students learn about neuroscience.

Classroom activity/lesson plan to help explain a concept to first-year university students studying physiology

First-year physiology students need to understand a challenging concept in an upcoming workshop. The communication activity could help students with terminology or an activity a team of students could engage in to understand the concept.

A poster displayed in a clinic waiting room to communicate ways to reduce the risk of contracting/transmitting an illness or disease

You could use your graphic design skills to design a poster that incorporates some physiology and a public health message. You could also design a brochure to give health centre patients to take home.

See some historical examples of public health posters collected by the US National Library of Medicine.

A game for university classmates to help remember a difficult concept

You studied a challenging concept in second-year physiology, and want to design a fun game that will help students understand the physiology or to revise before an exam.

Odenweller, C., Hsu, C., & DiCarlo, S. (1998). Educational card games for understanding gastrointestinal physiology. Advances in Physiology Educatio n, 275(6).

A video explaining a useful concept to non-experts

You have learned to use some video production software, and you want to use these skills to make a video (or 12-14 frame storyboard) explaining and important concept

A song explaining a useful concept to non-experts

If you are a talented songwriter, you write a song suitable for your target audience that explains a scientific concept. Your target audience could be for primary school or university students, or for the general public - for example, a jingle for an advertising campaign.

A podcast in which you explain an important concept for a non-expert audience

You love making podcasts, so you make one about something that you find interesting and important enough to be published on your university website.

A mobile app for smartphones or tablets that allows students of any age to better understand a concept

You may want to design a mobile app that secondary or tertiary students can use to start understanding physiology - in a fun way!

An artwork for display that demonstrates your understanding of a concept

If you are a talented artist, you could create an artwork (painting, mixed-media model, sculpture or a set of mounted photographs) that could be displayed in the newly refurbished physiology laboratories, or in an appropriate setting such as a physiotherapists waiting room. The artwork explains an important concept in a creative and appealing way.

Click the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter.

Copyright note: Content from the following source is reproduced with permission from the copyright holder and is excluded from the Creative Commons Licence of this work. No further reproduction of this quotation is permitted without prior permission from the copyright holder.

Jones, T. (Host), Cory, S. (Panellist), Doherty, P. (Panellist), Schmidt, B. (Panellist), Cheng, M. (Panellist), Chubb, I. (Panellist), Fitzgerald, M. (Panellist). (2014, September 15). Science: Precious petals to passionate teachers. [TV series episode]. In P. McEvoy (Director), & T. Jones (Host). Q + A. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. https://www.abc.net.au/qanda/science-precious-petals-to-passionate-teachers/10656196

Australian Academy of Science. (2015). About Us. Retrieved January 19, 2015, from https://www.science.org.au/ about-us

Goodrum, D., Druhan, A., & Abbs, J. (2012). The status and quality of Year 11 and 12 science in Australian schools. Australian Academy of Science. https://www.science.org.au/files/userfiles/support/reports-and-plans/2015/year11and12report.pdf

Jones, T. (Host), Cory, S. (Panellist), Doherty, P. (Panellist), Schmidt, B. (Panellist), Cheng, M. (Panellist), Chubb, I. (Panellist), Fitzgerald, M. (Panellist). (2014, September 15). Science: Precious petals to passionate teachers. [TV series episode]. In P. McEvoy (Director), & T. Jones (Host). Q + A. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. https://www.abc.net.au/qanda/science-precious-petals-to-passionate-teachers/10656196

Kahlor, L., & Stout, P. (2010). Communicating science: New agendas in communication. Routledge.

National Science Foundation. (2015). About the National Science Foundation, Retrieved January 19, 2015, from http://www.nsf.gov/about/.

Primary Connections. (2013). Primary Connections: Linking science with literacy. Retrieved October 21, 2013, https://web.archive.org/web/20130917034951/primaryconnections.org.au/index.html

University of Washington. (2014). Audience analysis. Retrieved December 5, 2014, from http://faculty.washington.edu/ezent/aaaa.htm

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Our society advances depending on the scientific literacy of its citizens. Scientifically literate individuals - such as science graduates - are trained to think scientifically. Not only do they understand scientific concepts, but they also know the nature of science and how we came to know what we do.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A Material Transfer Agreement (MTA) is a contract that governs the transfer of tangible research materials between two organizations, when the recipient intends to use it for his or her own research purposes. The MTA defines the rights of the provider and the recipient with respect to the materials and any derivatives. Biological materials, such as reagents, cell lines, plasmids, and vectors, are the most frequently transferred materials, but MTAs may also be used for other types of materials, such as chemical compounds and even some types of software. As a general rule, University of Houston requires MTAs for any incoming or outgoing materials in order to monitor what materials are coming on campus, and what materials (and to whom) UH is supplying.

Faculty members coming to or leaving UH need to have an MTA in place prior to transferring any materials from/to other institutions such as plasmids, cell lines, animals, etc.

The chart below outlines the steps, the responsible office or person, and the time it takes to complete the request for submitting an NDA for review and execution.

Material Transfer Agreement document

Typically, for incoming materials, the entity sending out the material will require the use of its own MTA form. For the purpose of outgoing material transfers, UH has standard MTA agreements on the DOR webpage to cover these materials. Whether the material is incoming or outgoing, agreements of this type are negotiated by the Division of Research.

University of Houston is a signatory to the Uniform Biological Material Transfer Agreement (UBMTA) Master Agreement, a contracting mechanism published by NIH on behalf of PHS to facilitate the transfer of biological materials between academic institutions. For institutions who have agreed to the terms of the UBMTA Master Agreement, it is not necessary to negotiate individualized terms for each transfer of a biological material. Instead, an Implementing Letter is executed, which denotes the biological material as well as the providing institution and receiving institution. Whenever possible, the UBMTA will be utilize to expedite the transfer of applicable biological materials

Incoming Material Transfer Agreement

An incoming MTA protects a researcher's ability to use and publish research, any existing and potential intellectual property and define the use of any accompanying confidential information. The review of an incoming MTA ensures the agreement terms don't conflict with rights granted in other agreements associated with the research.

Outgoing Material Transfer Agreement

MTAs for outgoing material typically prevent the material provider from losing control over the material and its research use. If no agreement exists, then the recipient of the material has no legal restrictions on the use of the material, or on transferring the material.

Compliance Review

MTAs (incoming and outgoing) must undergo a compliance review to ensure that the appropriate compliance protocols are in place for:

Live animals - Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).

Human tissue and/or data - Compliance with 45 CFR 46 (and all other applicable federal regulations), and, if required, have protocol(s) reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB).

Hazardous materials - Biosafety compliance and, if applicable, have protocol(s) reviewed and approved by the Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBC).

Conflict of Interest (COI) - Review needed where the decision to undertake the research is based on receiving access to the material(s) from a non-governmental or industrial provider must follow Committee requirements for financial disclosure.

Other Considerations:

Sending/receiving live (vertebrate) animals

Most orders from traditional/approved vendors (as listed in ACO's website) do not require an MTA since the University already has an Institutional MTA, if needed, and the terms and conditions are explicitly laid out in the purchase documents and the vendor's website.

All import/export requests utilizing non-traditional vendors, i.e., those not listed on ACO's website including other institutions, may need an MTA.

1. Fill out the Non-Traditional Vendor Import-Export Form, found in the ACO website.

2. ACO receives the form and forwards it to the Research Integrity and Oversight office (RIO).

3. RIO reviews the request to determine whether or not an MTA is needed and checks to see if an MTA is already in place. Following are some examples (RIO will always review and make the final determination):

Sending/receiving animals by incoming and outgoing Faculty (transfer of animals)

Sending/receiving animals from/to collaborators or other institutions (unless as part of a subaward and already covered in the terms of the agreement)

The PI has contracted with a vendor to generate a new animal model. Please check with the IACUC office before executing the contract as there are some requirements set by OLAW when using PHS funds for these services.

RIO will reach out to the PI for any clarifications and if an MTA is needed and there is not one already on file. The PI can also initiate this process by sending an email to dorcontracts@listserv.uh.edu

Ordering Materials from a Repository like the NIH AIDS Reagent Program

Some repositories require registrations and some require MTAs, and some require both. If you are registering to use a repository, or if you are ordering a specific material, and the repository requires an institutional signature, then documentation will need to be submitted to the Division of Research.

Transferring Export Controlled Material

Under U.S. export control laws, a license may be required from the Bureau of Industry and Security or the Department of Commerce for the export of certain materials. Examples of such materials include human pathogens, zoonoses, toxins, animal pathogens, genetically modified microorganisms, plant pathogens, radioactive materials, magnetic metals, propellants and ceramic materials. Anyone who is planning to transfer materials controlled by the Department of Commerce or the Department of State outside the United States, should work with the UH Export Control Officer, Sandy Brown, to obtain the required license. There are civil and criminal penalties for violating the Export Administration Regulations.

MTA Procedures

Email MTA and the completed compliance questionnaire to dorcontracts@listserv.uh.edu and include other party contact person information

PI or Dept. Business Administrator (DBA)

Log the agreement for tracking purposes and route to the appropriate contracting officer and compliance Offices

OCG

2 business days

Compliance review and approve for Human Subjects, Animals, Conflicts of Interest

Office of Research Integrity and Oversight (RIO)

5-7 business days
(both compliance checks done in parallel)

Compliance review and approve for biohazard Materials

Environmental Health and Life Safety (EHLS)

5-7 business days
(both compliance checks done in parallel)

Review and negotiate the terms and condition of the agreement as needed. Obtain a determination from the VP for Research when there are terms and conditions that cannot be agreed upon

OCG Contracting Officers

7-12 business days for standard agreements. Non-standard agreements may take up to 15-30 days to negotiate.

When it is the other party's agreement, UH and the PI signs first, returns the signed agreement to the other party, follow-up for executed agreement and close the log

OCG

Within 2 days of receipt of signed agreement

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A Material Transfer Agreement (MTA) is a contract that governs the transfer of tangible research materials between two organizations, when the recipient intends to use it for his or her own research purposes. The MTA defines the rights of the provider and the recipient with respect to the materials and any derivatives.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Similares en SciELO

La nanotecnología: ¿Un camino a la esperanza?

Las técnicas de análisis convencionales han experimentado en la última década una sustancial modificación por la instrumentación analítica miniaturizada. El gran despertar de la nanotecnología comenzó a partir de los años 80, con el desarrollo de una amplia gama de microscopios de sonda de barrido, que logran imágenes a escala atómica. Sin embargo, fue Richard Feynman ( premio Nobel de Física en 1965) guien con su famosa conferencia titulada "Hay mucho espacio en el fondo", marcó un hito para el desarrollo de ésta, haciendo ver la posibilidad de mover las cosas átomo por átomo.

La nanotecnología podría definirse como el campo de la ciencia dedicada al control y manipulación de la materia en la escala de los átomos y las moléculas, donde el tamaño se mide en millonésimas de un milímetro. El término es descrito por algunos autores, como la "tecnología transformadora del siglo XXI" y aunque su impacto en la vida moderna aún parece una historia de ciencia ficción, el conocimiento de los procesos biológicos, químicos y físicos a nivel molecular, se ha convertido en una de las revoluciones científicas más importantes para la humanidad, acercándose el momento de que sea una realidad palpable y cotidiana, pero para ello, se requiere de los aportes de científicos de campos muy diversos.

Los expertos predicen que revolucionará la manufactura en todos los sectores de la industria y eventualmente impactará la producción de virtualmente todos los objetos fabricados por humanos, siendo la medicina justamente un sector que será profundamente influido por los materiales y dispositivos nanoescalares.

Debido a su pequeño tamaño a escala nano, estos pueden interactuar fácilmente con biomoléculas localizadas tanto en la superficie, como en el interior de las células. Al obtener acceso a tantas áreas del cuerpo, tienen la posibilidad de detectar enfermedades y de administrar tratamiento en formas que fueron inimaginables en el pasado. Por ejemplo, el Instituto Nacional del Cáncer del gobierno estadunidense afirma que la nanotecnología promete acceso al interior de la célula viva, lo que permite la oportunidad de obtener ventajas sin precedentes para alcanzar nuevas fronteras en la investigación básica y clínica. Tener la posibilidad de insertar sondeos nanoescalares en células particulares, aumentará el entendimiento de los complejos modos de operación de las células y permitirá una detección muy temprana de células aberrantes, que apunten a un estado enfermo.

Dentro de sus aplicaciones, destaca el encapsulado de diversos fármacos a través de micro y nanoestructuras complejas como un importante avance en el tratamiento de la diabetes. Varias compañías están ya preparando insulina para aplicar por vía pulmonar mediante la inhalación de aerosoles para que llegue a los alvéolos y de allí se difunda al torrente sanguíneo. Pero el éxito de un fármaco requiere no sólo del transporte adecuado de la droga hacia los órganos y tejidos, sino también del control del tiempo de administración.

En el ámbito gastrointestinal, los cambios de acidez, la acción de enzimas proteolíticas y la presencia de ácidos biliares que disminuyen la tensión superficial, requieren la encapsulación del fármaco; el tamaño de la cápsula deberá ser menor de 400 nanómetros (nm) para no alertar al sistema inmunológico.

Más aún, el tratamiento del cáncer se está orientando a la identificación de las células cancerosas empleando cápsulas que encierran radionucleótidos, toxinas y quimioterápicos, que actuarán específicamente sobre las mismas, debido a estar recubiertas por anticuerpos monoclonales, con una carga apropiada del fármaco, para destruir una célula cancerosa. Cada cápsula deberá identificar las células, unirse a ellas, introducirse y liberar su contenido.

Otra alternativa, la constituye el empleo de nanopartículas de vidrio, de 100 nm, recubiertas por una fina lámina de oro sobre la que se adhieren anticuerpos específicos contra la célula cancerosa y donde se somete al paciente a la radiación infrarroja (inocua para él) y que es absorbida por los átomos de oro, aumentando la temperatura superficial de la cápsula y como resultado ocurre la muerte de las células cancerosas.

Los entusiastas de la nanotecnología tienen grandes esperanzas de que brindará tratamientos especialmente eficaces para combatir las afecciones y las enfermedades. La razón es simple: la nanotecnología opera en la misma escala que la biología. Una molécula de ADN es de unos 2,5 nm de ancho y la hemoglobina, proteína de la sangre responsable del transporte de oxígeno es de unos 5 nm de diámetro. Por tanto, las células humanas son mucho más grandes, en el orden de las 10-20 micras en diámetro (10 mil a 20 mil nm), lo que implica que los materiales y dispositivos nanoescalares pueden penetrar con facilidad en casi todas las células, sin activar respuesta de inmunidad alguna.

Son vastas las aplicaciones potenciales de la nanotecnología en el campo de las ciencias de la salud y permiten vislumbrar una promisoria realidad, como un camino a la esperanza. No obstante, ante su alto grado de complejidad e incertidumbre, la ola de optimismo, estímulo y desarrollo de la nanotecnología a nivel mundial, hace necesario el estudio, evaluación y debate sobre sus implicaciones sociales, éticas, ambientales y legales. En este sentido, es ineludible pensar en las regulaciones de la nanotecnología de manera que se puedan cosechar sus beneficios y evitar los daños que pueda causar su mal uso. En cualquier caso, la revolución nanotecnológica se debe desarrollar de forma racional y responsable, sin olvidar la relación riesgo-beneficio, con la intención de que se aplique para mejorar no sólo la salud, sino la calidad de vida de las sociedades actuales y de las generaciones venideras. La bondad o la malignidad de esta tecnología, dependerá de las aplicaciones y fines a los que se destine.

Milagros Espinoza de Leal

Departamento de Investigación y Desarrollo Profesional. Escuela de Bioanálisis, Sede Carabobo. Centro de Investigaciones Médicas y Biotecnológicas de la Universidad de Carabobo (CIMBUC)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
La nanotecnología: ¿Un camino a la esperanza?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Similares en SciELO La nanotecnología: ¿Un camino a la esperanza? Las técnicas de análisis convencionales han experimentado en la última década una sustancial modificación por la instrumentación analítica miniaturizada. El gran despertar de la nanotecnología comenzó a partir de los años 80, con el desarrollo de una amplia gama de microscopios de sonda de barrido, que logran imágenes a escala atómica.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Summary

Your agenda tells your team what to expect during a meeting and how they can prepare for it. Ideally, you'll use your agenda to connect your team with the meeting's purpose, assign tasks or items to team members, and designate a realistic amount of time to each agenda item. A great meeting agenda maximizes the meeting's effectiveness and keeps your team on track.

There's a good chance you've experienced that painful feeling that arises when you're unsure why you're in a meeting and don't know what to expect. Meetings without agendas tend to cause that feeling-that's why we believe meeting agendas should be an integral part of your meeting culture.

An effective agenda communicates the purpose of your meeting, gives your team the chance to prepare their agenda items, and keeps everyone on track.

Whether you're prepping for your next board meeting, staff meeting, or business meeting, we'll help you write an agenda that will maximize your meeting's potential.

Meeting agenda best practices

Let's start with some of our favorite tips on creating great meeting agendas so you can make the most of yours:

Create and share your meeting agenda as early as possible. At the very latest, you should share your meeting agenda an hour before the meeting time. This allows everyone to prepare for what's going to happen. Your team can also relay questions or additional agenda items to you for a potential adjustment before the meeting. Besides, when your team members have a chance to properly prepare themselves, they'll have a much easier time focusing during the meeting.

Link to any relevant pre-reading materials in advance. This can be the presentation deck, additional context, or a previous decision. Everyone arriving to the meeting will be on the same page and ready to move the discussion forward rather than asking a ton of questions that take up relevant time.

Assign facilitators for each agenda item. Remember that feeling of being called on in school when you didn't know the answer? It's a pretty terrible feeling that we're sure you don't want to evoke in your teammates. By assigning a facilitator for each agenda item before the meeting, you allow them to prepare for a quick rundown of the topic, questions, and feedback.

Define and prioritize your agenda items. Differentiate between the three categories of agenda items: informational, discussion topics, and action items. Clarifying the purpose of each agenda item helps your team member understand what's most important and what to focus on. You'll also want to prioritize which items are most important and absolutely have to be discussed during the meeting and which ones can be addressed asynchronously, should the clock run out.

Use your meeting agenda during the meeting to track notes and action items. That way, all of the meeting information is in one place. If anyone has questions about decisions or action items from the meeting, they have an easy place to find it. Bonus: Do this in Asana so you can assign out action items and next steps to ensure nothing falls through the cracks. Asana also integrates with Zoom and pulls in your Zoom recording or meeting transcript directly into the meeting agenda task.

Create flow by categorizing your agenda items. To maximize productivity, you'll want to create a meeting agenda that flows well. Batch similar items together and ensure they can build off of one another. For example, list any informational items before the discussion items so your team has all of the information going into the discussion.

Allocate enough time for each item on your agenda. Nobody will complain about a meeting that runs short-keeping everyone longer than anticipated isn't as much fun. Plan sufficient time for each agenda item by calculating an estimated time and adding a couple of minutes as a buffer. This will help with keeping your team on track and moving on from a topic when the time runs out.

By sticking to these best practices, you can ensure that your meeting agenda is a reliable tool and does the job-before, during, and after your meeting.
Read: 9 ways to improve your team's efficiency at work
Why meeting agendas matter

Whether you work from home and take virtual calls or sit in the office and meet in person, meetings can be incredibly draining. Beginning with some small talk may be nice to get to know each other better or catch up on what everyone did this past weekend but it certainly isn't goal-oriented or productive. A meeting agenda can help your team maximize the potential of each meeting you hold.

Our research shows that unnecessary meetings accounted for 157 hours of "work" in 2020, compared to 103 in 2019. Considering a 40-hour work week, that's almost four weeks of wasted time. This is where your meeting agenda comes in. If you're doing it right, writing your meeting agenda is the first and best indicator of whether or not your meeting is actually necessary. If you find that everything on your meeting agenda can be discussed asynchronously, you can cancel the meeting and share your message in a time-saving email.

That isn't to say all meetings should be replaced by emails. If you're sure that the meeting is justified and necessary in order to drive your team's progress, have that meeting. However, always make sure that you create an agenda before getting together so your team members know what you'll be discussing and why the meeting matters.
Free meeting agenda template
Here are a few more great reasons to have meeting agendas:

Your agenda allows everyone to prepare for the meeting. Ideally, every item on your agenda will have a dedicated topic facilitator. When everyone going into the meeting knows what their responsibilities are in advance, they have time to prepare and will be more efficient during the meeting.

It shows you're considerate of your team's time. When your team receives a well-thought-out meeting agenda, they'll immediately see that the meeting is actually necessary. Besides, it's also a roadmap that will keep you on track during the meeting and ensure no time is wasted.

An agenda sets clear expectations of what will and won't be discussed. Think of a meeting agenda as a way of setting boundaries and ensuring that only topics on the agenda will be talked about. If anything comes up during the meeting that needs to be discussed, write it down in your minutes and return to it later. Either at the end of your meeting-if you got through it faster than expected-asynchronously, or in the next meeting.

It keeps your team on track. Your meeting agenda will prevent your team from drifting off-whether that's discussing non-agenda topics (like the barbecue at Kat's place last night) or taking too much time for an item that had specific time allocated.

Your agenda will provide purpose, structure, and opportunities to collaborate. With a clear plan for everyone to follow, your team will go into the meeting knowing the purpose and goal of the meeting. Your meeting agenda also allows your team to direct their attention toward opportunities to collaborate, whether that's during a brainstorming session, a town hall, or your daily standup.

Track next steps and action items so nothing falls through the cracks. Keep your agenda open during the meeting to capture any next steps or action items. By adding them directly into the agenda, these items won't be forgotten when the meeting ends.

Meetings are great opportunities for your team to bond but the time spent on small talk can be worked into the first few minutes of the agenda rather than surfacing every now and then during the meeting, disrupting the flow and productivity or your team's discussion.
Read: 5 tips for leading great meetings
What makes a good meeting agenda?

Now you know why meeting agendas are important, but how do you create an agenda that ticks off all of these boxes?

Let's take a look at what a good meeting agenda should always contain:

The purpose of the meeting: Your meeting agenda should inform all participants what the meeting objectives are, what will be discussed, and what kinds of decisions need to be made. Your agenda should include just enough context so that your team can familiarize themselves with the topic before the meeting begins.

The meeting participants: Not only should your agenda list the participants of the meeting but also what agenda items each team member will be responsible for.

The duration and the allocated time for each agenda item: Defining how much time will be spent on each agenda item can be difficult when you're first starting out writing agendas. Once you get the hang of it, though, you'll realize how rewarding it is. It's always good to allocate a couple more minutes than you think you'll need, in case a question or discussion point arises that needs to be resolved during your meeting.

An overview that lists what will be discussed during the meeting: Your meeting agenda should contain a full list of items that will be discussed during the meeting to ensure that everyone is on the same page. These can be topics to brainstorm, decision-making items, or open-ended questions. Listing all of the items for the meeting sets boundaries and allows your team to prepare for each agenda item.

Read: Why 1:1 meetings are crucial to your team's success
We have now defined the bones of your meeting agenda but there are a few more things that can truly level up the way you write meeting agendas and use them as an extension of your meeting culture.

Meeting agenda example

We've discussed what makes a good meeting agenda and what you should avoid doing but, as always, it's easiest to learn from a real life example. Let's take a look at a project kickoff meeting agenda created in Asana:
Free meeting agenda template
As you can see, each item has a timebox and a teammate assigned to ensure everyone knows when it's their turn and how long they have to lead their discussion or give their presentation. The agenda also has relevant files attached and is shared with all team members for visibility and better collaboration.

Turn your agenda into an efficient meeting

Stick to your agenda. The best agenda becomes useless if you don't stick to it during the meeting. Try not to bounce back and forth between agenda items but rather stick to the priorities you established earlier.

Stick to your timeboxes. It absolutely helps release some tension and lighten the mood if you have a bit of small talk or a quick check-in at the beginning of your meeting. That's why you should allocate three to five minutes to this-and stick to the timeframe. Pictures of Kabir's son's adorable Halloween costume can be shared elsewhere so you have enough time to reach your meeting's goals now.

Designate a note taker. At the beginning of the meeting, designate a note taker who will write down any questions, feedback, tasks, and ideas that come up during the meeting. You can rotate this position so everyone on your team gets to contribute at some point. Ideally, these notes are taken in the same place as the meeting agenda-this will make it a lot easier for team members to follow the notes and link them to agenda items.

Follow up after the meeting. Typically, the note taker will be responsible for following up with the meeting notes afterward. The notes should include any decisions that were made during the meeting, tasks that need to be completed, and questions that remained unanswered. If possible, assign teammates and add due dates to action items to keep accountability high.

Read: Do your work meetings waste time? Use these tips to improve.
It's one thing to have an amazingly organized and detailed agenda that your team can reference before the meeting-using it as a tool during the meeting is a whole other ballpark. These tips will help you make your meeting agenda as useful during the meeting as it is as a preparation tool:

Make the most out of meetings with Asana
Free meeting agenda template
With Asana, you can keep your meeting agenda, meeting minutes, and meeting action items in one place. Effortlessly share the agenda with your team and assign agenda items in real time so nothing falls through the cracks.

Streamlining your meetings with one central tool will reduce the amount of work about work your team faces, connect everyone to the purpose of the meeting, and allow for productive meetings everyone enjoys.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How to Write an Effective Meeting Agenda (With Template) * Asana

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Your agenda tells your team what to expect during a meeting and how they can prepare for it. Ideally, you'll use your agenda to connect your team with the meeting's purpose, assign tasks or items to team members, and designate a realistic amount of time to each agenda item.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic.

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

1. Search for relevant literature

2. Evaluate sources

3. Identify themes, debates, and gaps

4. Outline the structure

5. Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn't just summarize sources-it analyzes, synthesizes, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

Tip
We've also compiled a few examples, templates, and sample outlines for you below.

What is the purpose of a literature review?

When you write a thesis, dissertation, or research paper, you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context

Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research

Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists

Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We've written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

Proofread my paper

Examples of literature reviews

Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you'd like to write.

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.
Download Word doc Download Google doc
Step 1 - Search for relevant literature

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic.

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions.

Literature review research question exampleWhat is the impact of social media on body image among Generation Z?

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you're interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

Keywords example

Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok

Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health

Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

Step 2 - Evaluate and select sources

You likely won't be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

What question or problem is the author addressing?

What are the key concepts and how are they defined?

What are the key theories, models, and methods?

Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?

What are the results and conclusions of the study?

How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.
Download Word doc Download Google doc
You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you're thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism. It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

Tip
You can use Scribbr's free APA citation generator or MLA citation generator to quickly create correct and consistentcitations. Want to check your literature review for plagiarism? Try Scribbr's Plagiarism Checker for students.

Step 3 - Identify themes, debates, and gaps

To begin organizing your literature review's argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you've read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?

Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?

Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?

Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?

Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

Example of trends and gaps
In reviewing the literature on social media and body image, you note that:

Most research has focused on young women.

There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.

But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat-this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

Step 4 - Outline your literature review's structure

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

Thematic

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods, you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research

Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship

Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Tip
AI tools like ChatGPT can be effectively used to brainstorm ideas and create an outline for your literature review. However, trying to pass off AI-generated text as your own work is a serious offense. This will be recognized by your university's plagiarism checker or AI detector.
Visit our AI writing resources page to learn how to use these tools responsibly.

Step 5 - Write your literature review

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction, a main body, and a conclusion. What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

Introduction

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

TipIf you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasize the timeliness of the topic ("many recent studies have focused on the problem of x") or highlight a gap in the literature ("while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration").

Body

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole

Analyze and interpret: don't just paraphrase other researchers-add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole

Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources

Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

Conclusion

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

TipBe sure to show how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research.

When you've finished writing and revising your literature review, don't forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr's professional proofreading services!

Free lecture slides

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

Open Google Slides Download PowerPoint

Other interesting articles

If you want to know more about the research process, methodology, research bias, or statistics, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Frequently asked questions

What is the purpose of a literature review?

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic

To ensure that you're not just repeating what others have already done

To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address

To develop your theoretical framework and methodology

To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the "Cite this Scribbr article" button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, September 11). How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved October 30, 2023, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge,

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions.

The interactive diagram below may help you understand the scientific method and how it is applied to an experiment. You can click on parts of the diagram to learn more. Use the "return to top" button to return to the diagram for more exploration.

1. Ask a Question

The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?

For a science fair project some teachers require that the question be something you can measure, preferably with a number.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

2. Do Background Research

Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and ensure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

3. Construct a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an attempt to answer your question with an explanation that can be tested. A good hypothesis allows you to then make a prediction:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."

State both your hypothesis and the resulting prediction you will be testing. Predictions must be easy to measure.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

4. Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment

Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and thus your hypothesis is supported or not. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.

You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an accident.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

5. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion

Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if they support your hypothesis or not.

Scientists often find that their predictions were not accurate and their hypothesis was not supported, and in such cases they will communicate the results of their experiment and then go back and construct a new hypothesis and prediction based on the information they learned during their experiment. This starts much of the process of the scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was supported, they may want to test it again in a new way.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

6. Communicate Your Results

To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster or during a talk at a scientific meeting. In a science fair, judges are interested in your findings regardless of whether or not they support your original hypothesis.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

The six steps of the scientific method include: 1) asking a question about something you observe, 2) doing background research to learn what is already known about the topic, 3) constructing a hypothesis, 4) experimenting to test the hypothesis, 5) analyzing the data from the experiment and drawing conclusions, and 6) communicating the results to others.

A simple example of the scientific method is:

Ask a Question: Why does Greenland look so large on a map?

Background Research: Learn that Greenland is a quarter the size of the United States in land mass. Also learn that Mercator projection maps are made by transferring the images from a sphere to a sheet of paper wrapped around the sphere in a cylinder.

Hypothesis: If I make a Mercator projection map, then the items in the middle of the map will look their true size and the items at the poles will look larger than they really are.

Experiment: Use a sphere with 1-inch by 1-inch squares at each pole and the equator to make a Mercator projection map. Measure the squares on the Mercator projection map.

Analyze Data and Make Conclusions: The middle-of-the-map squares average 1 inch per side while the squares at the poles average 3 inches per side. In conclusion, the projection process used to make Mercator projection maps creates distortion at the poles, but not at the equator. This is why Greenland, which is close to the North Pole, looks larger than it is.

Communicate: Make a video, write a report, or give a presentation to educate others about the experiment.

Who invented the scientific method?

The scientific method was not invented by any one person, but is the outcome of centuries of debate about how best to find out how the natural world works. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was among the first known people to promote that observation and reasoning must be applied to figure out how nature works. The Arab Muslim mathematician and scientist Hasan Ibn al-Haytham (known in the western world as Alhazen) is often cited as the first person to write about the importance of experimentation. Since then, a large number of scientists have written about how science should ideally be conducted and contributed to our modern understanding of the scientific method. Those scientists include Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas, Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, John Hume, and John Stuart Mill. Scientists today continue to evolve and refine the scientific method as they explore new techniques and new areas of science.

Scientists do use the scientific method, but not always exactly as laid out in the organized steps taught in the classroom. Just like a chef might make a few changes to a recipe because of the ingredients at hand, a scientist may modify the scientific method by skipping steps, jumping back and forth between steps, or repeating a subset of the steps because he or she is dealing with imperfect real-world conditions. But scientists always strive to keep to the core principles of the scientific method by using observations, experiments, and data to support or reject explanations of how a phenomenon works. While experimenting is considered the best way to test explanations, there are areas of science, like astronomy, where this is not always possible.

Video:

Try our lesson plans:

Assign a student quiz with Google Classroom:

Explore Our Science Videos

DIY Light Up Unicorn Headband

Investigate Alien Genetics

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This project guide provides a detailed introduction to the steps of the scientific method.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Writing lab reports follows a straightforward and structured procedure. It is important to recognize that each part of a lab report is important, so take the time to complete each carefully. A lab report is broken down into eight sections: title, abstract, introduction, methods and materials, results, discussion, conclusion, and references.

The title of the lab report should be descriptive of the experiment and reflect what the experiment analyzed.
Ex: "Determining the Free Chlorine Content of Pool Water"

Abstracts are a summary of the experiment as a whole and should familiarize the reader with the purpose of the research.

Abstracts will always be written last, even though they are the first paragraph of a lab report.

Not all lab reports will require an abstract. However, they are often included in upper-level lab reports and should be studied carefully.

When writing an abstract, try to answer these questions:

Why was the research done or experiment conducted?

What problem is being addressed?

What results were found?

What are the meaning of the results?

How is the problem better understood now than before, if at all?

The introduction of a lab report discusses the problem being studied and other theory that is relevant to understanding the findings.

The hypothesis of the experiment and the motivation for the research are stated in this section.

Write the introduction in your own words. Try not to copy from a lab manual or other guidelines. Instead, show comprehension of the experiment by briefly explaining the problem.

The methods and materials section provides an overview of any equipment, apparatus, or other substances used in the experiment, as well as the steps taken during the experiment. If using any specific amounts of materials, make sure the amount is listed.
Ex: pipette, graduated cylinder, 1.13mg of Na, 0.67mg Ag

List the steps taken as they actually happened during the experiment, not as they were supposed to happen.

If written correctly, another researcher should be able to duplicate the experiment and get the same or very similar results.

The results show the data that was collected or found during the experiment.

Explain in words the data that was collected.

If using graphs, charts, or other figures, present them in the results section of the lab report.
Tables should be labeled numerically, as "Table 1", "Table 2", etc. Other figures should be labeled numerically as "Figure 1", "Figure 2", etc.

Calculations to understand the data can also be presented in the results.

The discussion section is one of the most important parts of the lab report. It analyzes the results of the experiment and is a discussion of the data.

If any results are unexpected, explain why they are unexpected and how they did or did not effect the data obtained.

Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the design of the experiment and compare your results to other similar experiments.

If there are any experimental errors, analyze them.

Explain your results and discuss them using relevant terms and theories.

When writing a discussion, try to answer these questions:

What do the results indicate?

What is the significance of the results?

Are there any gaps in knowledge?

Are there any new questions that have been raised?

The conclusion is a summation of the experiment. It should clearly and concisely state what was learned and its importance.

If there is future work that needs to be done, it can be explained in the conclusion.

If using any outside sources to support a claim or explain background information, those sources must be cited in the references section of the lab report.

In the event that no outside sources are used, the references section may be left out.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Library Research Guides: STEM: How To Write A Lab Report

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Library Research Guides: STEM: How To Write A Lab Report

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What is the scientific method?

The scientific method is the process of objectively establishing facts through testing and experimentation. The basic process involves making an observation, forming a hypothesis, making a prediction, conducting an experiment and finally analyzing the results. The principals of the scientific method can be applied in many areas, including scientific research, business and technology.

Steps of the scientific method

The scientific method uses a series of steps to establish facts or create knowledge. The overall process is well established, but the specifics of each step may change depending on what is being examined and who is performing it. The scientific method can only answer questions that can be proven or disproven through testing.

Make an observation or ask a question. The first step is to observe something that you would like to learn about or ask a question that you would like answered. These can be specific or general. Some examples would be "I observe that our total available network bandwidth drops at noon every weekday" or "How can we increase our website registration numbers?" Taking the time to establish a well-defined question will help you in later steps.

Gather background information. This involves doing research into what is already known about the topic. This can also involve finding if anyone has already asked the same question.

Create a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an explanation for the observation or question. If proven later, it can become a fact. Some examples would be "Our employees watching online videos during lunch is using our internet bandwidth" or "Our website visitors don't see our registration form."

Create a prediction and perform a test. Create a testable prediction based on the hypothesis. The test should establish a noticeable change that can be measured or observed using empirical analysis. It is also important to control for other variables during the test. Some examples would be "If we block video-sharing sites, our available bandwidth will not go down significantly during lunch" or "If we make our registration box bigger, a greater percentage of visitors will register for our website than before the change."

Analyze the results and draw a conclusion. Use the metrics established before the test see if the results match the prediction. For example, "After blocking video-sharing sites, our bandwidth utilization only went down by 10% from before; this is not enough of a change to be the primary cause of the network congestion" or "After increasing the size of the registration box, the percent of sign-ups went from 2% of total page views to 5%, showing that making the box larger results in more registrations."

Share the conclusion or decide what question to ask next: Document the results of your experiment. By sharing the results with others, you also increase the total body of knowledge available. Your experiment may have also led to other questions, or if your hypothesis is disproven you may need to create a new one and test that. For example, "Because user activity is not the cause of excessive bandwidth use, we now suspect that an automated process is running at noon every day."

Diagram illustrating using the scientific method to confirm a hypothesis

Using the scientific method in technology and computers

The scientific method is incredibly valuable in technology and related fields. It is obviously used in research and development, but it is also useful in day-to-day operations. Because almost everything can be quantified, testing hypotheses can be easy.

Most modern computer systems are complicated and difficult to troubleshoot. Using the scientific method of hypothesis and testing can greatly simplify the process of tracking down errors and it can help find areas of improvement. It can also help when you evaluate new technologies before implementation.

Using the scientific method in business

Many business processes benefit when using the scientific method. Shifting business landscapes and complex business relationships can make behaviors hard to predict or act counter to previous history. Instead of using gut feelings or previous experience, a scientific approach can help businesses grow. Big data initiative can make business information more available and easier to test with.

The scientific method can be applied in many areas. Customer satisfaction and retention numbers can be analyzed and tested upon. Profitability and finance numbers can be analyzed to form new conclusions. Making predictions on changing business practices and checking the results will help to identify and measure success or failure of the initiatives.

Using the scientific method in business

Common pitfalls in using the scientific method

The scientific method is a powerful tool. Like any tool, though, if it is misused it can cause more damage than good.

The scientific method can only be used for testable phenomenon. This is known as falsifiability. While much in nature can be tested and measured, some areas of human experience are beyond objective observation.

Both proving and disproving the hypothesis are equally valid outcomes of testing. It is possible to ignore the outcome or inject bias to skew the results of a test in a way that will fit the hypothesis. Data in opposition to the hypothesis should not be discounted.

It is important to control for other variables and influences during testing to not skew the results. While difficult, not accounting for these could produce invalid data. For example, testing bandwidth during a holiday or measuring registrations during a sale event may introduce other factors that influence the outcome.

Another common pitfall is mixing correlation with causation. While two data points may seem to be connected, it is not necessarily true that once is directly influenced by the other. For example, an ice cream stand in town sees drops in business on the hottest days. While the data may look like the hotter the weather, the less people want ice cream, the reality is that more people are going to the beach on those days and less are in town.

History of the scientific method

The discovery of the scientific method is not credited to any single person, but there are a few notable figures who contributed to its development.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle is considered to be one of the earliest proponents of logic and cycles of observation and deduction in recorded history. Ibn al-Haytham, a mathematician, established stringent testing methodologies in pursuit of facts and truth, and he recorded his findings.

During the Renaissance, many thinkers and scientists continued developing rational methods of establishing facts. Sir Francis Bacon emphasized the importance of inductive reasoning. Sir Isaac Newton relied on both inductive and deductive reasoning to explain the results of his experiments, and Galileo Galilei emphasized the idea that results should be repeatable.

Other well-known contributors to the scientific method include Karl Popper, who introduced the concept of falsifiability, and Charles Darwin, who is known for using multiple communication channels to share his conclusions.

Continue Reading About scientific method

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Is The Scientific Method and How Does It Work? | Definition from TechTarget

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learn about the scientific method, the process of objectively establishing facts through testing and experimentation. Explore its steps and applications.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
More than half of species could face greater extinction risk by midcentury, a new study found, as rising heat and dryness test the prickly plants' limits.

A saguaro cactus in Catalina State Park, on the edge of Tucson, Ariz. Credit... Cassidy Araiza for The New York Times

The hardy cactus - fond of heat and aridity, adapted to rough soils - might not seem like the picture of a climate change victim.

Yet even these prickly survivors may be reaching their limits as the planet grows hotter and drier over the coming decades, according to research published on Thursday. The study estimates that, by midcentury, global warming could put 60 percent of cactus species at greater risk of extinction.

That forecast does not take into account the poaching, habitat destruction and other human-caused threats that already make cactuses one of the world's most endangered groups of organisms.

Most cactus species "are in some way adapted to the climates and the environments that they live in," said Michiel Pillet, a doctoral student in ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Arizona who led the new study, which was published in the journal Nature Plants. "Even a slight change may be too much for them to adapt over shorter time scales."

For those who think of cactuses either as stoic masters of all-weather endurance or as cute, low-maintenance houseplants, the enormous variety within the cactus family might come as a jolt.

For starters, not all cactuses are desert dwellers. Some live in rainforests or in cool climes at high altitudes. Some store little water in their stalks, relying instead on rainwater and dew. Some occupy highly specific environments: limestone cliffs in Mexico, hills of pink granite in Brazil, a sandy patch of less than one square mile in Peru. In the Amazon, the moonflower cactus spirals around a tree trunk, high above the ground, so that it is above the water line when the forest floods and the water can disperse its seeds.

In part, it is this narrow taste for particular settings that makes certain cactuses vulnerable not only to climate change, but to threats of all kinds.

"If you only find it in a very small area, and someone comes and plows it out to grow whatever they want to grow, the whole population disappears," said Bárbara Goettsch, another author of the new study and a chair of the Cactus and Succulent Plants Specialist Group at the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

The study looks at 408 cactus species, or roughly a quarter of all known cactus species, and how their geographic range could shift under three different trajectories for global warming in this century. To the researchers' surprise, their results did not vary much between different pathways for climate change, Mr. Pillet said: Even if the planet heats up only modestly, many types of cactus could experience declines in the amount of territory where the climate is hospitable to them.

Over all, 60 percent of cactus species are expected to suffer declines of any magnitude, the study found, and 14 percent could suffer steep declines. Only one species, the Xique-Xique in Brazil, is projected to experience a substantial increase in range.

According to the study, the places where the largest numbers of species could become threatened are generally those with the richest diversity of species today, including Florida, central Mexico and large swaths of Brazil. Cactuses that live on trees seem to do especially poorly, perhaps because their lives are so intertwined with those of other plants.

The outlook does not seem to be as bleak for the American Southwest, home to the iconic saguaro, Mr. Pillet said. But scientists still do not know enough about certain rarer cactuses to predict how they might respond to more punishing climates, he said. That means the study's projections might not paint a complete picture for some parts of the world.

Cactuses, by their nature, do not give up their secrets readily. Scientists examining other plants' sensitivity to environmental changes might look, for instance, at the size and thickness of their leaves. "Most cacti don't have leaves, so what would you be measuring?" Mr. Pillet said.

Understand the Latest News on Climate Change

The study's predictions also do not account for extreme events such as droughts and wildfires, Mr. Pillet said. In the Sonoran Desert, rapid infestations of buffelgrass, a drought-resistant plant native to Africa, Asia and the Middle East, have made the landscape highly flammable. Wildfires there have killed thousands of saguaros in recent years.

"It's a popular image of cacti," said David G. Williams, a professor of botany at the University of Wyoming who was not involved in the new research. "'Ah, we don't have to worry about cacti. Look at them, they've got spines, they grow in this terrible environment.'" But cactuses, like most plants, exist in delicate balance with the ecosystems around them, he said. "There are a lot of these tipping points and thresholds and interactions that are very fragile and responsive to changes in the environment, land use and climate change."

The new study is "pivotal," Dr. Williams said, for showing how broadly such changes could affect cactus communities.

Around a decade ago, when Dr. Goettsch was preparing a comprehensive global assessment of the threats to cactuses, there were only a few scientific studies looking at climate change's potential impacts specifically on cactuses, she said.

But, she said, other cactus experts kept telling her during their field visits, "You know, we go back now, and a lot of plants are dead. There's no real reason, so we think it might be climate change." The evidence has only piled up further since then, she said.

Brazil is a hot spot for cactus diversity. As the country's northeastern drylands experience hotter temperatures, more intense droughts and desertification, that plant wealth is in jeopardy, said Arnóbio de Mendonça, a climate and biodiversity researcher at the National Institute for Space Research in Brazil who did not work on the new study.

"Species either adapt or they will go extinct," he said. "As adaptation is a slow process and current climate change is occurring rapidly, it is likely that many species will be lost."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Even the Cactus May Not Be Safe From Climate Change

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
More than half of species could face greater extinction risk by midcentury, a new study found, as rising heat and dryness test the prickly plants' limits. The hardy cactus - fond of heat and aridity, adapted to rough soils - might not seem like the picture of a climate change victim.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How Plants Adapt to the Desert or Low Water Environments | PBS

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
There are many different types of desert plants, including cacti, succulents, acacias, mesquite, creosote bush, and yucca.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How Are Cactus Adapted To Survive In A Desert?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Explore how cactuses survive in deserts. Learn the various adaptations and characteristics seen in cactuses and other related plants only on BYJU'S biology