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This section introduces you to the methodologies employed in social science research, highlighting how they differ from those in other fields, the ethical considerations involved, and the processes from project design to dissemination

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Discover how social sciences address pressing global challenges such as inequality, urbanization, migration, climate change, and technological impacts, providing context and solutions to these complex issues

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3.1 What are the primary research methods used in Social Sciences, and how do they differ? 

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3.1 What are the primary research methods used in Social Sciences, and how do they differ? 

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Each type of research – qualitative and quantitative – offers unique insights and has different purposes in the study of social sciences. While quantitative methods help in establishing broad patterns and relationships, qualitative methods provide depth and detailed understanding of complex social phenomena.

Quantitative Research Methods: These methods focus on numbers and statistical analysis. They help in understanding patterns, relationships, and generalizations based on collected data.

1. Surveys and Questionnaires: Just like polling a large group of people about their favorite video games to see which is the most popular, these methods use structured questions to gather measurable data from many individuals. This can help spot trends and general opinions.

2. Experiments: This method is all about finding out if one thing affects another. Imagine changing the lighting in a room to see if people study better in brighter environments. By comparing different groups under different conditions, researchers can find out if there's a real effect.

3. Content Analysis (Quantitative): This involves counting and analyzing words, phrases, or concepts within books, articles, or media. It’s like tallying up how many times your favorite vlogger says “like” in a video to understand their speaking patterns.

Qualitative Research Methods: These methods are more about exploring ideas, understanding experiences, and interpreting meanings. They help to provide insights into the 'how' and 'why' behind human behavior.

1. Interviews: These are deep, one-on-one conversations where researchers learn about a person’s experiences, feelings, and perspectives. It's like sitting down with a grandparent to hear about their life story to understand their experiences.

2. Observations: This is when researchers watch how people behave in real-life settings, but without interfering. It’s like observing how students group themselves during lunch to understand social cliques in school.

3. Case Studies: These provide an in-depth look at a specific person, group, or situation over time. Imagine compiling a detailed report on your school's basketball team’s season to understand team dynamics.

4. Ethnography: Researchers immerse themselves in a community or cultural group to understand their way of life from an insider perspective. It’s like living in a gaming community for a while to truly understand gamer culture.

5. Content Analysis (Qualitative): This involves examining texts, images, or media to interpret the underlying themes and meanings. It’s akin to breaking down the lyrics of a song to understand its deeper messages about society or personal struggles.

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In this section, you will find 6 sections with curated resources on History:

1. Introduction to Social Sciences

2. Key Concepts and Theories in Social Sciences

3. Research Methods in Social Sciences

4. Major Disciplines within Social Sciences

Sociology

Psychology

Anthropology

Economics

Political Sciences

5. Contemporary Social Challenges

6. Digital Resources and Tools for Social Sciences

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Social sciences study human behavior and societal structures, encompassing fields like economics, education, sociology, and psychology. They help us understand how society works, how we adapt to changes, and the impact of these changes on individual lives, making our society a better place to live.

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What is social science? | An animated overview #SocialScience

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1.2 How do the Social Sciences differ from other fields of study? 

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1.2 How do the Social Sciences differ from other fields of study? 

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Social sciences explore human behavior and societies, differing from other fields by focusing on cultural, economic, and political aspects rather than natural phenomena, thus providing insight into the human aspects of the world around us.

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Differences between Natural and Social Sciences | Andrew Wernette | TEDxLeQuyDonGiftedHighSchool

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1.3 Why are the Social Sciences important? 

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1.3 Why are the Social Sciences important? 

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Social sciences help us understand complex social issues, inform policy decisions, and contribute to positive societal change.

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2.1 What are the foundational theories in each Social Science discipline?

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2.1 What are the foundational theories in each Social Science discipline?

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Culture in social sciences refers to the shared practices, values, norms, and artifacts that a group of people considers their own. It encompasses the way of life, beliefs, rituals, symbols, and languages that define a community or society. Here's a deeper dive into the concept:

1. Material Culture: This aspect includes all the physical objects or artifacts created, used, or valued by a society, such as buildings, clothing, tools, and technology. Material culture is tangible and gives insight into the technological advances and aesthetic values of a society.

2. Nonmaterial Culture: Also known as symbolic culture, this includes the ideas, beliefs, values, norms, and customs that shape a group's way of life and perceptions. It is intangible and governs how people think, behave, and interact with each other.

3. Cultural Norms and Values: Norms are the unwritten rules that guide behavior in a society, while values are the underlying principles that those norms are based on. Together, they regulate social interactions and help maintain order within the community.

4. Symbols and Language: Symbols are anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture. Language, a system of symbols, allows members of a society to communicate with each other and transmit culture from one generation to the next.

5. Cultural Diversity and Globalization: Cultural diversity acknowledges the existence of a variety of cultures in a society, nation, or the world. Globalization has led to increased interaction and blending of cultures but also raises concerns about cultural homogenization and the loss of cultural diversity.

6. Key Theories and Concepts:

Cultural Relativism: The principle that an individual's beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that individual's own culture.

Ethnocentrism: The evaluation of other cultures according to the standards and customs of one's own culture.

Subculture: A cultural group within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger culture.

7. Important Terms:

Cultural Transmission: The process by which one generation passes culture to the next.

Cultural Adaptation: Adjustments in a culture that result from external influences or internal changes.

Cultural Integration: The process of combining cultures together into a cohesive whole.

Understanding culture is vital to understanding human behavior and social dynamics. It explains why people behave the way they do, how they communicate, and how they view the world. It underscores the importance of respecting cultural diversity and promotes a deeper appreciation for the complexities of human societies.

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Humans are social creatures. Since the dawn of Homo sapiens nearly 250,000 years ago, people have grouped together into communities in order to survive. Almost every human behavior, from shopping to marriage to expressions of feelings, is learned. In the United States, people tend to view marriage as a choice between two people, based on mutual feelings of love. In other nations and in other times, marriages have been arranged through an intricate process of interviews and negotiations between entire families, or in other cases, through a direct system, such as a "mail-order bride." To someone raised in New York City, the marriage customs of a family from Nigeria may seem strange or even wrong. Conversely, someone from a traditional Kolkata family might be perplexed with the idea of romantic love as the foundation for marriage and lifelong commitment. In other words, the way in which people view marriage depends largely on what they have been taught.

Behavior based on learned customs is not a bad thing. Being familiar with unwritten rules helps people feel secure and "normal." This reinforces social norms in society, bringing order and some sense of cohesion. Most people want to live their daily lives confident that their behaviors will not be challenged or disrupted. But even an action as seemingly simple as commuting to work evidences a great deal of cultural propriety.

Take the case of going to work on public transportation. Whether people are commuting in Dublin, Cairo, Mumbai, or San Francisco, many behaviors will be the same, but significant differences also arise between cultures. Typically, a passenger will find a marked bus stop or station, wait for his bus or train, pay an agent before or after boarding, and quietly take a seat if one is available. But when boarding a bus in Cairo, passengers might have to run, because buses there often do not come to a full stop to take on patrons. Dublin bus riders would be expected to extend an arm to indicate that they want the bus to stop for them. And when boarding a commuter train in Mumbai, passengers must squeeze into overstuffed cars amid a lot of pushing and shoving on the crowded platforms. That kind of behavior would be considered the height of rudeness in a small town in the United States, but in Mumbai it reflects the daily challenges of getting around on a train system that is taxed to capacity.

In this example of commuting, culture consists of thoughts (expectations about personal space, for example) and tangible things (bus stops, trains, and seating capacity).

Material culture refers to the objects or belongings of a group of people.

Nonmaterial culture , or abstract forms of culture, in contrast, consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society.

Material and nonmaterial aspects of culture are linked, and physical objects often symbolize cultural ideas. A metro pass is a material object, but it represents a form of nonmaterial culture, namely, capitalism, and the acceptance of paying for transportation. Clothing, hairstyles, and jewelry are part of material culture, but the appropriateness of wearing certain clothing for specific events reflects nonmaterial culture. A school building belongs to material culture, but the teaching methods and educational standards are part of education's nonmaterial culture. These material and nonmaterial aspects of culture can vary subtly from region to region. As people travel farther afield, moving from different regions to entirely different parts of the world, certain material and nonmaterial aspects of culture become dramatically unfamiliar. What happens when we encounter different cultures? As we interact with cultures other than our own, we become more aware of the differences and commonalities between others' worlds and our own.

Often, a comparison of one culture to another will reveal obvious differences. But all cultures also share common elements.

One example of a cultural universal is the family unit: every human society recognizes a family structure that regulates sexual reproduction and the care of children. Even so, how that family unit is defined and how it functions vary. In many Asian cultures, for example, family members from all generations commonly live together in one household. In these cultures, young adults continue to live in the extended household family structure until they marry and join their spouse's household, or they may remain and raise their nuclear family within the extended family's homestead. In the United States, by contrast, individuals are expected to leave home and live independently for a period before forming a family unit that consists of parents and their offspring. However, if we look closely, we will see variation in both regions. Other cultural universals include customs like funeral rites, weddings, and celebrations of births. However, each culture may view the ceremonies quite differently.

Anthropologist George Murdock first recognized the existence of cultural universals while studying systems of kinship around the world. Murdock found that cultural universals often revolve around basic human survival, such as finding food, clothing, and shelter, or around shared human experiences, such as birth and death or illness and healing. Through his research, Murdock identified other universals including language, the concept of personal names, and, interestingly, jokes. Humor seems to be a universal way to release tensions and create a sense of unity among people (Murdock 1949). Sociologists consider humor necessary to human interaction because it helps individuals navigate otherwise tense situations.

Despite how much humans have in common, cultural differences are far more prevalent than cultural universals. For example, while all cultures have language, analysis of particular language structures and conversational etiquette reveal tremendous differences. In some Middle Eastern cultures, it is common to stand close to others in conversation. North Americans keep more distance and maintain a large "personal space." Even something as simple as eating and drinking varies greatly from culture to culture. If your professor comes into an early morning class holding a mug of liquid, what do you assume she is drinking? In the United States, it's most likely filled with coffee, not Earl Grey tea, a favorite in England, or Yak Butter tea, a staple in Tibet.

The way cuisines vary across cultures fascinates many people. Some travelers pride themselves on their willingness to try unfamiliar foods, like celebrated food writer Anthony Bourdain, while others return home expressing gratitude for their native culture's fare. Often, people in the United States express disgust at other cultures' cuisine and think that it's gross to eat meat from a dog or guinea pig, for example, while they don't question their own habit of eating cows or pigs. Such attitudes are an example of:

ethnocentrism evaluating and judging another culture based on how it compares to one's own cultural norms.

Ethnocentrism, as sociologist William Graham Sumner (1906) described the term, involves a belief or attitude that one's own culture is better than all others. Almost everyone is a little bit ethnocentric. For example, Americans tend to say that people from England drive on the "wrong" side of the road, rather than on the "other" side. Someone from a country where dog meat is standard fare might find it off-putting to see a dog in a French restaurant-not on the menu, but as a pet and patron's companion. A good example of ethnocentrism is referring to parts of Asia as the "Far East." One might question, "Far east of where?"

A high level of appreciation for one's own culture can be healthy; a shared sense of community pride, for example, connects people in a society. But ethnocentrism can lead to disdain or dislike for other cultures and could cause misunderstanding and conflict. People with the best intentions sometimes travel to a society to "help" its people, because they see them as uneducated or backward-essentially inferior. In reality, these travelers are guilty of:

Europe's colonial expansion, begun in the sixteenth century, was often accompanied by a severe cultural imperialism. European colonizers often viewed the people in the lands they colonized as uncultured savages who were in need of European governance, dress, religion, and other cultural practices. A more modern example of cultural imperialism may include the work of international aid agencies who introduce agricultural methods and plant species from developed countries while overlooking indigenous varieties and agricultural approaches that are better suited to the particular region.

Ethnocentrism can be so strong that when confronted with all of the differences of a new culture, one may experience disorientation and frustration. In sociology, we call this culture shock. A traveler from Chicago might find the nightly silence of rural Montana unsettling, not peaceful. An exchange student from China might be annoyed by the constant interruptions in class as other students ask questions-a practice that is considered rude in China. Perhaps the Chicago traveler was initially captivated with Montana's quiet beauty and the Chinese student was originally excited to see a U.S.-style classroom firsthand. But as they experience unanticipated differences from their own culture, their excitement gives way to discomfort and doubts about how to behave appropriately in the new situation. Eventually, as people learn more about a culture, they recover from culture shock.

Culture shock may appear because people aren't always expecting cultural differences. Anthropologist Ken Barger (1971) discovered this when he conducted a participatory observation in an Inuit community in the Canadian Arctic. Originally from Indiana, Barger hesitated when invited to join a local snowshoe race. He knew he'd never hold his own against these experts. Sure enough, he finished last, to his mortification. But the tribal members congratulated him, saying, "You really tried!" In Barger's own culture, he had learned to value victory. To the Inuit people, winning was enjoyable, but their culture valued survival skills essential to their environment: how hard someone tried could mean the difference between life and death. Over the course of his stay, Barger participated in caribou hunts, learned how to take shelter in winter storms, and sometimes went days with little or no food to share among tribal members. Trying hard and working together, two nonmaterial values, were indeed much more important than winning. During his time with the Inuit tribe, Barger learned to engage in cultural relativism.

Cultural relativism - the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture.

Practicing cultural relativism requires an open mind and a willingness to consider, and even adapt to, new values and norms. However, indiscriminately embracing everything about a new culture is not always possible. Even the most culturally relativist people from egalitarian societies-ones in which women have political rights and control over their own bodies-would question whether the widespread practice of female genital mutilation in countries such as Ethiopia and Sudan should be accepted as a part of cultural tradition. Sociologists attempting to engage in cultural relativism, then, may struggle to reconcile aspects of their own culture with aspects of a culture that they are studying.

Sometimes when people attempt to rectify feelings of ethnocentrism and develop cultural relativism, they swing too far to the other end of the spectrum.

Xenocentrism - the opposite of ethnocentrism, and refers to the belief that another culture is superior to one's own.

An exchange student who goes home after a semester abroad or a sociologist who returns from the field may find it difficult to associate with the values of their own culture after having experienced what they deem a more upright or nobler way of living.

Perhaps the greatest challenge for sociologists studying different cultures is the matter of keeping a perspective. It is impossible for anyone to keep all cultural biases at bay; the best we can do is strive to be aware of them. Pride in one's own culture doesn't have to lead to imposing its values on others. And an appreciation for another culture shouldn't preclude individuals from studying it with a critical eye.

Though "society" and "culture" are often used interchangeably, they have different meanings. A society is a group of people sharing a community and culture. Culture generally describes the shared behaviors and beliefs of these people and includes material and nonmaterial elements. Our experience of cultural difference is influenced by our ethnocentrism and xenocentrism. Sociologists try to practice cultural relativism.

Barger, Ken. 2008. "Ethnocentrism." Indiana University, July 1. Retrieved May 2, 2011 ( http://www.iupui.edu/~anthkb/ethnocen.htm).

Darwin, Charles R. 1871. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. London: John Murray.

DuBois, Cora. 1951. "Culture Shock." Presentation to Panel Discussion at the First Midwest Regional Meeting of the Institute of International Education." November 28. Also presented to the Women's Club of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, August 3, 1954.

Fritz, Thomas, Sebastian Jentschke, Nathalie Gosselin, et al. 2009. "Universal Recognition of Three Basic Emotions in Music." Current Biology 19(7).

Murdock, George P. 1949. Social Structure. New York: Macmillan.

Oberg, Kalervo. 1960. "Cultural Shock: Adjustment to New Cultural Environments." Practical Anthropology 7:177-182.

Sumner, William G. 1906. Folkways: A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores, and Morals. New York: Ginn and Co.

Swoyer, Chris. 2003. "The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis." In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by E. N. Zalta, Winter. Retrieved May 5, 2011 ( http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2003/entries/davidson/).

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Humans are social creatures. Since the dawn of Homo sapiens nearly 250,000 years ago, people have grouped together into communities in order to survive. Almost every human behavior, from shopping to marriage to expressions of feelings, is learned. In the United States, people tend to view marriage as a choice between two people, based on mutual feelings of love.

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Here, we delve into the foundational theories that underpin various social sciences disciplines, and see how these theories provide frameworks for understanding real-world problems and human behavior.

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Socialization is the process by which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, norms, and social skills necessary to function within their society. It's how cultural and social attributes are passed down from generation to generation and how individuals become functioning members of society. Here’s a deeper look:

1. Primary Socialization: This occurs in childhood and is when an individual first learns the culture of their society by family members, who are typically the primary influence. It includes learning language, norms, behaviors, and values essential for becoming part of society.

2. Secondary Socialization: This takes place later in life and involves learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society, such as schools, workplaces, and friend groups. This is where individuals learn the specific roles they will occupy throughout life.

3. Agents of Socialization: These are the people, groups, and institutions that shape our sense of self and social identity. Major agents include family, education systems, peer groups, media, and religion. Each agent has a different impact and importance depending on the individual's life stage and societal context.

4. Role Models: Individuals often mimic the behavior, attitudes, and values of role models, who are significant in the socialization process. Role models can include parents, teachers, celebrities, or any influential person.

5. Norms and Values: Socialization instills the accepted norms (rules of behavior) and values (beliefs and attitudes) of society into individuals, helping them to understand what is considered acceptable and expected behavior within their culture.

6. Key Theories and Concepts:

Looking-Glass Self: A concept that suggests individuals develop a self-image based on how they believe others perceive them.

Self-Identity: The ongoing process of self-development and identity formation through interactions with others.

Resocialization: The process by which one's sense of social values, beliefs, and norms are re-engineered, often deliberately, by an institution or society at large. This can occur in settings ranging from prisons to military environments, to new cultural surroundings.

7. Important Terms:

Socialization Practices: The methods through which socialization occurs, differing across cultures and within different segments of society.

Cultural Transmission: The way societies maintain and pass on their existing culture to new members.

Social Reproduction: The process of perpetuating values, norms, and social practices through socialization, which leads to structural continuity over time.

Understanding socialization is crucial for comprehending how individuals and societies operate. It explains how social norms and values are maintained and how individuals learn to function in their social world. This concept helps illuminate the complexity of human behavior and social interaction, providing insight into both conformity and the diversity of individual experiences within a society.

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In the summer of 2005, police detective Mark Holste followed an investigator from the Department of Children and Families to a home in Plant City, Florida. They were there to look into a statement from the neighbor concerning a shabby house on Old Sydney Road. A small girl was reported peering from one of its broken windows. This seemed odd because no one in the neighborhood had seen a young child in or around the home, which had been inhabited for the past three years by a woman, her boyfriend, and two adult sons.

Who was the mystery girl in the window?

Entering the house, Detective Holste and his team were shocked. It was the worst mess they'd ever seen, infested with cockroaches, smeared with feces and urine from both people and pets, and filled with dilapidated furniture and ragged window coverings. Detective Holste headed down a hallway and entered a small room. That's where he found the little girl, with big, vacant eyes, staring into the darkness. A newspaper report later described the detective's first encounter with the child: "She lay on a torn, moldy mattress on the floor. She was curled on her side . . . her ribs and collarbone jutted out . . . her black hair was matted, crawling with lice. Insect bites, rashes and sores pocked her skin . . . She was naked-except for a swollen diaper. ... Her name, her mother said, was Danielle. She was almost seven years old" (DeGregory 2008).

Detective Holste immediately carried Danielle out of the home. She was taken to a hospital for medical treatment and evaluation. Through extensive testing, doctors determined that, although she was severely malnourished, Danielle was able to see, hear, and vocalize normally. Still, she wouldn't look anyone in the eyes, didn't know how to chew or swallow solid food, didn't cry, didn't respond to stimuli that would typically cause pain, and didn't know how to communicate either with words or simple gestures such as nodding "yes" or "no." Likewise, although tests showed she had no chronic diseases or genetic abnormalities, the only way she could stand was with someone holding onto her hands, and she "walked sideways on her toes, like a crab" (DeGregory 2008).

What had happened to Danielle? Put simply: beyond the basic requirements for survival, she had been neglected. Based on their investigation, social workers concluded that she had been left almost entirely alone in rooms like the one where she was found. Without regular interaction-the holding, hugging, talking, the explanations and demonstrations given to most young children-she had not learned to walk or to speak, to eat or to interact, to play or even to understand the world around her. From a sociological point of view, Danielle had not been socialized.

Socialization is the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society.

It describes the ways that people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society's beliefs, and to be aware of societal values. Socialization is not the same as socializing (interacting with others, like family, friends, and coworkers); to be precise, it is a sociological process that occurs through socializing. As Danielle's story illustrates, even the most basic of human activities are learned. You may be surprised to know that even physical tasks like sitting, standing, and walking had not automatically developed for Danielle as she grew. And without socialization, Danielle hadn't learned about the material culture of her society (the tangible objects a culture uses): for example, she couldn't hold a spoon, bounce a ball, or use a chair for sitting. She also hadn't learned its nonmaterial culture, such as its beliefs, values, and norms. She had no understanding of the concept of "family," didn't know cultural expectations for using a bathroom for elimination, and had no sense of modesty. Most importantly, she hadn't learned to use the symbols that make up language-through which we learn about who we are, how we fit with other people, and the natural and social worlds in which we live.

Sociologists have long been fascinated by circumstances like Danielle's-in which a child receives sufficient human support to survive, but virtually no social interaction-because they highlight how much we depend on social interaction to provide the information and skills that we need to be part of society or even to develop a "self."

The necessity for early social contact was demonstrated by the research of Harry and Margaret Harlow. From 1957 to 1963, the Harlows conducted a series of experiments studying how rhesus monkeys, which behave a lot like people, are affected by isolation as babies. They studied monkeys raised under two types of "substitute" mothering circumstances: a mesh and wire sculpture, or a soft terrycloth "mother." The monkeys systematically preferred the company of a soft, terrycloth substitute mother (closely resembling a rhesus monkey) that was unable to feed them, to a mesh and wire mother that provided sustenance via a feeding tube. This demonstrated that while food was important, social comfort was of greater value (Harlow and Harlow 1962; Harlow 1971). Later experiments testing more severe isolation revealed that such deprivation of social contact led to significant developmental and social challenges later in life.

In the following sections, we will examine the importance of the complex process of socialization and how it takes place through interaction with many individuals, groups, and social institutions. We will explore how socialization is not only critical to children as they develop but how it is also a lifelong process through which we become prepared for new social environments and expectations in every stage of our lives. But first, we will turn to scholarship about self-development, the process of coming to recognize a sense of self, a "self" that is then able to be socialized.

References

DeGregory, Lane. 2008. "The Girl in the Window." St. Petersburg Times, July 31. Retrieved January 31, 2012 ( http://www.tampabay.com/features/humaninterest/article750838.ece).

definition

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In the summer of 2005, police detective Mark Holste followed an investigator from the Department of Children and Families to a home in Plant City, Florida. They were there to look into a statement from the neighbor concerning a shabby house on Old Sydney Road.

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Identity Theory in social sciences explores how individuals form their sense of self and how this self-identity shapes and is shaped by social roles, group memberships, and societal expectations. It's about understanding who we are and how we fit into the world around us. Here's how to grasp this concept:

1. Social Identity: This refers to how individuals define themselves in relation to groups they are a part of, like race, nationality, religion, social class, and more. It's the "we" aspect of our self-concept, where we find belonging and significance through group memberships.

2. Personal Identity: This is the unique set of traits, behaviors, and attributes that a person recognizes as belonging uniquely to themselves—the "I" aspect of self-concept. It encompasses personal choices, experiences, and individual characteristics.

3. Role Identity: This aspect looks at the specific roles we play in society, such as parent, teacher, friend, or employee. Each role comes with its own set of expectations and behaviors, and individuals may change their behavior to fit into these roles.

4. Identity Salience: This concept refers to the importance of an identity within an individual's overall self-concept. Higher salience means that a particular identity is more likely to be invoked in different situations, influencing behavior and decisions.

5. Key Theories and Concepts:

Role Strain and Role Conflict: These occur when there are competing demands between different roles (role conflict) or within the same role (role strain), leading to stress and difficulty in fulfilling the role expectations.

Social Comparison: This is the process of comparing oneself to others to establish or understand one's own identity.

Self-Categorization Theory: Complementary to social identity theory, it explains how and why individuals identify with particular social groups and adopt group norms and behaviors.

6. Important Terms:

Identity Negotiation: The process through which people reach agreements regarding "who is who" in their relationships, often involving compromise and adaptation.

Self-Esteem: How much value people place on themselves and how they feel about their own worth, heavily influenced by their perceived success in fulfilling the roles and identities they consider important.

Identity Formation: The development of the distinct personality of an individual, often influenced by social, cultural, and personal experiences.

Understanding Identity Theory helps us grasp how our social environments and personal choices intertwine to shape our sense of who we are. It illustrates that our identities are not static but are continuously crafted and negotiated through our interactions with others and our roles in society. This theory can aid in understanding the complexities of human behavior and social interaction, helping individuals navigate their social worlds and relationships.

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Social Identity Theory - Definition + 3 Components

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Globalization in social sciences refers to the process through which countries, companies, and individuals become more interconnected and interdependent, often resulting in a blending of cultural, economic, political, and technological aspects across the globe. Here's how to understand this complex concept:

1. Cultural Globalization: This involves the sharing and merging of cultural elements like traditions, languages, music, and fashion between different societies. While this can lead to greater understanding and appreciation between diverse groups, it also raises concerns about cultural homogenization, where dominant cultures overshadow local ones.

2. Economic Globalization: This is about the integration of national economies through trade, investment, capital flow, labor migration, and spread of technology. It's why an iPhone can be designed in California, have parts from over 40 countries, and be assembled in China. Economic globalization aims to enhance efficiency and growth through competition and specialization but is criticized for increasing inequality and impacting local economies negatively.

3. Political Globalization: This refers to the spread and influence of political ideas and governance systems, along with the growing importance of international organizations like the United Nations or the World Trade Organization. It highlights how policies or events in one nation can significantly impact others, promoting global cooperation but also leading to debates on national sovereignty.

4. Technological Globalization: The rapid spread of technology across national borders, which facilitates other forms of globalization. Social media platforms, for instance, allow instant communication and information sharing worldwide, influencing politics, culture, and economic development.

5. Key Theories and Concepts:

Hyperglobalists argue that globalization leads to a new era where traditional nation-states become less important.

Skeptics believe that regional powers and economic blocs remain crucial, challenging the notion of a fully globalized world.

Transformationalists see globalization as a complex process leading to new patterns of interdependence and power distribution.

6. Important Terms:

Interdependence: How countries depend on each other for goods, services, labor, and technology.

Cultural Homogenization: The blending of cultures into a single global culture.

Cultural Heterogenization: The idea that global culture is becoming more diverse, not less.

Neoliberalism: An economic philosophy promoting free markets and minimal government intervention, often associated with globalization.

Understanding globalization requires considering its multifaceted impacts – both positive and negative – on economies, cultures, political systems, and individual lives. It's about recognizing the balance between global connections and local identities, evaluating how global flows of ideas, goods, and people shape our world, and considering our own roles within this global network.

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Globalization I - The Upside: Crash Course World History #41

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Social change in social sciences refers to significant alterations over time in behavior patterns, cultural values, and norms of society. These changes can be gradual or rapid and can affect various aspects of a community, from its structure to the relationships between individuals. Here’s a closer look:

1. Causes of Social Change: Social change can result from technological advancements, economic shifts, environmental factors, cultural innovations, political movements, and social conflicts. Each cause can initiate a different type of change, impacting how individuals and societies function.

2. Types of Social Change:

Evolutionary: Gradual changes that occur over a long period.

Revolutionary: Rapid and profound changes that significantly alter the social structure.

Cyclical: Changes that occur in a cyclical manner, reflecting historical patterns or cycles.

3. Agents of Social Change: Individuals, groups, or institutions that drive changes in society. These can include activists, social movements, educational institutions, and technological innovations that push for changes in laws, behaviors, and societal norms.

4. Theories of Social Change:

Functionalism: Views social change as a natural process of adaptation and evolution for societal stability.

Conflict Theory: Attributes social change to conflicts between different social classes or groups.

Symbolic Interactionism: Focuses on how changes in communication and individual perceptions can lead to social change.

5. Resistance to Change: Not all members of society readily accept social change. Resistance can stem from cultural traditions, religious beliefs, economic interests, or simply fear of the unknown. Understanding the reasons behind resistance is crucial for implementing effective change.

6. Globalization and Social Change: In the context of globalization, social change often reflects the interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and political systems. It can lead to the spread of ideas, values, and practices across borders, influencing local and global communities.

7. Important Terms:

Innovation: The introduction of new ideas, goods, services, and practices to a society, which can be a major driver of social change.

Social Movement: An organized effort by a large group of people to achieve or prevent social change.

Cultural Lag: The time delay between the introduction of new material culture (technologies) and nonmaterial culture (ideas, usage, social norms) adapting to those changes.

Understanding social change is essential for analyzing past transformations and predicting future trends in society. It helps individuals and policymakers make informed decisions that can lead to positive outcomes for communities and societies at large.

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Social movements, social change, and protests have always been central to the study of society. After all, much of these activities are parts of collective behavior. Sociologists are interested in how things 'work', yet they also spend a good deal of time investigating divisions, conflict, and unrest. In short, examining what 'is broken' in sociology is very much part of the discipline as well.

Perhaps the social movement that ran the most contrary to theory in recent history is Occupy Wall Street (OWS). Although it contains many of the classic developmental elements of a social movement we will describe in this chapter, it is set apart by its lack of a single message, its leaderless organization, and its target-financial institutions instead of the government. OWS baffled much of the public, and certainly the mainstream media, leading many to ask, "Who are they, and what do they want?"

On July 13, 2011, the organization Adbusters posted on its blog, "Are you ready for a Tahrir moment? On September 17th, flood into lower Manhattan, set up tents, kitchens, peaceful barricades and occupy Wall Street" (Castells 2012). The "Tahrir moment" was a reference to the 2010 political uprising that began in Tunisia and spread throughout the Middle East and North Africa, including Egypt's Tahrir Square in Cairo. Although OWS was a reaction to the continuing financial chaos that resulted from the 2008 market meltdown and not a political movement, the Arab Spring was its catalyst.

Manuel Castells (2012) notes that the years leading up to the Occupy movement had witnessed a dizzying increase in the disparity of wealth in the United States, stemming back to the 1980s. The top 1 percent in the nation had secured 58 percent of the economic growth in the period for themselves, while real hourly wages for the average worker had increased by only 2 percent. The wealth of the top 5 percent had increased by 42 percent. The average pay of a CEO was now 350 times that of the average worker, compared to less than 50 times in 1983 (AFL-CIO 2014). The country's leading financial institutions, to many clearly to blame for the crisis and dubbed "too big to fail," were in trouble after many poorly qualified borrowers defaulted on their mortgage loans when the loans' interest rates rose. The banks were eventually "bailed" out by the government with $700 billion of taxpayer money. According to many reports, that same year top executives and traders received large bonuses.

On September 17, 2011, an anniversary of the signing of the U.S. Constitution, the occupation began. One thousand outraged protestors descended upon Wall Street, and up to 20,000 people moved into Zuccotti Park, only two blocks away, where they began building a village of tents and organizing a system of communication. The protest soon began spreading throughout the nation, and its members started calling themselves "the 99 percent." More than a thousand cities and towns had Occupy demonstrations.

In answer to the question "Who are they?" Castells notes ". . . by and large the movement was made up of a large majority of democratic voters, as well as of politically independent minded people who were in search of new forms of changing the world . . . " (Castells 2012). What do they want? Castells has dubbed OWS "A non-demand movement: The process is the message." Using Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, and live-stream video, the protesters conveyed a multifold message with a long list of reforms and social change, including the need to address the rising disparity of wealth, the influence of money on election outcomes, the notion of "corporate personhood," a corporatized political system (to be replaced by "direct democracy"), political favoring of the rich, and rising student debt. Regardless, some in the media appeared confused about the protestors' intentions, and articles carried titles like, "The Wall Street Protesters: What the Hell Do They Want?" (Gell 2011) from The New York Observer, and person-in-the-street quotations like, "I think they're idiots. They have no agenda . . . " from the Los Angeles Times (Le Tellier 2012).

The late James C. Davies suggested in his 1962 paper, "Toward a Theory of Revolution" (from the American Sociological Review, Vol, 27 Issue 1) that revolution depends upon the mood of the people, and that it is extremely unlikely those in absolute poverty will be able to overturn a government, simply because the government has infinitely more power. Instead, a revolution is more possible when expected need satisfaction and actual need satisfaction are out of sync. As actual need satisfaction trends downward and away from what a formerly prosperous people have come to expect-tracing a curve that looks somewhat like an upside-down J and is called the Davies-J curve-the gap between expectations and reality widens. Eventually an intolerable point is reached, and revolution occurs. Thus, change comes not from the very bottom of the social hierarchy, but from somewhere in the middle. Indeed, the Arab Spring was driven by mostly young people whose education had offered promise and expectations that were thwarted by corrupt autocratic governments. OWS too came not from the bottom but from people in the middle, who exploited the power of social media to enhance communication.

AFL-CIO. 2014. "Executive Paywatch." Retrieved December 17, 2014 ( http://www.aflcio.org/Corporate-Watch/Paywatch-2014).

Castells, Manuel. 2012. Networks of Outrage and Hope: Social Movements in the Internet Age. Camgridge, UK: Polity.

Davies, James C. 1962. "Toward a Theory of Revolution." American Sociological Review 27, no. 1. Retrieved December 17, 2014 ( http://www.jstor.org/discover/2089714?sid=21104884442891&uid=3739256&uid=3739704&uid=4&uid=2).

Gell, Aaron. 2011. "The Wall Street Protesters: What the Hell Do They Want?" New York Observer. Retrieved December 17, 2014 ( http://observer.com/2011/09/the-wall-street-protesters-what-the-hell-do-they-want/).

Le Tellier, Alexandria. 2012. "What Occupy Wall Street Wants." Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 17, 2014 ( http://articles.latimes.com/2012/sep/17/news/la-ol-occupy-wall-street-anniversary-message-20120917).

NAACP. 2011. "100 Years of History." Retrieved December 21, 2011 ( http://www.naacp.org/pages/naacp-history).

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Chapter 17: Introduction to Social Movements and Social Change

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Social movements, social change, and protests have always been central to the study of society. After all, much of these activities are parts of collective behavior. Sociologists are interested in how things 'work', yet they also spend a good deal of time investigating divisions, conflict, and unrest.

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Gender, Sex, and Sexuality are distinct but interconnected concepts that play significant roles in our lives and society. Understanding these terms is crucial for discussing identity, relationships, and social structures. Here's how to grasp these concepts:

1. Sex: Refers to the biological differences between males and females, including chromosomes, hormonal profiles, internal and external sex organs. Traditionally, sex has been categorized as male or female, but this binary understanding is limited as it does not accommodate the spectrum of biological variation, such as intersex conditions.

2. Gender: A social and cultural construct that relates to behaviors, roles, expectations, and activities society deems appropriate for men, women, and gender-diverse individuals. Unlike the biological aspect of sex, gender is about societal norms and can vary greatly from one culture to another. Gender identity is a person's internal understanding and experience of their own gender, which may or may not align with the sex they were assigned at birth.

3. Sexuality: Encompasses a range of desires, feelings, and attractions one has towards others. It's about who you are attracted to and form relationships with, which can be influenced by a variety of factors including biological, psychological, and social aspects. Common terms within sexuality include heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, asexual, and pansexual, among others.

4. Key Theories and Concepts:

Gender Roles: The roles and behaviors society expects from individuals based on their perceived gender.

Gender Expression: How a person outwardly expresses their gender, which can include clothing, hairstyle, behavior, and voice.

Gender Fluidity: The concept that gender is not fixed and can change over time and context.

Queer Theory: Challenges the conventional categories of gender and sexuality, emphasizing the fluidity and socially constructed nature of these concepts.

5. Intersectionality: A concept crucial to understanding how gender, sex, and sexuality interact with other social categories such as race, class, and disability, leading to complex layers of discrimination or privilege.

6. Important Terms:

Cisgender: A person whose gender identity aligns with the sex they were assigned at birth.

Transgender: An individual whose gender identity does not align with the sex they were assigned at birth.

Non-binary: A term used by some people who do not identify as exclusively male or female.

Sexual Orientation: The inherent or immutable enduring emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to other people.

Understanding gender, sex, and sexuality is essential for recognizing and respecting the diverse experiences and identities of individuals. It helps in addressing issues related to discrimination, inequality, and human rights while fostering an inclusive and empathetic society.

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In 2009, the eighteen-year-old South African athlete, Caster Semenya, won the women's 800-meter world championship in Track and Field. Her time of 1:55:45, a surprising improvement from her 2008 time of 2:08:00, caused officials from the International Association of Athletics Foundation (IAAF) to question whether her win was legitimate. If this questioning were based on suspicion of steroid use, the case would be no different from that of Roger Clemens or Mark McGuire, or even Track and Field Olympic gold medal winner Marion Jones. But the questioning and eventual testing were based on allegations that Caster Semenya, no matter what gender identity she possessed, was biologically a male.

You may be thinking that distinguishing biological maleness from biological femaleness is surely a simple matter-just conduct some DNA or hormonal testing, throw in a physical examination, and you'll have the answer. But it is not that simple. Both biologically male and biologically female people produce a certain amount of testosterone, and different laboratories have different testing methods, which makes it difficult to set a specific threshold for the number of male hormones produced by a female that renders her sex male. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) criteria for determining eligibility for sex-specific events are not intended to determine biological sex. "Instead these regulations are designed to identify circumstances in which a particular athlete will not be eligible (by reason of hormonal characteristics) to participate in the 2012 Olympic Games" in the female category (International Olympic Committee 2012).

To provide further context, during the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, eight female athletes with XY chromosomes underwent testing and were ultimately confirmed as eligible to compete as women (Maugh 2009). To date, no males have undergone this sort of testing. Doesn't that imply that when women perform better than expected, they are "too masculine," but when men perform well they are simply superior athletes? Can you imagine Usain Bolt, the world's fastest man, being examined by doctors to prove he was biologically male based solely on his appearance and athletic ability?

Can you explain how sex, sexuality, and gender are different from each other?

In this chapter, we will discuss the differences between sex and gender, along with issues like gender identity and sexuality. We will also explore various theoretical perspectives on the subjects of gender and sexuality, including the social construction of sexuality and queer theory.

International Olympic Committee, Medical and Scientific Department. 2012. "IOC Regulations on Female Hyperandrogenism." Retrieved December 8, 2014 ( http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Commissions_PDFfiles/Medical_commission/2012-06-22-IOC-Regulations-on-Female-Hyperandrogenism-eng.pdf).

Maugh, Thomas H., III. 2009. "Row Over South African Athlete Highlights Ambiguities of Gender." Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 8, 2014 ( http://articles.latimes.com/2009/aug/21/science/sci-runner-side21).

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Chapter 6: Introduction to Gender, Sex, and Sexuality

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In 2009, the eighteen-year-old South African athlete, Caster Semenya, won the women's 800-meter world championship in Track and Field. Her time of 1:55:45, a surprising improvement from her 2008 time of 2:08:00, caused officials from the International Association of Athletics Foundation (IAAF) to question whether her win was legitimate.

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Race and Ethnicity are critical concepts in understanding human diversity and social structures. While often used interchangeably, they refer to different aspects of individual and group identity. Here's a breakdown suitable for understanding these complex ideas:

1. Race: Historically, this term has been used to categorize people based on physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture. However, modern science shows that there is more genetic variation within these racial groups than between them, highlighting that race is more of a social construct than a biological reality. Despite this, racial categorization continues to have significant social, economic, and political implications, often leading to systemic inequality and discrimination.

2. Ethnicity: Refers to cultural factors such as nationality, regional culture, ancestry, language, and beliefs. Unlike race, which is often perceived through external characteristics, ethnicity is tied to one’s cultural identity and can be adopted or changed as individuals navigate through different environments and choose how to express their cultural affiliation.

3. Key Theories and Concepts:

Social Construction of Race: The idea that societal institutions and perceptions shape the understanding of race, rather than biological differences.

Ethnocentrism: Judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture.

Cultural Relativism: The principle of regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that culture itself.

4. Intersectionality: This concept is vital in understanding how race and ethnicity intersect with other identity categories, such as gender, class, and sexuality, contributing to unique experiences of discrimination or privilege.

5. Racial and Ethnic Identity: How individuals come to terms with and understand their racial and ethnic backgrounds in relation to their personal identity and how they are perceived by society. This can influence one’s sense of belonging, community, and personal experience.

6. Important Terms:

Prejudice: Preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience, often leading to biased attitudes towards individuals based on their race or ethnicity.

Racism: A belief or doctrine that inherent differences among the various human racial groups determine cultural or individual achievement, usually involving the idea that one's race is superior and has the right to dominate others.

Assimilation: The process by which a person or a group's language and/or culture come to resemble those of another group, often losing aspects of their original identity.

Multiculturalism: The presence of, or support for the presence of, several distinct cultural or ethnic groups within a society.

Understanding race and ethnicity is crucial for analyzing social dynamics and addressing issues of inequality, discrimination, and community relations. It fosters a more inclusive and empathetic society where diversity is recognized, respected, and valued.

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Chapter 8: Introduction to Race and Ethnicity – Rothschild’s Introduction to Sociology

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Race and Ethnicity is a sub-field of sociology that focuses on identity. This is similar to the sections we just reviewed on Gender and Social Class and Stratification. The sub-field of Race and Ethnicity in sociology was first established in the United States through the work of the first American sociologist, W.E.B. Du Bois.

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Class and Social Stratification are fundamental concepts in sociology and social sciences, addressing how society is structured and how resources and opportunities are distributed. Here’s a detailed breakdown:

1. Social Stratification: Refers to the way society is organized into hierarchical layers, where individuals and groups have different access to resources, status, and power. This system influences people’s life experiences, opportunities, and how they are perceived by others.

2. Class: Often used to describe a group of people within the stratification system who share similar socioeconomic positions. Classes are typically defined by factors such as wealth, income, education, occupation, and social network. While class systems are fluid, allowing for movement between classes (social mobility), they significantly impact individuals' lifestyles, attitudes, and behaviors.

3. Key Theories and Concepts:

Marxist Theory: Karl Marx viewed class divisions as based on the relationships individuals and groups have with the means of production, categorizing society into the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class).

Weberian Theory: Max Weber expanded the understanding of social stratification by including status and party, or power, alongside class, recognizing that social stratification is multidimensional.

Social Mobility: The ability to move between different levels in the social stratification system. It can be upward (towards higher status) or downward (towards lower status) and can occur within a person’s lifetime (intragenerational) or between generations (intergenerational).

4. Forms of Stratification: Besides class, societies may also be stratified based on race, ethnicity, gender, age, or religion, contributing to complex layers of inequality and privilege.

5. Poverty and Inequality: Discusses the disparities in wealth and opportunities seen within and between societies. Poverty can be absolute (lacking basic needs) or relative (poor in comparison to others in society), and it is both a cause and effect of social stratification.

6. Important Terms:

Capital: Refers not just to economic wealth, but also social capital (networks, connections) and cultural capital (skills, tastes, posture).

Status Consistency: The degree of uniformity in a person's social standing across various dimensions of social inequality.

Meritocracy: A system where social stratification is based on personal merit; these societies believe that individuals can climb the social ladder based on their abilities, efforts, and achievements.

Caste System: A form of social stratification where one’s social status is held for life (often based on birth), with little to no mobility.

Understanding class and social stratification is essential for analyzing societal structures and addressing issues of inequality and injustice. It helps in recognizing how systemic barriers affect different groups and fosters discussions on creating a more equitable society.

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Differentiate between open and closed stratification systems

Distinguish between caste and class systems

Understand meritocracy as an ideal system of stratification

Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing.

Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power.

You may remember the word "stratification" from geology class. The distinct vertical layers found in rock, called stratification, are a good way to visualize social structure. Society's layers are made of people, and society's resources are distributed unevenly throughout the layers. The people who have more resources represent the top layer of the social structure of stratification. Other groups of people, with progressively fewer and fewer resources, represent the lower layers of our society.

In the United States, people like to believe everyone has an equal chance at success. However, sociologists recognize that social stratification is a society-wide system that makes inequalities apparent. While there are always inequalities between individuals, sociologists are interested in larger social patterns.

Stratification is not about individual inequalities, but about systematic inequalities based on group membership, classes, and the like.

The structure of society affects a person's social standing. Although individuals may support or fight inequalities, social stratification is created and supported by society as a whole.

Take the example of education: According to the Center for Student Opportunity, a national nonprofit, 89 percent of first-generation students will not earn an undergraduate degree within six years of starting their studies. In fact, these students "drop out of college at four times the rate of peers whose parents have postsecondary degrees" (Center for Student Opportunity quoted in Huot 2014). Why do students with parents who have completed college tend to graduate more often than those students whose parents do not hold degrees? That question and many others will be answered as we explore social stratification.

Factors that define stratification vary in different societies. In most societies, stratification is an economic system, based on , the net value of money and assets a person has, and , a person's wages or investment dividends. While people are regularly categorized based on how rich or poor they are, other important factors influence social standing. For example, in some cultures, wisdom and charisma are valued, and people who have them are revered more than those who don't. In some cultures, the elderly are esteemed; in others, the elderly are disparaged or overlooked. Societies' cultural beliefs often reinforce the inequalities of stratification.

One key determinant of social standing is the social standing of our parents. Parents tend to pass their social position on to their children. People inherit not only social standing but also the cultural norms that accompany a certain lifestyle. They share these with a network of friends and family members. Social standing becomes a comfort zone, a familiar lifestyle, and an identity. This is one of the reasons first-generation college students do not fare as well as other students.

Other determinants are found in a society's occupational structure. Teachers, for example, often have high levels of education but receive relatively low pay. Many believe that teaching is a noble profession, so teachers should do their jobs for love of their profession and the good of their students-not for money. Yet no successful executive or entrepreneur would embrace that attitude in the business world, where profits are valued as a driving force. Cultural attitudes and beliefs like these support and perpetuate social inequalities.

As a result of the Great Recession that rocked our nation's economy in 2008 and 2009, many families and individuals found themselves struggling like never before. The nation fell into a period of prolonged and exceptionally high unemployment. While no one was completely insulated from the recession, perhaps those in the lower classes felt the impact most profoundly. Before the recession, many were living paycheck to paycheck or even had been living comfortably. As the recession hit, they were often among the first to lose their jobs. Unable to find replacement employment, they faced more than loss of income. Their homes were foreclosed, their cars were repossessed, and their ability to afford healthcare was taken away. This put many in the position of deciding whether to put food on the table or fill a needed prescription.

While we're not completely out of the woods economically, there are several signs that we're on the road to recovery. Many of those who suffered during the recession are back to work and are busy rebuilding their lives. The Affordable Health Care Act has provided health insurance to millions who lost or never had it.

But the Great Recession, like the Great Depression, has changed social attitudes. Where once it was important to demonstrate wealth by wearing expensive clothing items like Calvin Klein shirts and Louis Vuitton shoes, now there's a new, thriftier way of thinking. In many circles, it has become hip to be frugal. It's no longer about how much we spend, but about how much we don't spend. Think of shows like Extreme Couponing on TLC and songs like Macklemore's "Thrift Shop."

Sociologists distinguish between two types of systems of stratification.

Closed systems accommodate little change in social position. They do not allow people to shift levels and do not permit social relationships between levels. Slavery is a closed system, as there is no option for social mobility.

Open systems are based on achievement, allow movement and interaction between layers and classes. The Class System is an open system.

Different systems reflect, emphasize, and foster certain cultural values and shape individual beliefs. Stratification systems include class systems and caste systems, as well as meritocracy.

The Caste System

Caste systems are seen as closed stratification systems from a western perspective in which people can do little or nothing to change their social standing. A caste system is one in which people are born into their social standing and will remain in it their whole lives. People are assigned occupations regardless of their talents, interests, or potential. There are virtually no opportunities to improve a person's social position.

In the Hindu caste tradition, people were expected to work in the occupation of their caste and to enter into marriage according to their caste. Accepting this social standing was considered a moral duty. Cultural values reinforced the system. Caste systems promote beliefs in fate, destiny, and the will of a higher power, rather than promoting individual freedom as a value. A person who lived in a caste society was socialized to accept this.

Although the caste system in India has been officially dismantled, its residual presence in Indian society, and in Indian diasporic communities in other parts of the world. is deeply embedded. In rural areas, aspects of the tradition are more likely to remain, while urban centers show less evidence of this past. In India's larger cities, people now have more opportunities to choose their own career paths and marriage partners. As a global center of employment, corporations have introduced merit-based hiring and employment to the nation.

The Class System

A class system is based on both social factors and individual achievement. A consists of a set of people who share a similar status with regard to factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation. Unlike caste systems, class systems are open. People are free to gain a different level of education or employment than their parents. They can also socialize with and marry members of other classes, which allows people to move from one class to another.

In a class system, occupation is not fixed at birth. Though family and other societal models help guide a person toward a career, personal choice plays a role.

In class systems, people have the option to form exogamous marriages, unions of spouses from different social categories. Marriage in these circumstances is based on values such as love and compatibility rather than on social standing or economics. Though social conformities still exist that encourage people to choose partners within their own class, people are not as pressured to choose marriage partners based solely on those elements. Marriage to a partner from the same social background is an endogamous union.

Social stratification systems determine social position based on factors like:

Sociologists use the term status consistency to describe the consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual's rank across these factors. Caste systems correlate with high status consistency, whereas the more flexible class system has lower status consistency.

On April 29, 2011, in London, England, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, married Catherine Middleton, a commoner. It is rare, though not unheard of, for a member of the British royal family to marry a commoner. Kate Middleton has an upper-class background, but does not have royal ancestry. Her father was a former flight dispatcher and her mother a former flight attendant and owner of Party Pieces. According to Grace Wong's 2011 article titled, "Kate Middleton: A family business that built a princess," "[t]he business grew to the point where [her father] quit his job . . . and it's evolved from a mom-and-pop outfit run out of a shed . . . into a venture operated out of three converted farm buildings in Berkshire." Kate and William met when they were both students at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland (Köhler 2010).

Britain's monarchy arose during the Middle Ages. Its social hierarchy placed royalty at the top and commoners on the bottom. This was generally a closed system, with people born into positions of nobility. Wealth was passed from generation to generation through primogeniture, a law stating that all property would be inherited by the firstborn son. If the family had no son, the land went to the next closest male relation. Women could not inherit property, and their social standing was primarily determined through marriage.

The arrival of the Industrial Revolution changed Britain's social structure. Commoners moved to cities, got jobs, and made better livings. Gradually, people found new opportunities to increase their wealth and power. Today, the government is a constitutional monarchy with the prime minister and other ministers elected to their positions, and with the royal family's role being largely ceremonial. The long-ago differences between nobility and commoners have blurred, and the modern class system in Britain is similar to that of the United States (McKee 1996).

Today, the royal family still commands wealth, power, and a great deal of attention. When Queen Elizabeth II retires or passes away, Prince Charles will be first in line to ascend the throne. If he abdicates (chooses not to become king) or dies, the position will go to Prince William. If that happens, Kate Middleton will be called Queen Catherine and hold the position of queen consort. She will be one of the few queens in history to have earned a college degree (Marquand 2011). Kate's experience-from commoner to potential queen-demonstrates the fluidity of social position in modern society.

Stratification systems are either closed, meaning they do not allow change in social position, or open, meaning they allow movement and interaction between the layers. A caste system is one in which social standing is based on ascribed status or birth. Class systems are open, with achievement playing a role in social position. People fall into classes based on factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation. A meritocracy is a system of social stratification that confers standing based on personal worth, rewarding effort.

The New York Times investigated social stratification in their series of articles called "Class Matters." The online accompaniment to the series includes an interactive graphic called "How Class Works," which tallies four factors-occupation, education, income, and wealth-and places an individual within a certain class and percentile. What class describes you? Test your class rank on the interactive site: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/NY_Times_how_class_works

Huot, Anne E. 2014. "A Commitment to Making College Accessible to First-Generation College Students." Huffington Post. Retrieved December 22, 2014 (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/anne-e-huot/first-generation-college-students_b_6081958.html).

Köhler, Nicholas. 2010. "An Uncommon Princess." Maclean's, November 22. Retrieved January 9, 2012 ( http://www2.macleans.ca/2010/11/22/an-uncommon-princess/).

McKee, Victoria. 1996. "Blue Blood and the Color of Money." New York Times, June 9.

Marquand, Robert. 2011. "What Kate Middleton's Wedding to Prince William Could Do for Britain." Christian Science Monitor, April 15. Retrieved January 9, 2012 ( http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2011/0415/What-Kate-Middleton-s-wedding-to-Prince-William-could-do-for-Britain).

Wong, Grace. 2011. "Kate Middleton: A Family Business That Built a Princess." CNN Money. Retrieved December 22, 2014 (http://money.cnn.com/2011/04/14/smallbusiness/kate-middleton-party-pieces/).

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Chapter 7: Introduction to Social Stratification

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Differentiate between open and closed stratification systems Distinguish between caste and class systems Understand meritocracy as an ideal system of stratification Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing. Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power.

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2.2 How do these theories apply to real-world issues? 

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2.2 How do these theories apply to real-world issues? 

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3.2 How do researchers ensure ethical practices in Social Sciences? 

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3.2 How do researchers ensure ethical practices in Social Sciences? 

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When researchers conduct studies in social sciences, they must follow strict rules to ensure they're being fair and respectful to everyone involved. Think of it like the guidelines we follow in school or sports to make sure everything is fair and no one gets hurt. Here’s how researchers keep things ethical:

1. Informed Consent: Just like you'd want to know all the details before agreeing to be part of a school project, researchers must explain their study clearly to participants. They need to know what they're getting into, the purpose of the study, and that they can leave anytime without any consequences.

2. Confidentiality: Researchers keep information about participants secret, kind of like how a trusted friend keeps your secrets. This means personal details are protected, and data is often made anonymous before it’s shared or published.

3. Avoiding Harm: Just as teachers ensure a safe classroom, researchers must make sure their study doesn't harm anyone—physically, emotionally, or mentally. They're like the lifeguards of the research world, keeping everyone safe from harm's way.

4. Deception: Sometimes, researchers can't tell participants everything about the study upfront (think undercover boss scenarios). But they minimize this as much as possible and always debrief participants afterward, explaining the true nature of the research, kind of like revealing the secret at the end of a magic trick.

5. Fair Treatment: Researchers must treat everyone involved with respect and fairness, ensuring that no group is unfairly targeted or left out. It’s like making sure every team member gets a turn during a game.

6. Review Boards: Before starting, researchers’ plans are often checked by a special group, like a council, to ensure they're following all ethical rules. This is similar to how school projects or experiments need approval from a teacher.

By following these guidelines, researchers in social sciences ensure that their work is ethical, which means they respect the rights, dignity, and welfare of all participants. It’s all about conducting research responsibly, ensuring everyone involved is treated with respect and fairness.

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3.3 Case-study: Why are ethical practices in social research important? 

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3.3 Case-study: Why are ethical practices in social research important? 

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This video discusses the ethical breaches in social research, focusing on the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. The study, conducted by the U.S. government, involved 600 African-American men who were misled and used as subjects to observe the effects of untreated syphilis, without their informed consent and with essential treatment withheld. This led to severe health issues, death, and the spread of the disease to family members.

The study highlights the long history of racism, discrimination, and unethical practices in medical research in the United States. It underscores the importance of informed consent, respect for participants, and the need for ethical standards in research. The fallout from the study includes ongoing distrust in the medical system among Black Americans and highlights the necessity for diverse, ethical research practices. The National Research Act and subsequent apologies and compensations were steps toward acknowledging and rectifying these wrongs, but the video emphasizes that understanding and addressing historical and ongoing racism in medical research is crucial for building trust and ensuring equitable healthcare for all.

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The Tuskegee Experiment: Crash Course Black American History #29

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3.4 What are the steps involved in designing and conducting a Social Science research project? 

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3.4 What are the steps involved in designing and conducting a Social Science research project? 

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A helpful step-by-step guide to writing a Social Science research paper put forth by the USC Library.

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After you have determined the type of research design you will use, but before you sit down and begin to organize your paper, there are few things you should consider doing that will help make the process of writing go much smoother.

Drafting a schedule and noting deadlines on your personal calendar should be your first step to writing a research paper. Create a schedule based on your own sense of how much time you think you will need to contemplate, research, organize, and write a paper based on its length and your familiarity with the general topic. A helpful strategy is to work backwards from when the final paper is due.

Choose specific dates of important steps along the way, but focus on setting realistic goals, and then stick to them! Make sure to give yourself enough time to find out what resources are available to you [including , if needed!], to identify a research problem to investigate, to select and read relevant research literature, to outline your paper, to organize the information you are going to cite in your paper, and to write your first and final drafts [as well as any necessary steps in between]. Developing a personal assignment calendar will also help you manage your time in relation to work assigned in other classes.

Case study -- explain the implications and unique characteristics of a complex research problem using a single bounded unit of analysis that illuminates key issues about the problem [e.g., an organization, behavior of doctors in an emergency room, a supreme court ruling, an event].

Exploratory -- pursues a specific line of inquiry, often with the purpose of making recommendations for further research or to advocate and provide evidence for specific actions to be taken.

NOTE: If for any reason you are unclear or confused about any aspect of the assignment, request clarification from your professor as soon as possible. Faculty are required to hold office hours to meet with students. Take advantage of this. Professors will not accept the excuse that, "I didn't understand the assignment" if you end up being upset about the grade you receive.

Ballenger, Bruce P. The Curious Researcher: A Guide to Writing Research Papers. 7th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2012. Composing Processes: Planning and Organizing. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Invention: Starting the Writing Process. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Invention: Overview of the Writing Process. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers: A Complete Guide. 15th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2015; Rosenblatt, Paul C. Restarting Stalled Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2016; Williams, Joseph M. and Lawrence McEnerney. Writing in College 2: Preparing to Write and Drafting the Paper, Writing Program, The University of Chicago; Prewriting Strategies. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Prewriting Techniques. Hawley Academic Resource and Advising Center. Simpson College.

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Research Guides: Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 2. Preparing to Write

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Offers detailed guidance on how to develop, organize, and write a college-level research paper in the social and behavioral sciences.

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3.5 What does a completed Social Sciences research paper look like? 

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3.5 What does a completed Social Sciences research paper look like? 

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This database contains model essays from a variety of disciplines – find an article that interests you pay attention to its structure!

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Professional writers often read works by other writers to think about new techniques. Although reading a good paper cannot teach you everything you need to know about writing in a given discipline, it can be enormously helpful. The papers below are past winners of the Writing Center essay contest. We hope you find some of these helpful for expanding your writing repertoire.

It can be even more valuable to ask your professors for sample essays that they admire. In fact, if your field is not represented below, please encourage your professors to send us a model paper in that discipline.

The headings below expand to show a list of downloadable papers within the selected department or discipline.

Women's, Gender, & Sexuality Studies

" Congratulations, It's a Social Construct: Production and Reproduction of (Trans) Gendered Bodies," by Laura Goetz '17. WGSS 340: Feminist and Queer Theory, Professor Margaret Homans.

" Chronicles of My Life: A Minority Reading of the Dominant Narrative," by Cathy Shen '17. WGSS 327: Constructing Self: Autobiography, Professor Geetanjali Chanda.

Environmental Studies

"City of Elms: The Myth of the Urban Pastoral," by Rebecca Ju '21. EVST 120: American Environmental History, Professor Paul Sabin, Teaching Fellow Kelly Goodman.

Psychology

" Sex-Based Effects of Positive vs. Negative Message Framing on Intended Alcohol Use," by Sarah Stein '19. PSYC 235: Research Methods in Psychology, Professor Woo-Kyoung Ahn, Teaching Fellow Natalie Wittlin.

"Effect of Excuses on Making Moral Judgments," by Angela Choi '12. PSYC 235: Research Methods in Psychology, Professor Woo-Kyoung Ahn, Teaching Fellow Sarah Hailey.

" Positive, Math-Unrelated Priming and Women's Math Performance," by Jason Parad '12. PSYC 235: Research Methods in Psychology, Professor Woo-kyoung Ahn, Teaching Fellow Jacqueline Smith.

" Infants' Use of Kind Information in Object Individuation and Implications for Conceptual Development," by Elizabeth Rawson '07. PSYC 140: Developmental Psychology, Professor Frank Keil.

Physical Sciences

" Electrospray Synthesis of Graphene Oxide-Mized Metal Oxide Nanocomposites for Energy Storage," by Brandon Ortiz '18. STARS, Professor Alessandro Gomez, Teaching Fellow Justin Tang.

" Importing Prescription Drugs from Canada: A Public Health Solution," by Stephanie Heung '15. PHYS 320: Science and Public Policy, Professor Bonnie Fleming.

" Determining the Ages, Metallicities, and Star Formation Rates of Brightest Cluster Galaxies," by Hannah Alpert '15. SCIE S101: Scientific Research: Process and Presentation, Professor Maria Mareno.

" An Introduction to Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy," by Andrew Yang '12. CHEM 251L: Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Professor Jonathan Parr.

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Professional writers often read works by other writers to think about new techniques. Although reading a good paper cannot teach you everything you need to know about writing in a given discipline, it can be enormously helpful. The papers below are past winners of the Writing Center essay contest.

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3.6 How is information disseminated within Social Sciences? 

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3.6 How is information disseminated within Social Sciences? 

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In the social sciences, disseminating information is a critical process where researchers share their findings with the broader community, enhancing collective knowledge and fostering further inquiry.

1. Academic Journals and Books: These are foundational to scholarly communication. Journals like "American Sociological Review" or "Journal of Psychology" and books published by academic presses undergo a rigorous peer review process to ensure credibility and accuracy. Researchers submit their studies, which are then reviewed by other experts in the field before publication. This ensures that only high-quality, validated research is disseminated.

2. Conferences and Workshops: These are akin to intellectual symposiums where scholars gather, such as the American Psychological Association (APA) conferences or sociology workshops. Here, researchers present papers, discuss their work in panels, and engage in debates about methodological approaches, theoretical implications, and practical applications. It's a live forum for exchanging ideas, receiving feedback, and networking with peers.

3. Online Databases and Websites: Platforms like JSTOR, Google Scholar, or Social Science Research Network (SSRN) serve as repositories for academic papers. These databases provide access to a wealth of information across disciplines, enabling students, academics, and the general public to explore the latest research findings and historical publications.

4. Social Media and Blogs: Researchers and institutions often use platforms like Twitter, LinkedIn, or specialized blogs (e.g., The Society Pages) to share insights, highlight significant findings, and discuss contemporary social issues. This informal medium allows for broader public engagement and makes the research more accessible to non-specialists.

5. Teaching and University Courses: Information is disseminated in educational settings through lectures, seminars, and course materials. Professors integrate current research findings into their curriculum, exposing students to the latest developments in the field. Courses might include case studies, recent journal articles, or guest lectures from active researchers.

6. Public Talks and Media: Platforms like TED Talks or podcasts (e.g., Social Science Bites) offer avenues for researchers to reach beyond the academic community and engage with the public. These talks make complex social phenomena understandable and relevant, connecting academic research with real-world issues.

7. Policy Briefs and Reports: Researchers often compile their findings into comprehensive reports or policy briefs aimed at decision-makers, organizations, or advocacy groups. These documents translate complex research into actionable insights that can inform public policy, community programs, or organizational strategies.

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Sociology is like the science of society itself. It’s all about understanding how people behave when they're in groups, not just as individuals. Imagine watching your school's different social groups: the athletes, the artists, the gamers, and so on. Sociology investigates why these groups form, how they interact with each other, and what that means for the broader community and the world.

Sociologists study everything from families to large organizations, examining social norms (the unwritten rules that guide our behavior), social change (how societies evolve over time), and social problems (like poverty or discrimination). They look into how our personal identities are shaped by the society we live in, including our social class, race, gender, and more.

For example, a sociologist might explore why certain styles of music or fashion become popular among teenagers, or how social media influences our relationships and self-esteem. They might investigate larger issues, too, like how laws are made and how they impact different groups of people differently.

In a nutshell, sociology provides the tools to understand the invisible threads that connect us, the structures that shape our lives, and the complex ways we all fit into the larger tapestry of society. It’s about asking big questions: Who are we? Why do we do the things we do? And how can understanding these patterns help improve the world around us?

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What Is Sociology?: Crash Course Sociology #1

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Psychology is essentially the study of the mind and behavior. It's like being a detective, but instead of solving crimes, psychologists delve into the mysteries of human thoughts, feelings, and actions. This field tries to understand why people do what they do, how they think, and what they feel, blending elements from both the sciences and the humanities.

Imagine why you choose to spend time with certain friends, why certain memories stick with you, or why you feel happy, sad, or scared in different situations. Psychology seeks to uncover the answers to these questions, exploring everything from daily activities, like how we learn and remember things, to complex emotions and mental health issues.

Psychologists work in various areas, including clinical psychology, where they diagnose and treat mental health issues; developmental psychology, focusing on how people grow and change from infancy through old age; and social psychology, examining how individuals influence and are influenced by others around them. There's also neuropsychology, where the brain's physical structure and chemistry are studied to understand behavior and thinking.

For example, a psychologist might research how stress affects student performance in school, or they might help someone cope with anxiety or depression. They could also study the effects of social media on self-esteem or investigate how children develop language skills.

In essence, psychology offers insights into what makes us tick as individuals and how our environment and biology intertwine to shape who we are and how we interact with the world around us. It's about understanding the inner workings of the human mind and using that knowledge to help improve people's lives.

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Intro to Psychology: Crash Course Psychology #1

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Anthropology is the study of humans, past and present. Think of it as the ultimate exploration into what it means to be human. Anthropologists are like time travelers and world explorers rolled into one. They dig into ancient ruins, observe rituals in remote villages, and analyze the social dynamics in modern cities to understand the full scope of human experience.

This field is divided into four main areas:

1. Cultural Anthropology: This is all about understanding the customs, languages, and social patterns of different communities around the world. Cultural anthropologists immerse themselves in other cultures to understand their way of life from an insider's perspective. They might study rituals in Papua New Guinea, street art in Brazil, or corporate culture in Tokyo.

2. Archaeology: Think of archaeologists as detectives of the past. They excavate old sites and analyze artifacts like pottery, tools, and ruins to reconstruct how ancient societies lived, worked, and organized themselves. They can tell you how people in medieval Europe built their cities or what the Mayans ate for dinner.

3. Biological (or Physical) Anthropology: This branch looks at the biological aspects of humans. Biological anthropologists study human evolution, genetics, and the physical variations among different populations. They might examine fossil remains to understand how humans evolved from other primates or investigate the genetic makeup of different ethnic groups to trace migration patterns.

4. Linguistic Anthropology: This is all about language, a core aspect of what makes us human. Linguistic anthropologists explore how language influences social life, shapes identity, and varies across time and space. They might study how new slang terms spread through a high school or how language is used differently in male and female communication.

Overall, anthropology seeks to uncover the universalities and diversities in human life across the globe and throughout history. It’s about piecing together the puzzle of human existence to understand where we come from, how we've adapted, and where we might be going in the future. By comparing the vast array of human societies, anthropologists explore how people from different backgrounds solve common problems, celebrate life, and understand the world around them.

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What is Anthropology? | College Majors | College Degrees | Study Hall

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Economics, often described as the study of how people use resources, is like the big rulebook for making decisions in a world where you can't have everything you want. Imagine you have a limited amount of time and money; how do you decide what to buy, save, or spend time on? Economics explores these decisions, ranging from personal choices to global trends.

This field is split mainly into two areas:

1. Microeconomics: This zooms in on the choices of individuals and businesses. It's like looking through a microscope at the economic behavior of smaller units. For example, microeconomics examines how the price of sneakers affects how many pairs a store will sell or how people decide whether to work extra hours for more money versus having more free time.

2. Macroeconomics: This steps back to view the big picture, looking at entire economies. Macroeconomists study things like the total output of a country (its GDP), unemployment rates, and how inflation affects the overall cost of living. It's like using a telescope to view how an entire country or the world's economy operates.

Economists use models and theories to analyze how to allocate scarce resources efficiently, predict future trends, and develop policies to solve economic problems. They tackle issues like poverty, inflation, unemployment, taxes, and international trade. For example, economists might explore why some countries are rich while others are poor, how government policies affect economic growth, or what causes stock market crashes.

In essence, economics is about choices and consequences. It helps explain why people and governments behave the way they do financially, providing insight into making better decisions and understanding the broader economic forces that shape our lives.

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Intro to Economics: Crash Course Econ #1

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Political Science guides us through the complex landscape of politics. It explores how political systems operate, how governments make decisions, and how those decisions impact society. Political scientists examine the structure and function of government, the behavior of politicians and political parties, and the influence of public opinion and interest groups.

This field is divided into several key areas:

1. Comparative Politics: This is the study of how different countries' political systems operate. By comparing systems from democracies to dictatorships, political scientists uncover patterns and principles that apply across borders, helping us understand how different political landscapes shape societies.

2. International Relations: This explores how countries interact with one another. It’s all about diplomacy, war, trade, and international organizations like the United Nations. Political scientists analyze how countries build alliances, resolve conflicts, and how international laws affect global relations.

3. Political Theory: This is the philosophical side of politics, dealing with ideas about justice, rights, and democracy. Political theorists delve into political ideas from ancient times to the present, questioning what makes a government legitimate and what rights individuals should have.

4. Public Administration and Policy: This area focuses on how government policies are made and implemented. Political scientists in this field study the role of bureaucrats, the impact of public policies on society, and how different types of administration can lead to different outcomes.

Political Science is not just about studying what politicians do; it's about understanding how their actions affect the world around us, from local communities to global relationships. It helps us make sense of current events, the role of citizens, and how we can influence change in society. It's about deciphering the complex mechanisms of power and governance that shape our lives and our future.

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What is Political Science? | College Majors | College Degrees | Study Hall

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Learning Objectives

1. Describe the process of urbanization in the United States and the growth of urban populations worldwide

2. Understand the function of suburbs, exurbs, and concentric zones

3. Discuss urbanization from various sociological perspectives

Urbanization is the study of the social, political, and economic relationships in cities, and someone specializing in urban sociology studies those relationships. In some ways, cities can be microcosms of universal human behavior, while in others they provide a unique environment that yields its own brand of human behavior. There is no strict dividing line between rural and urban; rather, there is a continuum where one bleeds into the other. However, once a geographically concentrated population has reached approximately 100,000 people, it typically behaves like a city regardless of what its designation might be.

The Growth of Cities

According to sociologist Gideon Sjoberg (1965), there are three prerequisites for the development of a city: First, good environment with fresh water and a favorable climate; second, advanced technology, which will produce a food surplus to support nonfarmers; and third, strong social organization to ensure social stability and a stable economy. Most scholars agree that the first cities were developed somewhere in ancient Mesopotamia, though there are disagreements about exactly where. Most early cities were small by today's standards, and the largest was most likely Rome, with about 650,000 inhabitants (Chandler and Fox 1974). The factors limiting the size of ancient cities included lack of adequate sewage control, limited food supply, and immigration restrictions. For example, serfs were tied to the land, and transportation was limited and inefficient. Today, the primary influence on cities' growth is economic forces. Since the recent economic recession reduced housing prices, researchers have been waiting to see what happens to urban migration patterns in response.

Urbanization in the United States proceeded rapidly during the Industrial Era. As more and more opportunities for work appeared in factories, workers left farms (and the rural communities that housed them) to move to the cities. From mill towns in Massachusetts to tenements in New York, the industrial era saw an influx of poor workers into U.S. cities. At various times throughout the country's history, certain demographic groups, from post-Civil War southern Blacks to more recent immigrants, have made their way to urban centers to seek a better life in the city.

Views of the City

Are cities good or bad? Cities are both good and bad. They are sites of innovation, high culture, population diversity, and excitement, but they are also sites of high crime, impersonality, and other problems. In the early 20th century, a group of social scientists at the University of Chicago established a research agenda on cities that is still influential today (Bulmer, 1984). Most notably, they began to study the effects of urbanization on various aspects of city residents' lives in what came to be called the human ecology school (Park, Burgess, & McKenzie, 1925). One of their innovations was to divide Chicago into geographical regions, or zones, and to analyze crime rates and other behavioral differences among the zones. They found that crime rates were higher in the inner zone, or central part of the city, where housing was crowded and poverty was common, and were lower in the outer zones, or the outer edges of the city, where houses were spread farther apart and poverty was much lower. Because they found these crime rate differences changed over time even as the ethnic backgrounds of people in these zones, they assumed that the social and physical features of the neighborhoods were affecting their crime rates (Shaw & McKay, 1942). Their work is still useful today, as it helps us realize that the social environment, broadly defined, can affect our attitudes and behavior. This theme, of course, lies at the heart of the sociological perspective.

Life in U.S. Cities

Life in U.S. cities today reflects the dual view just outlined. On the one hand, many U.S. cities are vibrant places, filled with museums and other cultural attractions, nightclubs, theaters, and restaurants and populated by people from many walks of life and from varied racial and ethnic and national backgrounds. Many college graduates flock to cities, not only for their employment opportunities but also for their many activities and the sheer excitement of living in a metropolis. On the other hand, many U.S. cities are also filled with abject poverty, filthy and dilapidated housing, high crime rates, traffic gridlock, and dirty air. Many Americans would live nowhere but a city, and many would live anywhere but a city. Cities arouse strong opinions pro and con, and for good reason, because there are many things both to like and to dislike about cities.

Types of Urban Residents

The quality of city life depends on many factors, but one of the most important factors is a person's social background: social class, race/ethnicity, gender, age, and sexual orientation. As earlier chapters documented, these dimensions of our social backgrounds often yield many kinds of social inequalities, and the quality of life that city residents enjoy depends heavily on these dimensions. For example, residents who are white and wealthy have the money and access to enjoy the best that cities have to offer, while those who are poor and of color typically experience the worst aspects of city life. Because of fear of rape and sexual assault, women often feel more constrained than men from traveling freely throughout a city and being out late at night; older people also often feel more constrained because of physical limitations and fear of muggings; and gays and lesbians are still subject to physical assaults stemming from homophobia. The type of resident we are, then, in terms of our sociodemographic profile affects what we experience in the city and whether that experience is positive or negative.

Urbanism and Tolerance

One of the most notable Chicago sociologists was Louis Wirth (1897-1952), who, in a well-known essay entitled "Urbanism as a Way of Life" (Wirth, 1938), discussed several differences between urban and rural life. In one such difference, he said that urban residents are more tolerant than rural residents of nontraditional attitudes, behaviors, and lifestyles, in part because they are much more exposed than rural residents to these nontraditional ways. Supporting Wirth's hypothesis, contemporary research finds that urban residents indeed hold more tolerant views on several kinds of issues (Moore & Ovadia, 2006).

Housing

A significant factor that determines the quality of life in cities involves housing. Here there are several related issues. Much urban housing is substandard and characterized by such problems as broken windows, malfunctioning heating systems, peeling paint, and insect infestation. At the same time, adequate housing is not affordable for many city residents, as housing prices in cities can be very high, and the residents' incomes are typically very low. Cities thus have a great need for adequate, affordable housing.

Another housing issue concerns racial segregation. Although federal law prohibits segregated housing, cities across the country are nonetheless highly segregated by race, with many neighborhoods all or mostly African American. Sociologists Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton (1998) termed this situation "American apartheid." They said that these segregated neighborhoods result from a combination of several factors, including (a) "white flight" into suburbs, (b) informal-and often illegal-racially discriminatory actions that make it difficult for African Americans to move into white neighborhoods (such as real estate agents falsely telling black couples that no houses are available in a particular neighborhood), and (c) a general lack of income and other resources that makes it very difficult for African Americans to move from segregated neighborhoods.

Massey and Denton argued that residential segregation worsens the general circumstances in which many urban African Americans live. Several reasons account for this effect. As whites flee to the suburbs, the people left behind are much poorer. The tax base of cities suffers accordingly, and along with it the quality of city schools, human services, and other social functions. All these problems help keep the crime rate high and perhaps even raise it further. Because segregated neighborhoods are poor and crime-ridden, businesses do not want to invest in them, and employment opportunities are meager. This fact worsens conditions in segregated neighborhoods even further. Consequently, concluded Massey and Denton, racial segregation helps perpetuate the urban "underclass" of people who live jobless in deep poverty and decaying neighborhoods.

Other research supports this conclusion. As a recent review summarized the evidence,

Whether voluntary or involuntary, living in racially segregated neighborhoods has serious implications for the present and future mobility opportunities of those who are excluded from desirable areas. Where we live affects our proximity to good job opportunities, educational quality, and safety from crime (both as victim and as perpetrator), as well as the quality of our social networks. (Charles, 2003, pp. 167-168)

To improve the socioeconomic status and living circumstances of African Americans, then, it is critical that residential segregation be reduced.

Public Education

Yet another issue for cities is the state of their public education. Many city schools are housed in old buildings that, like much city housing, are falling apart. City schools are notoriously underfunded and lack current textbooks, adequate science equipment, and other instructional materials (see Chapter 16 "Education").

Crime

Although cities have many additional problems, crime is an appropriate issue with which to end this section because of its importance. Simply put, cities have much higher rates of violent and property crime than do small towns or rural areas. For example, the violent crime rate (number of crimes per 100,000 residents) in 2009 was 459 for the nation's largest cities, compared to only 202 for rural counties. The property crime rate in the largest cities was 3,160 crimes per 100,000, compared to only 1,570 in rural counties (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2010). Crime rates in large cities are thus two to three times higher than those in rural counties.

Suburbs and Exurbs

As cities grew more crowded, and often more impoverished and costly, more and more people began to migrate back out of them. But instead of returning to rural small towns (like they'd resided in before moving to the city), these people needed close access to the cities for their jobs. In the 1850s, as the urban population greatly expanded and transportation options improved, suburbs developed. Suburbs are the communities surrounding cities, typically close enough for a daily commute in, but far enough away to allow for more space than city living affords. The bucolic suburban landscape of the early twentieth century has largely disappeared due to sprawl. Suburban sprawl contributes to traffic congestion, which in turn contributes to commuting time. And commuting times and distances have continued to increase as new suburbs developed farther and farther from city centers. Simultaneously, this dynamic contributed to an exponential increase in natural resource use, like petroleum, which sequentially increased pollution in the form of carbon emissions.

As the suburbs became more crowded and lost their charm, those who could afford it turned to the exurbs, communities that exist outside the ring of suburbs and are typically populated by even wealthier families who want more space and have the resources to lengthen their commute. Together, the suburbs, exurbs, and metropolitan areas all combine to form a metropolis. New York was the first U.S. megalopolis, a huge urban corridor encompassing multiple cities and their surrounding suburbs. These metropolises use vast quantities of natural resources and are a growing part of the U.S. landscape.

As the Social Policy & Debate feature illustrates, the suburbs also have their share of socio-economic problems. In the United States, white flight refers to the migration of economically secure white people from racially mixed urban areas and toward the suburbs. This occurred throughout the twentieth century, due to causes as diverse as the legal end of racial segregation established by Brown v. Board of Education to the Mariel boatlift of Cubans fleeing Cuba's Mariel port for Miami. Current trends include middle-class African-American families following white flight patterns out of cities, while affluent whites return to cities that have historically had a black majority. The result is that the issues of race, socio-economics, neighborhoods, and communities remain complicated and challenging.

Global Urbanization

During the Industrial Era, there was a growth spurt worldwide. The development of factories brought people from rural to urban areas, and new technology increased the efficiency of transportation, food production, and food preservation. For example, from the mid-1670s to the early 1900s, London's population increased from 550,000 to 7 million (Old Bailey Proceedings Online 2011). Global favorites like New York, London, and Tokyo are all examples of postindustrial cities. As cities evolve from manufacturing-based industrial to service- and information-based postindustrial societies, gentrification becomes more common. Gentrification occurs when members of the middle and upper classes enter and renovate city areas that have been historically less affluent while the poor urban underclass are forced by resulting price pressures to leave those neighborhoods for increasingly decaying portions of the city.

Globally, 54 percent of the world's 7 billion people currently reside in urban areas, with the most urbanized region being North America (82 percent), followed by Latin America/the Caribbean (80 percent), with Europe coming in third (72 percent). In comparison, Africa is only 40 percent urbanized. With 38 million people, Tokyo is the world's largest city by population. The world's most densely populated cities are now largely concentrated in the global south, a marked change from several decades ago when the biggest cities were found in the global north. In the next forty years, the biggest global challenge for urbanized populations, particularly in less developed countries, will be to achieve development that occurs without depleting or damaging the natural environment, also called sustainable development (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division 2014).

Theoretical Perspectives on Urbanization

The issues of urbanization play significant roles in the study of sociology. Race, economics, and human behavior intersect in cities. Let's look at urbanization through the sociological perspectives of functionalism and conflict theory. Functional perspectives on urbanization generally focus on the ecology of the city, while conflict perspective tends to focus on political economy.

Human ecology is a functionalist field of study that looks at on the relationship between people and their built and natural physical environments (Park 1915). Generally speaking, urban land use and urban population distribution occur in a predictable pattern once we understand how people relate to their living environment. For example, in the United States, we have a transportation system geared to accommodate individuals and families in the form of interstate highways built for cars. In contrast, most parts of Europe emphasize public transportation such as high-speed rail and commuter lines, as well as walking and bicycling. The challenge for a human ecologist working in U.S. urban planning is to design landscapes and waterscapes with natural beauty, while also figuring out how to provide for free-flowing transport of innumerable vehicles, not to mention parking!

The concentric zone model (Burgess 1925) is perhaps the most famous example of human ecology. This model views a city as a series of concentric circular areas, expanding outward from the center of the city, with various "zones" invading adjacent zones (as new categories of people and businesses overrun the edges of nearby zones) and succeeding (then after invasion, the new inhabitants repurpose the areas they have invaded and push out the previous inhabitants). In this model, Zone A, in the heart of the city, is the center of the business and cultural district. Zone B, the concentric circle surrounding the city center, is composed of formerly wealthy homes split into cheap apartments for new immigrant populations; this zone also houses small manufacturers, pawn shops, and other marginal businesses. Zone C consists of the homes of the working class and established ethnic enclaves. Zone D holds wealthy homes, white-collar workers, and shopping centers. Zone E contains the estates of the upper class (in the exurbs) and the suburbs.

In contrast to the functionalist approach, theoretical models in the conflict perspective focus on the way urban areas change according to specific decisions made by political and economic leaders. These decisions generally benefit the middle and upper classes while exploiting the working and lower classes.

For example, sociologists Feagin and Parker (1990) suggested three factors by which political and economic leaders control urban growth. First, these leaders work alongside each other to influence urban growth and decline, determining where money flows and how land use is regulated. Second, exchange value and use value of land are balanced to favor the middle and upper classes so that, for example, public land in poor neighborhoods may be rezoned for use as industrial land. Finally, urban development is dependent on both structure (groups such as local government) and agency (individuals including businessmen and activists), and these groups engage in a push-pull dynamic that determines where and how land is actually used. For example, Not In My Back Yard (NIMBY) movements are more likely to emerge in middle and upper-class neighborhoods as engaged citizens protest poor environmental practices they fear will affect them, so these groups have more control over the use of local land.

Key Takeaways

A double-edged view of cities has long existed in sociology. In the early 20th century, social scientists at the University of Chicago adopted Émile Durkheim's more positive view of urbanization.

Social inequality based on social class, race/ethnicity, gender, age, and sexual orientation affects the quality of urban experiences. In addition to differences in their sociodemographic profiles, city residents differ in other ways. Herbert Gans identified several types of urban dwellers: cosmopolites, unmarried and childless, ethnic villagers, deprived, and trapped.

Major issues and problems confronting U.S. cities today include those involving fiscal difficulties, crowding, housing, traffic, pollution, public education, and crime.

Cities are rapidly growing in poor nations, and this type of urbanization poses many challenges that these nations are unable to meet because of their poverty and other difficulties.

For Your Review

1. If you had your preference, would you want to eventually live in a large city, medium-sized city, small town, or rural area? Explain your answer.

2. Americans often seem to blame city residents for many of the problems affecting U.S. cities today, including low academic achievement and rundown conditions in city schools and crime in the streets. Do you think it is fair to blame city residents for these problems, or are there other reasons for them? Explain your answer.

References

BBC. 2005. "Timeline: French Riots-A Chronology of Key Events." November 14. Retrieved December 9, 2011 ( http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4413964.stm).

Bulmer, M. (1984). The Chicago school of sociology: Institutionalization, diversity, and the rise of sociological research. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Burgess, Ernest. 1925. "The Growth of the City." Pp. 47-62 in The City, edited by R. Park and E. Burgess. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Chandler, Tertius and Gerald Fox. 1974. 3000 Years of Urban History. New York: Academic Press.

Dougherty, Connor. 2008. "The End of White Flight." Wall Street Journal, July 19. Retrieved December 12, 2011 ( http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121642866373567057.html).

Feagin, Joe, and Robert Parker. 1990. Building American Cities: The Urban Real Estate Game. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

France24. 2010. "Sarkozy Promises War without Mercy for Paris Suburbs." France 24, April 10. Retrieved December 9, 2011 ( http://www.france24.com/en/20100420-sarkozy-war-suburbs-drugs-crime-violence-truancy-tremblay-en-france-saint-denis-france).

Gans, H. J. (1962). The urban villagers: Group and class in the life of Italian-Americans. New York, NY: Free Press.

LeBlanc, Adrien Nicole. 2003. Random Family: Love, Drugs, Trouble and Coming of Age in the Bronx. New York: Scribner.

Park, R. E., Burgess, E. W., & McKenzie, R. (1925). The city. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Park, Robert. 1934 [1915]. "The City: Suggestions for Investigations of Human Behavior in the City." American Journal of Sociology 20:577-612.

Park, Robert. 1936. "Human Ecology." American Journal of Sociology 42:1-15.

Old Bailey Proceedings Online. 2011. "Population History of London." Retrieved December 11, 2011 ( http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/static/Population-history-of-london.jsp).

Sciolino, Elaine, and Ariane Bernand. 2006. "Anger Festering in French Areas Scarred in Riots." New York Times, October 21. Retrieved December 11, 2011 ( http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/21/world/europe/21france.html?scp=2&sq=paris+suburb&st=nyt).

Sjoberg, Gideon. 1965. The Preindustrial City: Past and Present. New York: Free Press.

Talbot, Margaret. 2003. "Review: Random Family. Love, Drugs, Trouble and Coming of Age in the Bronx." New York Times, February 9. Retrieved December 12, 2011 ( http://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/09/books/in-the-other-country.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm).

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. 2014. "World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights" (ST/ESA/SER.A/352). Retrieved November 3, 2014 (http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf).

United States Census Bureau. 2014, "2010 Census Urban and Rural Classification and Urban Area Criteria." Retrieved December 16, 2014 (http://www.census.gov/geo/reference/ua/urban-rural-2010.html).

Wirth, L. (1938). Urbanism as a way of life. American Journal of Sociology, 44, 3-24.

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Introduction to Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World

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Describe the process of urbanization in the United States and the growth of urban populations worldwide Understand the function of suburbs, exurbs, and concentric zones Discuss urbanization from various sociological perspectives Urbanization is the study of the social, political, and economic relationships in cities, and someone specializing in urban sociology studies those relationships.

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Where and Why Do People Move? Crash Course Geography #32

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What is Climate Change?: Crash Course Climate & Energy #1

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Open access journals are peer-reviewed, scholarly journals that are free, digital, and avaliable to anyone online. Below are some OA journals with a broad, social science emphasis:

SAGE Open: Articles may span the full spectrum of the social and behavioural sciences and the humanities.

AERA Open: from the American Educational Research Association

Frontiers in...: Several OA journals in the Humanities and Social Sciences including Frontiers in Communication, Frontiers in Education, Frontiers in Psychology.

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Emerging fields in the social sciences are areas that address modern-day challenges, blend traditional disciplines, and employ new methodologies to understand complex societal phenomena. These interdisciplinary fields are rapidly gaining attention for their relevance to contemporary issues and their innovative approaches to age-old questions about human behavior and society.

1. Environmental Sociology: This field examines the interactions between societies and their natural environments. It explores the social dimensions of environmental problems, policies, and attitudes, aiming to understand how human activities impact ecosystems and how societies adapt to environmental changes.

2. Behavioral Economics: Merging psychology with economics, this field studies how psychological, social, cognitive, and emotional factors affect economic decisions of individuals and institutions, and how those decisions vary from those implied by classical economic theory.

3. Cyberpsychology: An emerging field that investigates the psychological aspects of cyberspace and its impact on human behavior. It delves into online behavior, social media interactions, digital learning, and the psychological effects of virtual reality and gaming.

4. Global Health: While not entirely new, this interdisciplinary field has gained prominence due to global pandemics and health disparities. It combines elements from public health, sociology, and anthropology to address health issues that transcend national boundaries, focusing on prevention, treatment, and policy solutions.

5. Urban Studies: An interdisciplinary field that examines urban life, structure, and development. Urban studies researchers analyze the complexities of urban environments, including their social, economic, political, and cultural dynamics, to improve city planning and policy.

6. Peace and Conflict Studies: This field explores the causes of conflict and the processes leading to peace. Drawing from political science, sociology, psychology, and history, it seeks to understand war, violence, and injustice, and to develop strategies for conflict resolution, peacebuilding, and reconciliation.

7. Data Science in Social Research: Leveraging big data analytics and computational techniques, this emerging field applies data science methods to social science questions, enabling researchers to analyze large datasets to uncover patterns, trends, and insights about human behavior and societal changes.

8. Neuroeconomics: Combining neuroscience, psychology, and economics, neuroeconomics investigates how brain activity influences economic decision-making. This field aims to understand the neural mechanisms behind risk-taking, trust, negotiation, and other economic behaviors.

These emerging fields reflect the social sciences' adaptability and their ongoing quest to understand and solve contemporary societal issues. By integrating multiple disciplines, employing new technologies, and addressing global challenges, these fields are expanding the boundaries of traditional social science research.

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In this section, you will explore the diverse fields encompassed by the social sciences, understand their unique perspectives compared to other areas of study, and discover their importance in analyzing and solving societal issues.

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Explore the core disciplines within social sciences, such as Sociology, Psychology, Anthropology, Economics, and Political Science, and gain insights into their specific focus areas, methodologies, and contributions to understanding human society

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In this final section, access a curated collection of digital resources and tools that are invaluable for students, researchers, and practitioners in the social sciences, including open-access journals, data analysis software, and more.

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In his engaging talk, Julian explores the fascinating world of cultural differences and how they shape our interactions, from chatting with strangers to understanding the concept of personal space. He shares his own journey of moving from Canada to Norway and then Spain, highlighting the challenges and joys of adapting to new cultures. Through humorous anecdotes, like the unexpected "dance" between a South American and a North European due to differing perceptions of personal space, Julian illustrates the importance of recognizing and respecting cultural norms. He introduces the idea of "cultural glasses," suggesting that we all view the world through the lens of our own cultural experiences, which can lead to misunderstandings if we're not careful. Julian's message is clear: embracing cultural diversity and being open to learning about others can lead to richer, more inclusive experiences, enhancing creativity and understanding in our globalized world.

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How Culture Drives Behaviours | Julien S. Bourrelle | TEDxTrondheim

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Case-study: Globalization in a dynamic world

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Case-study: Globalization in a dynamic world

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This video explores the transformation of the global economy due to increasing protectionist policies driven by the need to protect workers, address climate change, ensure reliable supply chains, and counter China's rising power.