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The Unification of China - Qin Shi Huang

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The Unification of China - Qin Shi Huang

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- Date: 221 BCE

- Event: Qin Shi Huang, also can be called Ying Zheng, became the ruler of the Qin state at the age of 13. Through a series of military conquests and strategic alliances, he successfully unified China under the Qin Dynasty, marking the end of the Warring States Period (475–221 BCE) and the beginning of imperial China. His reign brought significant political, economic, and social transformations to China.

- Cause and Effect: During the Warring States period, conflicts over the dominance of various countries constantly led to a highly unstable military situation. Therefore, Qin Shi Huang wanted to end this chaotic era by conquering and unifying China while establishing and expanding his dynasty's hegemony. Qin Shi Huang unified China, centralized political power, and established a highly bureaucratic and centralized government. He implemented standardization measures, including a unified system of weights and measures, currency, and writing, to improve administrative efficiency and control. In addition, the emperor initiated numerous engineering projects, such as the construction of the Great Wall and canals, which facilitated trade and communication throughout the empire (A&E Television Networks, n.d.). On the social front, in order to carry out his unity policy, strengthen unity and obedience, and suppress dissent, he carried out a large-scale "book burning," that is, the burning of books and scholars who opposed his regime. Despite the terrible methods employed, Emperor Qin's unification laid the foundation for the later Han Dynasty and the consolidation of Chinese civilization.

- Reference: A&E Television Networks. (n.d.). Qin dynasty: Achievements, Facts & Time Period. History.com. https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/qin-dynasty#qin-unification

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The Qin Dynasty established the first empire in China, starting with efforts in 230 B.C., during which the Qin leaders engulfed six Zhou Dynasty states. Their reign over Imperial China existed only briefly-from 221 to 206 B.C.-but the Qin Dynasty had a lasting cultural impact on the dynasties that followed.
WATCH: The Great Wall of China on HISTORY Vault
Capital of Qin Dynasty

The Qin (pronounced "chin") region was located in modern-day Shaanxi province, north of the Zhou Dynasty territory-Qin served as a barrier between it and the less civilized states north of it. The capital of the Qin Dynasty was Xianyang, which was extensively enlarged after Qin dominance was established.

Qin itself had been considered a backwards, barbarian state by the ruling Zhou Dynasty. This distinction had to do with its slow pace in embracing Chinese culture, for instance, lagging behind the Zhou in doing away with human sacrifice.

The ruling class of Qin nonetheless believed themselves to be legitimate heirs to the Zhou states, and through the centuries they strengthened their diplomatic and political standing through a variety of means, including strategic marriages.

Shang Yang

It was during the rule of Duke Xiao from 361 to 338 B.C. that the groundwork was laid for conquest, primarily through the work of Shang Yang, an administrator from the state of Wey who was appointed Chancellor.

Shang Yang was a vigorous reformer, systematically reworking the social order of Qin society, eventually creating a massive, complex bureaucratic state and advocating for the unification of Chinese states.

Among Shang Yang's innovations was a successful system to expand the army beyond the nobility, giving land as a reward to peasants who enlisted. This helped create a massive infantry that was less expensive to maintain than the traditional chariot forces.

Following Duke Xiao's death, Shang Yang was charged with treason by the old aristocrats in the state. He attempted to fight and create his own territory but was defeated and executed in 338 B.C. with five chariots pulling him apart for spectators in a market. But Shang Yang's ideas had already laid the foundation for the Qin Empire.

Ying Zheng

The state of Qin began to expand into the regions surrounding it. When the states of Shu and Ba went to war in 316 B.C., both begged for Qin's help.

Qin responded by conquering each of them and, over the next 40 years, relocating thousands of families there, and continuing their expansionist efforts into other regions.

Ying Zheng is considered the first emperor of China. The son of King Zhuangxiang of Qin and a concubine, Ying Zheng took the throne at the age of 13, following his father's death in 247 B.C. after three years on the throne.

Qin Shi Huang

As the ruler of Qin, Ying Zheng took the name Qin Shi Huang Di ("first emperor of Qin"), which brings together the words for "Mythical Ruler" and "God."

Qin Shi Huang began a militarily-driven expansionist policy. In 229 B.C., the Qin seized Zhao territory and continued until they seized all five Zhou states to create a unified Chinese empire in 221 B.C.

Advised by the sorcerer Lu Sheng, Qin Shi Huang traveled in secrecy through a system of tunnels and lived in secret locations to facilitate communing with immortals. Citizens were discouraged from using the emperor's personal name in documents, and anyone who revealed his location would face execution.

Qin Unification

Qin Shi Huang worked quickly to unify his conquered people across a vast territory that was home to several different cultures and languages.

One of the most important outcomes of the Qin conquest was the standardization of non-alphabetic written script across all of China, replacing the previous regional scripts. This script was simplified to allow faster writing, useful for record keeping.

The new script enabled parts of the empire that did not speak the same language to communicate together, and led to the founding of an imperial academy to oversee all texts. As part of the academic effort, older philosophical texts were confiscated and restricted (though not destroyed, as accounts during the Han Dynasty would later claim).

The Qin also standardized weights and measures, casting bronze models for measurements and sending them to local governments, who would then impose them on merchants to simplify trade and commerce across the empire. In conjunction with this, bronze coins were created to standardize money across the regions.

With these Qin advances, for the first time in their history, the various warring states in China were unified. The name China, in fact, is derived from the word Qin (which was written as Ch'in in earlier Western texts).

Great Wall of China

The Qin empire is known for its engineering marvels, including a complex system of over 4,000 miles of road and one superhighway, the Qinzhidao or "Straight Road," which ran for about 500 miles along the Ziwu Mountain range and is the pathway on which materials for the Great Wall of China were transported.

The empire's borders were marked on the north by border walls that were connected, and these were expanded into the beginnings of the Great Wall.

Overseen by the Qin road builder Meng Tian, 300,000 workers were brought to work on the construction of the Great Wall, and on the service roads required to transport supplies.

Qin Shi Huang's Monuments

Qin Shi Huang was noted for audacious marvels of art and architecture meant to celebrate the glory of his new dynasty.

Each time Qin made a new conquest, a replica of that state's ruling palace was constructed across from Qin Shi Huang's Palace along the Wei River, then linked by covered walkways and populated by singing girls brought in from the conquered states.

Weapons from Qin conquests were collected and melted down, to be used for the casting of giant statues in the capital city Xianyang.

Qin Shi Huang Tomb

For his most brash creation, Qin Shi Huang sent 700,000 workers to create an underground complex at the foot of the Lishan Mountains to serve as his tomb. It now stands as one of the seven wonders of the world.

Designed as an underground city from which Qin Shi Huang would rule in the afterlife, the complex includes temples, huge chambers and halls, administrative buildings, bronze sculptures, animal burial grounds, a replica of the imperial armory, terracotta statues of acrobats and government officials, a fish pond and a river.

Terracotta Army

Less than a mile away, outside the eastern gate of the underground city, Qin Shi Huang developed an army of life-size statues-almost 8,000 terracotta warriors and 600 terracotta horses, plus chariots, stables and other artifacts.

This vast complex of terracotta statuary, weapons and other treasures-including the tomb of Qin Shi Huang himself-is now famous as the Terracotta Army.

Excavation of the tomb of Qin Shi Huang has been delayed due to high levels of toxic mercury at the site-it's believed that the emperor had the liquid mercury installed in the tomb to mimic rivers and lakes.

Death of Qin Shi Huang

Qin Shi Huang died in 210 B.C. while touring eastern China. Officials traveling with him wanted to keep it secret, so to disguise the stench of his corpse, filled up 10 carts with fish to travel with his body.

They also forged a letter from Qin Shi Huang, sent to crown prince Fu Su, ordering him to commit suicide, which he did, allowing the officials to establish Qin Shi Huang's younger son as the new emperor.

End of the Qin Dynasty

In two years time, most of the empire had revolted against the new emperor, creating a constant atmosphere of rebellion and retaliation. Warlord Xiang Yu in quick succession defeated the Qin army in battle, executed the emperor, destroyed the capital and split up the empire into 18 states.

Liu Bang, who was given the Han River Valley to rule, quickly rose up against other local kings and then waged a three-year revolt against Xiang Yu. In 202 B.C., Xiang Yu committed suicide, and Liu Bang assumed the title of emperor of the Han Dynasty, adopting many of the Qin dynasty institutions and traditions.
READ MORE: China: A Timeline
Sources

The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Mark Edward Lewis.
Early China: A Social and Cultural History. Li Feng.
Emperor Qin's Tomb. National Geographic.
Qin Dynasty. World History Encyclopedia.

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The Qin Dynasty established the first empire in China, starting with efforts in 230 B.C., during which the Qin leaders engulfed six Zhou Dynasty states. Their reign over Imperial China existed only briefly-from 221 to 206 B.C.-but the Qin Dynasty had a lasting cultural impact on the dynasties that followed.

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Invention of Papermaking (Eastern Han Dynasty) 

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Invention of Papermaking (Eastern Han Dynasty) 

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- Date: 105 CE

- Event: In ancient China, traditional writing materials, such as bamboo slips and silk, were expensive and difficult to obtain. A court official named CAI Lun invented the technique of making paper, mainly from rags, to make writing more accessible and affordable for the common people. This innovation led to a proliferation of books and literature. In addition, the lightness of paper promotes the spread of ideas and knowledge, facilitating cultural exchange and technological progress.

- Cause and Effect: The need for more efficient and affordable writing materials, coupled with continuous advances in technology and the availability of raw materials such as bamboo and silk, has led to experimentation with different alternative materials (One of the four great inventions of China, n.d.). The widespread use of paper transformed Chinese society, increasing literacy rates, facilitating bureaucratic management, and facilitating cultural and intellectual exchange. It not only laid the foundation for the spread of Chinese culture and knowledge abroad through trade and diplomacy, but also paved the way for the subsequent production of printing technology (One of the four great inventions of China, n.d.). The popularization of paper also promoted the progress of literary, artistic and scientific discoveries, which influenced the subsequent development of China and the world.

- Reference: One of the four great inventions of China: Paper-making-experts in China-englishchannel. English. (n.d.). http://www.stdaily.com/English/Service/2021-12/16/content_1239506.shtml

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One of the Four Great Inventions of China: Paper-making

Cai Lun improved the paper-making technique during Han Dynasty. (PHOTO:VCG)

Paper-making, one of the Four Great Inventions of China, was invented in the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC - 9 AD) and improved in the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 -220 AD). In particular, the paper-making technique improved by Cai Lun (also known as Cai Hou Paper) brought a revolution in writing. Cai Hou Paper was easy to carry, incorporated many different raw materials and promoted the cultural development of China and even the whole world.

Before paper was invented, people throughout the world wrote on many different kinds of natural materials. Ancient Egyptians used papyrus scrolls to write down history; in ancient Europe, people wrote on animal skins; while in ancient China, bones, tortoise shells, and bamboo strips were all used for writing, which were later proven unsuitable because of their bulk and weight. Hemp fiber and silk were also used to make paper, but the quality was far from satisfactory.

By the Han Dynasty, due to its rapid economic and cultural development, oracle bones, bamboo and silk were far from adequate to meet people's needs, which resulted in the improvement of a writing medium. The invention of paper is a symbol of advanced science and technology in ancient China.

Improved paper-making traditionally dates back to 105 AD, when Cai Lun, an official at the court of the Han Dynasty, made a sheet of paper from mulberry and other coarse fibers as well as fishing nets, old rags, and hemp waste. This kind of paper was much lighter and cheaper than previous materials. And it was more suitable for Chinese calligraphy.

Paper has been used for wrapping in China since the 2nd century B.C., and it was not widely used for writing until the 3rd century. By the 6th century, paper also began to be used as toilet paper. During the Tang Dynasty (618-907) paper was folded into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. The subsequent Song Dynasty (960 -1279) was the first government to issue paper money.

The invention and use of paper also brought about a revolution in writing, paving the way for the invention of printing technology in the years to come.

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One of the Four Great Inventions of China: Paper-making-Experts in China-EnglishChannel

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Paper-making, one of the Four Great Inventions of China, was invented in the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC - 9 AD) and improved in the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 -220 AD). In particular, the paper-making technique improved by Cai Lun (also known as Cai Hou Paper) brought a revolution in writing.

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- Date: 2nd century BCE to 14th century CE （Started since Western Han Dynasty 130 BCE)

- Event: The Silk Road was a trade route connecting the East and the West, spanning more than 6,400 kilometers across Eurasia from Xi 'an （Encyclopædia Britannica，2024). It facilitates the exchange of goods, ideas, culture and technology between China, Central Asia, the Middle East and Europe. Named for the thriving silk trade along the route, the Silk Road played a crucial role in shaping the political, economic and cultural interactions between different civilizations.

- Cause/Effect: The establishment of the Silk Road was mainly due to the Western demand for luxury goods such as silk and spices, and the Chinese demand for jade, ceramics and other products（Encyclopædia Britannica，2024). And Christianity is also spreading east along this Silk Road. In addition, the expansionist policies of empires such as the Han Dynasty in China and the Roman Empire in the West facilitated the opening of trade routes and the establishment of diplomatic relations. The Silk Road facilitated the exchange of goods such as silk and spices, and promoted economic growth and prosperity along the route. It also spread technologies such as paper, printing and gunpowder between civilizations. In political terms, the Silk Road is also beneficial to friendly diplomatic relations between countries along the route, spreading political ideas, ideologies and governance systems. The Silk Road led not only to the exchange of goods but also to the exchange of ideas, religions, languages and cultures. It enabled the spread of religions such as Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam (Encyclopædia Britannica，2024).

- Reference:Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (2024, January 23). Silk road. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Silk-Road-trade-route

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Where did the Silk Road start and end?

What major goods traveled along the Silk Road?

What traveled along the Silk Road besides goods?

This article was most recently revised and updated by

Silk Road, ancient trade route, linking China with the West, that carried goods and ideas between the two great civilizations of Rome and China. Silk went westward, and wools, gold, and silver went east. China also received Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism (from India) via the Silk Road.

Originating at Xi'an (Sian), the 4,000-mile (6,400-km) road, actually a caravan tract, followed the Great Wall of China to the northwest, bypassed the Takla Makan Desert, climbed the Pamirs (mountains), crossed Afghanistan, and went on to the Levant; from there the merchandise was shipped across the Mediterranean Sea. Few persons traveled the entire route, and goods were handled in a staggered progression by middlemen.

Know Your Asian Geography Quiz

With the gradual loss of Roman territory in Asia and the rise of Arabian power in the Levant, the Silk Road became increasingly unsafe and untraveled. In the 13th and 14th centuries the route was revived under the Mongols, and at that time the Venetian Marco Polo used it to travel to Cathay (China). It is now widely thought that the route was one of the main ways that plague bacteria responsible for the Black Death pandemic in Europe in the mid-14th century moved westward from Asia.

Part of the Silk Road still exists, in the form of a paved highway connecting Pakistan and the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, China. The old road has been the impetus behind a United Nations plan for a trans-Asian highway, and a railway counterpart of the road has been proposed by the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). The road inspired cellist Yo-Yo Ma to found the Silk Road Project in 1999, which explored cultural traditions along its route and beyond as a means for connecting arts worldwide across cultures.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Amy Tikkanen.

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Silk Road, ancient trade route, linking China with the West, that carried goods and ideas between the two great civilizations of Rome and China. Silk went westward. Wools, gold, and silver went east. China also received Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism (from India) via the route. Read more about the Silk Road here.

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- Date: 9th century CE (Tang Dynasty)

- Description: The exact date and inventor of gunpowder's invention remain uncertain, but it is believed to have originated with alchemists searching for the elixir of life. Chinese alchemists discovered gunpowder, a mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal, initially used for fireworks and later for military purposes.

- Cause/Effect: Alchemists, while searching for the elixir of immortality, experimented with various substances and chemical reactions and stumbled upon a recipe for gunpowder (History of gunpowder). The invention of gunpowder changed the situation of war. In the past, it was all swords and other weapons, but now it has explosive projectiles, firearms, and finally cannons (History of gunpowder). The technique gradually spread from east to west. Economically, the production of gunpowder and firearms became a lucrative industry, stimulating trade and manufacturing. On the social front, the militarization of society and the prominence of firearms have changed the dynamics of conflict and the strategy of war.

- Reference: History of gunpowder. Epic Fireworks. (n.d.). https://epicfireworks.com/pages/history-of-gunpowder

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Gunpowder was not invented overnight, as far as historians can tell, it was a gradual process over hundreds of years to get from the initial discovery of an unknown explosive substance, to the sophisticated black powder that we know today. In 142 AD, during the Han Dynasty, a man named Wei Boyang wrote the first recorded text regarding gunpowder. He wrote about a concoction of three powders that would "fly and dance" violently in his "Book of the Kinship of the Three ", which detailed the experiments made by the early alchemists. It's impossible to be absolutely certain that he was talking about gunpowder, but there is no other explosive known to scientists that uses three powders.

Chinese Taoist alchemists were certainly a major force behind the invention of gunpowder. Emperor Wu Di (156-87 B.C.) of the Han dynasty funded research by the alchemists on the secrets of eternal life. In their search for the By 300 AD, a scientist of the Chin dynasty called Ge Hong had actually written the ingredients of gunpowder and described the effects. He made gunpowder by mixing sulphur, charcoal, and saltpetre, also called elixir of life the alchemists experimented with the sulphur and saltpetre heating the substances in order to transform them.

potassium nitrate. Sulphur is found naturally in our environment as a yellow rock, it is mined and processed to create sulphur that can be used in gunpowder. You can make saltpetre with animal manure by leaving it to sit and decompose, potassium nitrate crystals form in the manure, and these can be drained off by washing the manure through with water. The three separate powders are then mixed together, using roughly fifteen parts of saltpetre to three parts of charcoal and two parts of sulphur. The reason gunpowder explodes is that it burns incredibly quickly and when it burns it releases hot gases that are larger in volume than the original powder, causing a rapid expansion, and thus the explosion.

It was during the rule of the T'ang Dynasty, about 700 AD, when people really began to use gunpowder in the way we expect today. T'ang Dynasty emperors are known to have used gunpowder to put on "magical" fireworks displays. By 904 AD, Chinese inventors realised that you could also use gunpowder as a very powerful weapon. Initially the army used gunpowder in the form of crude rockets. They put small stone cannonballs inside bamboo tubes and blasted the cannonballs out by igniting gunpowder at one end. This is basically the same principal that makes guns work today.

The Chinese Emperors tried their best to keep their incredible discovery under wraps, but by the 1100's AD their secret had escaped, and people in the Islamic Empire also began to comprehend how to use gunpowder for weapons. It wasn't long before Europeans also learned how to use this amazing new Black Powder. We aren't sure exactly how the Europeans first found out, but it has been suggested that it may have had something to do with the Third Crusade, crusaders returning to Europe brought tales with them of a terrible new weapon, like a monster that could breathe fire! The Chinese Emperors' secret was out, and the world had a new way of fighting its wars.

There is no doubt that the use of gunpowder in warfare changed the face of the world forever. It became possible to engage an enemy at greater distances than before, and as accuracy and range improved over time, so did the sophistication of the weapons. From crude rockets to cannon to hand guns and bombs. Even today long after the first rocket was ever fired, the same basic principles apply. Advancements in technology mean that gunpowder itself is now only used in smaller arms. However anyone today firing a gun can thank the work of the early Chinese alchemists who, ironically, in their search for eternal life, discovered the most efficient way of ending it.

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Gunpowder was not invented overnight, as far as historians can tell, it was a gradual process over hundreds of years to get from the initial discovery of an unknown explosive substance, to the sophisticated black powder that we know today.

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- Date: 1839-1860 CE

- Event: The Opium Wars were two conflicts between China and Western powers (mainly Britain) over trade, territorial control, and the opium trade. During the First Opium War (1839-1842), the Chinese government tried to stop the illegal opium trade conducted by British merchants, but the British defeated the Chinese army with advanced military technology and signed the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842 (U.S. Department of State, n.d.). The treaty forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain, open five treaty ports to Western trade, and pay reparations. The Second Opium War (1856-1860) was caused by increased tensions between China and Western powers, over trade restrictions and unequal status. The conflict also led to the burning of the Summer Palace in Beijing by British and French forces. China was also forced to sign the Treaty of Tianjin (1858), which expanded Western access to the Chinese market, legalized the opium trade, and granted extraterritorial rights to foreigners in China.

- Cause/Effect: The Opium Wars were mainly caused by the economic interests of Western countries, especially the United States and Great Britain, who wanted to correct the trade imbalance with China by exporting opium (U.S. Department of State, n.d.). The Opium War exposed China's weakness and marked the beginning of the Qing Dynasty's decline. They have also led to the forced opening of China to trade, territorial concessions and the spread of foreign influence. Unequal treaties signed after the war further eroded China's rights, leading to the gradual decline of the Qing Dynasty. Economically, the opium trade and the opening of treaty ports led to social unrest. The Opium Wars fueled anti-Western sentiment and nationalist movements that led to reform and revolutionary movements (U.S. Department of State, n.d.).

- Reference: U.S. Department of State. (n.d.). U.S. Department of State. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/china-1

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NOTE TO READERS
"Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations" has been retired and is no longer maintained. For more information, please see the full notice.

The Treaty of Wangxia (Wang-hsia) was the first formal treaty signed between the United States and China in 1844. It served as an American counterpart to the Anglo-Chinese Treaty of Nanjing that ended the First Opium War in 1842.

The Signing of the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842

The Opium War and these treaties were emblematic of an era in which Western powers tried to gain unfettered access to Chinese products and markets for European and U.S. trade.

Western traders, including those from the United States, had long sought a variety of Chinese products (including furniture, silk and tea), but found there were few products that China wanted from the West. American trade with China began as early as 1784, relying on North American exports such as furs, sandalwood, and ginseng, but American interest in Chinese products soon outstripped the Chinese appetite for these American exports. The British had already discovered a great market in southern China for smuggled opium, and American traders soon also turned to opium to supplement their exports to China. Beyond the health problems related to opium addiction, the increasing opium trade with the Western powers meant that for the first time, China imported more goods than it exported. Settling this financial problem eventually led to the First Opium War between Great Britain and China, from 1839 to 1842. After defeating the Chinese in a series of naval conflicts, the British were in a position to make a large number of demands from the weaker Qing Government of China, in the Anglo-Chinese Treaty of Nanjing. Not to be outdone, U.S. negotiators sought to conclude a similar treaty with the Chinese, to guarantee the United States many of the favorable terms awarded the British. The Chinese readily agreed in an effort to keep all foreigners on the same footing.

U.S. President John Tyler chose Massachusetts Congressman Caleb Cushing as his representative in treaty negotiations with the Chinese. Cushing and his counterparts reached the terms of the treaty quickly and signed it at Wangxia, a suburb of the Portuguese port city of Macau, in 1844. The Treaty of Wangxia replicated many of the key terms of the Treaty of Nanjing. Most importantly, it established five treaty ports as open for Chinese-Western trade (Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo, and Shanghai). These treaty ports became key crossroads for Western and Chinese culture, as they were the first locations where foreigners and foreign trading operations could own land in China.

Massachusetts Congressman Caleb Cushing

The U.S. treaty was somewhat longer than the British version, as it included major points from the Treaty of Nanjing, but also added some issues of particular interest to the United States. Article 17 protected the interests of American missionaries in China (several had acted as translators during the negotiation process). Article 18 allowed Americans living or working in China to employ tutors to help them learn Chinese, a practice formerly forbidden by the Chinese Government. Unlike Great Britain, the United States agreed that anyone involved in the opium trade or the smuggling of contraband would be prosecuted under Chinese law, but, with that exception, the treaty allowed for other Americans in China to be afforded the benefits of extraterritoriality. This meant that any American accused of committing a crime in China would not be subject to the jurisdiction of the local law, but would instead be tried and, if necessary, punished by American officials in China. Due to the most-favored-nation clause in all of the western powers' treaties with the Chinese Government, any special consideration given one power could ultimately be claimed by them all.

In the 1850s, the United States and the European powers grew increasingly dissatisfied with both the terms of their treaties with China, and the Qing Government's failure to adhere to them. The British forced the issue by attacking the Chinese port cities of Guangzhou and Tianjin in the Second Opium War (1857-1858). Under the most-favored-nation clause, all of the foreign powers operating in China were permitted to seek the same concessions of China that Great Britain achieved by force. As a result, France, Russia, and the United States all signed treaties with China at Tianjin in quick succession in 1858.

The agreements reached between the Western powers and China following the Opium Wars came to be known as the "unequal treaties" because in practice they gave foreigners privileged status and extracted concessions from the Chinese. Ironically, the Qing Government had fully supported the clauses on extraterritoriality and most-favored nation status in the first treaties in order to keep the foreigners in line. This treaty system also marked a new direction for Chinese contact with the outside world. For years, the Chinese had conducted their foreign policy through the tribute system, in which foreign powers wishing to trade with China were required first to bring a tribute to the emperor, acknowledging the superiority of Chinese culture and the ultimate authority of the Chinese ruler. Unlike China's neighbors, the European powers ultimately refused to make these acknowledgements in order to trade, and they demanded instead that China adhere to Western diplomatic practices, such as the creation of treaties. Although the unequal treaties and the use of the most-favored-nation clause were effective in creating and maintaining open trade with China, both were also important factors in building animosity and resentment toward Western imperialism.

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Milestones: 1830-1860 - Office of the Historian

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NOTE TO READERS "Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations" has been retired and is no longer maintained. For more information, please see the full notice. The Treaty of Wangxia (Wang-hsia) was the first formal treaty signed between the United States and China in 1844.

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Republican China and the Chinese Civil War

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Republican China and the Chinese Civil War

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- Date: 1927-1949 CE

- Event: The Xinhai Revolution overthrows the Qing Dynasty, leading to the establishment of the Republic of China. In 1927, the Kuomintang led by Chiang Kai-shek established the Republic of China, with its capital in Nanjing, marking the beginning of the Republic era (Cucchisi, 2002). However, the country is still controlled by different warlords in different areas. In 1927, the Chinese Civil War broke out between the Nationalists and the Communists. The Communist Party faced challenges including the Long March and Japanese aggression during World War II, but it gradually won over the rural population through guerrilla warfare tactics and promises of land redistribution (Cucchisi, 2002). Chiang Kai-shek and the remnants of the Nationalist government retreated to the island of Taiwan, where they continued to govern under the name Republic of China.

- Cause/Effect: Because of political fragmentation, economic instability, and social unrest, the ideological and territorial disputes was caused between the Nationalist Party (KMT) and the Communist Party. The Kuomintang's failure to address widespread corruption and social inequality further fueled discontent, leading to the rise of the Communist movement (Cucchisi, 2002). The Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War reshaped the country's political landscape - the establishment of the People's Republic of China - and ousted the Kuomintang government. The incident allied the People's Republic of China with the Soviet Union, while Taiwan became a staunch ally of the United States.

- Reference: Cucchisi, J, L (2002), The Causes and Effects of the Chinese Civil War, 1927-1949, Seton Hall University Dissertations and Theses (ETDs). 2361. https://scholarship.shu.edu/dissertations/2361

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Establishment of the People's Republic of China

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Establishment of the People's Republic of China

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- Date: October 1, 1949

- Event: The Communist Party of China, led by Mao Zedong, won the Chinese Civil War and then the People's Republic of China was established. After decades of political turmoil, and foreign occupation, the Chinese Communist Party has emerged as the dominant political force. On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong announced the founding of the People's Republic of China on the Tiananmen Gate in Beijing, marking the end of the Kuomintang government and the beginning of communist rule in China.

- Cause/Effect: Decades of social, political, and economic turmoil, including the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, the chaotic warlord era, the Japanese invasion, and the Chinese Civil War (1927-1949), have led China to struggle along the path of reform. The KMT government failed to address poverty, corruption and inequality, but the Communist Party gained more support for land reform and social justice through promises to other citizens such as farmers (Encyclopædia Britannica). The Communist Party implemented socialist policies, including the nationalization of industry and the suppression of dissent, consolidating its control over all aspects of society (Encyclopædia Britannica). The founding of the People's Republic of China reshaped China's role in global affairs, setting the stage for its subsequent economic transformation and rise as a world power.

- Reference: Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Establishment of the people’s republic. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/China/Establishment-of-the-Peoples-Republic

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The communist victory in 1949 brought to power a peasant party that had learned its techniques in the countryside but had adopted Marxist ideology and believed in class struggle and rapid industrial development. Extensive experience in running base areas and waging war before 1949 had given the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) deeply ingrained operational habits and proclivities. The long civil war that created the new nation, however, had been one of peasants triumphing over urban dwellers and had involved the destruction of the old ruling classes. In addition, the party leaders recognized that they had no experience in overseeing the transitions to socialism and industrialism that would occur in China's huge urban centres. For this, they turned to the only government with such experience-the Soviet Union. Western hostility against the People's Republic of China, sharpened by the Korean War, contributed to the intensity of the ensuing Sino-Soviet relationship.

When the CCP proclaimed the People's Republic, most Chinese understood that the new leadership would be preoccupied with industrialization. A priority goal of the communist political system was to raise China to the status of a great power. While pursuing this goal, the "centre of gravity" of communist policy shifted from the countryside to the city, but Chairman Mao Zedong insisted that the revolutionary vision forged in the rural struggle would continue to guide the party.

In a series of speeches in 1949, Chairman Mao stated that his aim was to create a socialist society and, eventually, world communism. These objectives, he said, required transforming consumer cities into producer cities to set the basis on which "the people's political power could be consolidated." He advocated forming a four-class coalition of elements of the urban middle class-the petty bourgeoisie and the national bourgeoisie-with workers and peasants, under the leadership of the CCP. The people's state would exercise a dictatorship "for the oppression of antagonistic classes" made up of opponents of the regime.

The authoritative legal statement of this "people's democratic dictatorship" was given in the 1949 Organic Law for the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, and at its first session the conference adopted a Common Program that formally sanctioned the organization of state power under the coalition. Following the communist victory, a widespread urge to return to normality helped the new leadership restore the economy. Police and party cadres in each locality, backed up by army units, began to crack down on criminal activities associated with economic breakdown. Soon it was possible to speak of longer-term developmental plans.

The cost of restoring order and building up integrated political institutions at all levels throughout the country proved important in setting China's course for the next two decades. Revolutionary priorities had to be made consonant with other needs. Land reform did proceed in the countryside: landlords were virtually eliminated as a class, land was redistributed, and, after some false starts, China's countryside was placed on the path toward collectivization. In the cities, however, a temporary accommodation was reached with noncommunist elements; many former bureaucrats and capitalists were retained in positions of authority in factories, businesses, schools, and governmental organizations. The leadership recognized that such compromises endangered their aim of perpetuating revolutionary values in an industrializing society, yet out of necessity they accepted the lower priority for communist revolutionary goals and a higher place for organizational control and enforced public order.

Once in power, communist cadres could no longer condone what they had once sponsored, and inevitably they adopted a more rigid and bureaucratic attitude toward popular participation in politics. Many communists, however, considered these changes a betrayal of the revolution; their responses gradually became more intense, and the issue eventually began to divide the once cohesive revolutionary elite. That development became a central focus of China's political history from 1949.

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China - Establishment of the People's Republic

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The communist victory in 1949 brought to power a peasant party that had learned its techniques in the countryside but had adopted Marxist ideology and believed in class struggle and rapid industrial development. Extensive experience in running base areas and waging war before 1949 had given the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) deeply ingrained operational habits and proclivities.