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James Robertson and multiple previous influences contribute to the creation of the first PET scan

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James Robertson and multiple previous influences contribute to the creation of the first PET scan

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The positron emission tomography (PET) scan was a significant milestone in medical imaging, allowing physicians to observe metabolic processes within the human body. Imaging initially focused on structure but this new imaging technique provided a more nuanced view of the body. James Robertson is credited with the invention of the first single-plane PET scan but he drew on prior research and findings made by Gordon Brownell and Charles Burnham at Massachusetts General Hospital in regard to annihilation radiation and emissive tomography (1).

Robertson was interested in the decay of positrons and discovered that when positrons decay, they emit two gamma rays in opposite directions (1). By detecting these gamma rays with a pair of scintillation detectors placed on opposite sides of the body, it was possible to create a map of the distribution of positron-emitting isotopes within the body (1). This discovery led to the development of the first PET scanner in the early 1970s using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) (1). By injecting FDG into the patient and then scanning the body with the PET scanner, physicians could observe areas of high metabolic activity, which are indicative of cancerous or inflamed tissue (1).

Robertson's contributions also included the development of other medical imaging technologies, including the SPECT scanner and the MRI, which is another extremely common structure-based imaging technique (2). The above picture shows Robertson and his colleague using the scintillation detector to calibrate the first PET scan prototype (2). The PET scan is widely used in clinical practice for the diagnosis and monitoring of a variety of diseases, including cancer, heart disease, and neurological disorders (1). Without Robertson's contributions, neuroimaging would not be as advanced as it is today. His innovation has helped further neuroscience research more than ten-fold since improving observation of neurological function can help diagnose diseases better and gauge disease burden more effectively.

References:
1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4228582/
2. https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.eng.fiu.edu%2Fgodavart%2Fbme4531-sp12%2FPET_Student_ppt-Spring2012.pdf&psig=AOvVaw2PXp_5_D3B5IZZQtGaeI4j&ust=1681258624251000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CBIQjhxqFwoTCLjxvsrGoP4CFQAAAAAdAAAAAB

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"The X-Ray Technician:" A cohesive journal published by the American Association of Radiology Technicians to better educate the medical industry on imaging

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"The X-Ray Technician:" A cohesive journal published by the American Association of Radiology Technicians to better educate the medical industry on imaging

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Eddy C. Jerman was an American biomedical engineer who is best known for his work on the development of the gamma camera, which is a type of medical imaging device that is used to detect gamma rays emitted by radioactive isotopes within the human body, similar to the X-ray (1). In October of 1920, Jerman and his other radiology technician associates created the American Association for Radiological Technicians in Chicago (1). The purpose of this creation was to allow radiological technicians to have a place to discuss various techniques and work together to improve their craft (1). Because instructional manuals were rare, the first technicians learned positioning and exposure techniques via the "hunch method" and found it difficult to formulate a technique that others could follow or explain their successes (1).

Eddy C. Jerman brought education, organization, and legitimacy to the X-ray technician. The new society offered knowledge-hungry technologists the opportunity to meet and share technical advice (2). This process was formalized in 1929 with the debut of the society's journal, The X-Ray Technician, with a preview of the introduction shown above (2).

Jerman's work in creating this society helped solidify safer and improved techniques in radiological imaging for technicians. Without the creation of this, the formal organization of medical professionals would have started much later and the current advantages we have today in accurate imaging techniques would not be developed today.

References:
1. https://typeset.io/journals/the-x-ray-technician-16v5xapk
2. https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.asrt.org%2Fpromotions%2Fcentennial&psig=AOvVaw3IJZZTuZr7IxNpZjap0ug4&ust=1681256859864000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CBAQjRxqFwoTCKi_ooHAoP4CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE

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EH Belcher and HD Evans diagnoses cerebral tumors using fluorescein derivatives in neuroimaging

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EH Belcher and HD Evans diagnoses cerebral tumors using fluorescein derivatives in neuroimaging

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This article elaborates on Belcher and Evans' use of radioactive derivatives of fluorescein for the localization of cerebral tumors using radioisotope detection techniques and animal models (1). It was written in May of 1951 by EH Belcher and HD Evans who were British radiologists who previously worked on tomography development for the X-ray and worked on this paper at the Royal Cancer Hospital (1). They describe the physical limitations of this technique, including the need for a high degree of sensitivity and specificity in the detection of small tumors (1).

Belcher and Evans contributed significantly to the field of neurological cancer imaging and neuroscience, in general. Their innovations in dye observation of cerebral tumors inspired many others to continue observing physiological deficits through fluorescent dye, especially in the brain (2). This work helped forward the diagnosis of various neurological disorders as well as grading cancer at an earlier stage to ensure a higher rate of survival (2).

References:
1. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14830772/
2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1259/0007-1285-24-281-272

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national center for biotechnology information

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The localization of cerebral tumours with radioactive derivatives of fluorescein; physical limitations - PubMed

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The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

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Statement released by the United Nations that warns about environmental radioactivity and toxicity from imaging techniques

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Statement released by the United Nations that warns about environmental radioactivity and toxicity from imaging techniques

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Radiological imaging was becoming increasingly popular in the nuclear medicine field and the medical industry saw a spike in the usage rate of various imaging techniques that involved radioactive elements (1). However, there was an increasing number of fatal side-effects that patients were experiencing due to radioactive exposure (1). After a flurry of heated debates, the United Nations decided to impose strict regulations on how radioactive imaging would be conducted (1). This occurred in 1928 after multiple heated debates regarding the intricacies of these techniques (1).

The report shown above is the 2020 reviewing report of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) to the United Nations General Assembly (1). It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge on the effects of ionizing radiation on human health and the environment and begins by describing the sources and levels of radiation exposure in the general population, including natural sources such as cosmic radiation and radon gas, and artificial sources such as medical procedures and nuclear power plants (1).

The report then reviews the current understanding of the biological effects of ionizing radiation, including the mechanisms by which radiation damages cells and DNA, and the potential health effects of this damage, such as cancer and hereditary effects (1). Epidemiological studies were also discussed and they entailed recent endeavors to assess the health effects of radiation exposure, including studies of atomic bomb survivors and populations exposed to radiation from nuclear accidents such as Chernobyl and Fukushima (1). The report notes that while these studies provide important insights into the health effects of radiation, there are still many uncertainties and gaps in our understanding (1).

The report goes on to discuss the environmental effects of radiation, including the impact on ecosystems and biodiversity (1). It highlights the importance of monitoring and assessing radiation exposure in the environment, in order to protect both human health and the environment (1). The report provides recommendations for future research and monitoring, including the need for ongoing studies of the health effects of radiation exposure, as well as improved monitoring and reporting of radiation exposure levels in the environment (1).

This report provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge on the effects of ionizing radiation on human health and the environment. It’s significant to neuroscience because the current measures taken to reduce radioactive risk have been mirrored in every medical field, including neuroscience. Through these regulations, it has forced researchers to continue efforts to minimize radiation exposure and protect public health and the environment (1).

References:
1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1259/0007-1285-30-354-282

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ASME Section IX Radiography Requirements

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ASME allows the use of X-rays in fusion-welding pressure vessels to furthering the Industrial Revolution

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ASME allows the use of X-rays in fusion-welding pressure vessels to furthering the Industrial Revolution

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The following article is a reiteration of the specific permission that was given to manufacturers to allow them to use X-ray imaging on fusion-welding pressure vessels to assess their current status without damaging them (1). It was highlighted by American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Section IX in 1912 and provided guidelines for the qualification of welding procedures, welders, and welding operators in the fabrication of pressure vessels, boilers, and piping (1).

Radiography is one of the non-destructive examination (NDE) methods used to evaluate the quality of welds and is used to create an image of the weld, which can be used to identify any defects or discontinuities by passing radiation through (1).

This permission is important for the field of neuroscience, surprisingly, through association. Research and development in many industrial companies created novel ways to improve radiological imaging for welding in many structures. These techniques were then evolved and adapted to suit the medical field and further, the neuroscience field (2). The permission given by the ASME allowed a chain reaction that furthered radiological imaging significantly.

References:
1. https://www.inspection-for-industry.com/asme-section-ix-radiography.html

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ASME Section IX Radiography Requirements

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This article describes ASME Section IX Radiography requirements.

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New imaging technique can improve the treatment of intestinal strictures in Crohn's disease

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Use of the new FAPI-tracer imaging in better visualizing Crohn's Disease

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Use of the new FAPI-tracer imaging in better visualizing Crohn's Disease

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This article highlights new imaging techniques that can help improve the diagnosis of Crohn's disease through localized imaging of the intestinal strictures that are representative of the disease (1). The study was conducted by researchers at the MedUni in Vienna. Austria and was published in the journal Gastroenterology in February of 2023 (1). Intestinal strictures, or areas of narrowing in the intestine, are a common complication of Crohn's disease, a gastrointestinal inflammatory disease. These strictures can cause abdominal pain, bloating, and bowel obstruction (1).

The new technique is called FAPI-tracer imaging because the FAPI-tracer binds specifically to fibroblast activating protein in the connective tissue cells that cause fibrosis (scarring) of the intestines (1). FAPI-tracer imaging provides a better molecular correlation with fibrotic tissue in the intestines along with PET-fMRI in order to better understand a patient’s current disease burden and it’s intensity (1). According to Dr. Michael Bergmann, co-leader of the Department of Visceral Surgery at MedUni, this new molecular imaging technique could benefit patients who could have surgical intervention at an earlier stage rather than going through a less-effective drug treatment (1).

This current research is important for this exhibit because it shows how radioactive and radiotracer imaging is always evolving and improving upon itself. Without constant research being developed, the imaging techniques that are known as “old” today would not even be created. Innovations like these can also help determine better pain modulation treatment plans for people with Crohn’s Disease judging from the extent of fibrosis (1). In addition, sideline neurological effects could be found earlier through this new type of scans (1).

References:
1. https://www.news-medical.net/amp/news/20230405/New-imaging-technique-can-improve-the-treatment-of-intestinal-strictures-in-Crohns-disease.aspx

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Patients suffering from Crohn's disease, a chronic inflammatory intestinal disorder, develop painful constrictions in the bowel. Due to a lack of methods until now, these complications cannot be characterized with sufficient precision to initiate targeted treatment. An interdisciplinary research group at MedUni Vienna has investigated a new imaging technique that can improve the treatment of intestinal strictures. The results of the study were recently published in the renowned journal Radiology.

Intestinal strictures are a common problem in patients with Crohn's disease, a chronic inflammatory bowel disease that affects over 20,000 people in Austria. These strictures lead to cramping pain and digestive problems and therefore practically always require treatment. While purely inflammatory strictures respond very well to drug therapies, fibrotic narrowing, i.e. those associated with irreversible tissue changes, require surgical intervention. However, combinations of inflammation and fibrosis are often present in varying degrees. Up to now, there is no imaging procedure which allows a therapy-relevant differentiation of inflammation of the intestinal wall and fibrosis.

New tracer applied for the first time

In the search for precise imaging methods, a novel nuclear medicine tracer was used for the first time as part of MedUni Vienna's interdisciplinary research work at the University Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine. This so-called FAPI tracer binds specifically to the fibroblast activating protein (FAP) of the connective tissue cells that lead to fibrosis in the diseased intestinal wall. Using the new tracer, a very good correlation of molecular imaging with the pathological extent of fibrosis could be demonstrated with the utilization of the diagnostic procedure PET-MRI. Even the differentiation between moderate and severe intestinal wall fibrosis became possible, which plays a role in the therapy decision.

"In future, the molecular imaging we have developed could be used to identify those patients who would benefit from surgical intervention at an early stage, thereby sparing them the need for less effective drug therapy for fibroid-stenosis," says co-study leader Michael Bergmann from the Department of Visceral Surgery at MedUni Vienna's Department of General Surgery, summarising the great potential of these research findings. The study, led by the Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, also involved scientists from the Clinical Institute of Pathology and the Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology at the Department of Internal Medicine III. Follow-up studies are now planned in which the new method will be applied on a larger scale.

In this context, we shall examine the course of patients with fibroid-stenosis and possible reversibility under new drug therapies."

Martina Scharitzer, First Author, Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine

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New imaging technique can improve the treatment of intestinal strictures in Crohn's disease

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Patients suffering from Crohn's disease, a chronic inflammatory intestinal disorder, develop painful constrictions in the bowel. Due to a lack of methods until now, these complications cannot be characterized with sufficient precision to initiate targeted treatment. An interdisciplinary research group at MedUni Vienna has investigated a new imaging technique that can improve the treatment of intestinal strictures.

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Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen was a German physicist who is most famously known for his discovery of X-rays (1). His discovery revolutionized the field of medicine and led to a new era of diagnostic imaging (1). He studied mechanical engineering at the Polytechnic School in Zurich, Switzerland and later worked as an assistant physicist in Würzburg where he started inventing the X-ray (1).

In 1895, he was experimenting with cathode rays and noticed that a screen coated with a fluorescent material placed near the cathode ray tube glowed even when it was not in the direct path of the rays (2). He realized that a new type of radiation was being produced, which he named X-rays (2).

Roentgen's discovery had an immediate impact on medicine. X-rays allowed doctors to see inside the human body without invasive surgery, leading to improved diagnosis and treatment of injuries and diseases (1). This has helped further neuroscience research significantly.

References:
1. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1901/rontgen/biographical/

2. https://rad.washington.edu/blog/featured-history-wilhelm-rontgen/