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Religion in Myanmar serves as a fundamental component of life and is closely linked to individuals’ personal identity (Evason, 2017). Most of the Burmese population (87.9%) practice Buddhism. Christianity follows with 6.2%, while Muslims account for 4.3%. Additionally, 0.8% of the population are Animists, and 0.5% are Hindus (Evason, 2017). The dominant form of Buddhism practiced in Myanmar is Theravāda (Brac De La Perrière, 2009). Buddhism and they seek refuge in the "Three Gem": Buddha (Teacher), dharma (Teachings), and (Sangha) community (Brac De La Perrière, 2009). The Buddhism significantly plays a role in healthcare system, where the practice of meditation and mindfulness promote mental health in the communities (Ardiccaramsi & Dr. Yeshpal, 2024). The monastic institution also offers education, and healthcare to rural communities (Ardiccaramsi & Dr. Yeshpal, 2024).

References:
Ardiccaramsi, & Dr. Yeshpal. (2024). THE ROLE OF BUDDHISM IN MYANMAR’S CULTURAL IDENTITY. EPRA International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research (IJMR), 10(3). https://doi.org/10.36713/epra2013

Brac De La Perrière, B. (2009). An Overview of the Field of Religion in Burmese Studies. Asian Ethnology, 68(2), 185–210.

Evason, N. (2017). Myanmar (Burmese) Culture - Religion. Cultural Atlas. https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/myanmar-burmese-culture/burmese-myanmar-culture-religion

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Religion is an essential aspect of life in Myanmar and central to conceptions of personal identity. Most of the Burmese population identify as Buddhist (87.9%). However, there are also significant minorities of Christians (6.2%) and Muslims (4.3%), as well as some Animists (0.8%) and Hindus (0.5%). Generally speaking, one's religious identity is related to ethnic origins. Most Bamar are Buddhist while people belonging to minority religions are usually from minority ethnic groups. Christianity is dominant among the Kachin, Chin and Naga ethnic groups. It is also practised widely among the Karen and Karenni ethnic groups, although many Karen and Karenni are Buddhist and some Karen are Animist or Muslim. Islam is widely practised among ethnic Indians, the Kaman and Rohingya as well as some Bamar.

Religious Conflict

Religion has become a source of deep friction in Myanmar. Buddhism is integrally linked to the idea of the Burmese nationality. This Burmese Buddhist nationalism became highly politicised in the early 20th century for the role it played in the independence movement against the British. Meanwhile, Christianity was seen as a British establishment. The role of religion in the rise of nationalism was also heightened by the ethnic differentiations between core followings (most Buddhists being Bamar whilst Christians and Muslims are generally from minority ethnic groups).

Religious minority populations experienced arrest and detention, restrictions on religious practice and various forms of discrimination. At times, the military sought to widen divides for political purposes by inciting violence. For example, they were known to dress up as monks and torch Islamic and Christian places of worship.

While religious persecution is perceived to have been reduced since the election of Aung San Suu Kyi and her party, this is only true for some groups. Currently, intolerance towards a small Muslim minority - the Rohingya - is especially violent and inhumane. Rohingya Muslims are subjected to physical abuse, torture, extrajudicial killing, summary execution, arbitrary arrest and detention. Government policy restricts their religious practice, marriage, travel and access to education, and prevents their employment in the social services. The Rohingyas are also denied citizenship, meaning anti-discrimination laws do not apply to them. Some radical Buddhist leaders openly promote hostility towards them. See Political Situation under Core Concepts for more on this.

Buddhism in Myanmar

Buddhism is deeply embedded in Burmese culture and has become associated with the national identity of the Bamar. The prominent form of Buddhism practised in Myanmar is Theravāda Buddhism. Followers of Theravāda Buddhism take refuge in the 'Triple Gem': the teacher (Buddha), the teaching (dharma) and the monastic community (the Sangha). These three elements of Buddhism provide a sense of stability within Burmese society by offering a structure for people to base their everyday routines around.

The Sangha (the Buddhist monastic order that includes ordained monks, nuns and/or novices) is an important institution in Myanmar. Monks, nuns and other lay spiritual leaders hold great status and respect within their communities. It is commonly expected that males will enter the monastery twice in their lives as a rite of passage - the novitiation ceremony (shinpyu). This happens for a period of time as a child and again as an adult. The education as a novice can last for a few months, if not several years.

In Myanmar (and Theravāda Buddhism more generally), the Buddha is not considered a 'God' as understood in the Christian sense of the term. Devotion towards the Buddha is more similar to the respect a student has for a teacher. Reverence to the Buddha is accompanied with his core teaching (dharma) known as the 'Four Noble Truths', which dictates that underpinning all existence is suffering and one can reach liberation through practising the 'Eightfold Path'. The practice of Theravāda Buddhism is unique in Myanmar for it incorporates spirit (nat) worship. See the section on Animist beliefs below for more information on this.

Christianity in Myanmar

Christianity is the second largest religion in Myanmar. Its followers mostly belong to indigenous ethnic minorities that converted through European missionary work in their regions. The biggest traditions are Roman Catholicism and Protestantism.

The Burmese approach to Christianity generally puts an emphasis on Bible study and prayer services (hymn singing). There is also a widespread practice of fasting on Martyrs' Day. Christian ideas are often intermingled with the traditional beliefs of indigenous ethnicities. For example, some people may have tattooed skin for magical protection.

Animist Beliefs in Myanmar

Though the majority of the indigenous ethnicities of Myanmar have converted to Buddhism, Christianity or Islam, people often incorporate animist beliefs into their understanding of organised religion, health practices and daily life. Most of these traditional beliefs involve spirit worship. For example, Buddhists tend to believe that nats (spirits) dwell in natural objects or phenomena such as rivers. There are nat shrines across the country where people can make offerings for protection or success. Many Karen similarly believe that the benefits of spirits can be found through rituals - such as guardian spirits (ther myng khae). Historically, most nat kădaws (spirit mediums) were women. However, today most are gay men and many are either transgendered or transvestites.

Many Karen and Karenni believe that a person possesses a number of souls called 'kla' which might flee for various reasons (e.g. in connection with a mental breakdown). It is seen as vitally important to retain the kla and losing kla puts a person in danger of illness. People may try and retain the kla by tying a sacred string around someone's wrist. Some Karen people also believe in an omnipresent unknown total force called 'pgho' and non-Christian Chins may believe in 'hnam', an evil spirit that dwells within humans. Some people may carry elephant tail hairs to ward off evil.

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Learn about the religious make-up of society and how religion influences daily life and culture

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Mohinga is regarded as the national dish of Myanmar, typically consisting of a fish-based broth served with rice noodles (Abitbol, 2016). This is the popular breakfast dish in the Myanmar and mohinga is commonly sold by street vendors where they have their own regular customers(Abitbol, 2016). There are many healthy diverse foods in Myanmar enjoyed by everyone (Abitbol, 2016). However, as mentioned by Tauseef and Headey (2022) there are significant risk to low-income households for food insecurity and balance diet. These households in Myanmar are likely to consist of adults, women of reproductive age, and children between 6-59 months who have poor diet quality (Tauseef & Headey, 2022). The balance diet will help to maintain a good health and lower risk of various diseases (Khalid et al., 2015).

References:

Abitbol, V. (2016, November). Mohinga. 196 Flavors. https://www.196flavors.com/mohinga/#:~:text=Burmese%20mohinga%20is%20a%20fish-based%20soup%20prepared

Khalid, M., Sarwar, M., Haroon Sarwar, M., & Farhan Sarwar, M. (2015). Effects of Eating the Balance Food and Diet to Protect Human Health and Prevent Diseases. American Journal of Circuits, Systems and Signal Processing, 1(3), 99–104. http://www.aiscience.org/journal/ajcssp

Tauseef, S., & Headey, D. (2022). The state of food security and nutrition in Myanmar: Findings from the Myanmar Household Welfare Survey 2021-2022. Strategy Support Research Program, 88. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.136466

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A journey through Myanmar would be considered incomplete without savoring one of the country's most popular and delicious dishes: mohinga.

What is mohinga?

Burmese mohinga is a fish-based soup prepared with rice noodles that is considered by most people as the national dish. This is the must-have for breakfast in Burma. Indeed, eating noodles for breakfast in the Land of the Golden Pagoda is similar to eating fried eggs and bacon every morning in England or the United States, simmering a pho soup in Vietnam or a kuy-teav in Cambodia.

Mohinga is native to southern Myanmar where fresh fish is more readily available.

What are the versions of mohinga?

Each region, city, village and even restaurant prepares its mohinga recipe differently. The main reason is primarily the availability of certain ingredients depending on the region, or local preference. There are so many differences that most cooks have a distinctive feature that indicates their name and origin, and informing people of the kind of mohinga that they serve. However, the basis for the traditional recipe remains the same.

In its most traditional form, Burmese mohinga is prepared with chickpea and/or rice flour, garlic, onion, lemongrass and ginger and of course fish cooked in the broth.

Four species of fish are typically used to prepare this Burmese soup: ngaiji (small freshwater catfish - Heteropneustes fossilis), ngakhu (another small freshwater catfish - clarias batrachus), ngapali (snakehead fish - ophiocephalus punctatus) or tilapia (O. aureus).

Tilapia is a kind of carp and a freshwater fish. It is the same fish that can be used to prepare thieboudienne from Senegal.

Where to find mohinga in Myanmar

The biggest mohinga providers are street hawkers. They go around through the neighborhoods of every city where they have regular customers. They carry a large wooden pole on their shoulders. On this pole, they hang a cauldron at each end, one with the broth and the other one with the noodles. They also carry all the ingredients that accompany mohinga, as well as bowls and spoons.

How is it served

The broth is always kept at a very hot temperature as this dish is much tastier when it is consumed hot. Mohinga is usually accompanied by a colorful variety of other foods such as squash fritters, fried onions, fish cakes or hard-boiled eggs. Some accompany their mohinga with dry or fresh chili. And cilantro is an essential condiment.

The rice noodles used in this mohinga recipe are also called rice vermicelli or rice noodles. Their main ingredients are rice flour and water. In some rice noodles, you can find other ingredients such as tapioca and cornstarch that are used to increase the transparency and soft texture of the noodles.

Noodles

These noodles have their origins in southern China, and they are also consumed in all Southeast Asian countries, which are historically largely influenced by China.

You can find rice noodles in Asian supermarkets, where they will be available in different shapes and thicknesses.

Burmese cuisine is strongly influenced by its neighboring countries, including China, India, and Thailand. This is the reason why mohinga aromas are reminiscent of the cuisine of these three countries.
This recipe is validated by our Burmese culinary expert Soe Thein, author of award-winning Burmese cuisine food blog Lime and Cilantro.
Mohinga

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A journey through Myanmar would be considered incomplete without savoring one of the country's most popular and delicious dishes: mohinga. What is mohinga? Burmese mohinga is a fish-based soup prepared with rice noodles that is considered by most people as the national dish. This is the must-have for breakfast in Burma.

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Myanmar's traditional clothing reflects the nation's unique culture, warm hospitality, and simple lifestyle (Stephen, 2019). The men’s attire, known as the Longyi, is commonly worn with a shirt or jacket called Taipon (Stephen, 2019). This practical garment, a cylindrical cloth measuring around 2 m in length and 80 cm in width, is worn from the waist to the feet and fits comfortably (Stephen, 2019). Women’s traditional dress, the htamein, is vibrant, colourful, and patterned, contrasting with the plainer male version. Women wrap the htamein around the waist, folding it to the left, with a black cotton strip (Ahtet hsin) to keep it secure (Eai, 2020). Myanmar’s traditional clothing is commonly worn in everyday life (Stephen, 2019).

References:

Eai, N. N. (2020). Myanmar Traditional Clothes | Myanmar Travel. MyanmarTravel.com. https://myanmartravel.com/myanmar-traditional-clothes/

Stephen. (2019, August 30). Traditional Dress of Myanmar - Essence of A Unique Culture. Myanmar Tours. https://www.gomyanmartours.com/traditional-dress-myanmar/

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The traditional costumes of Myanmar are considered as a symbol expresses clearly about the unique culture and warm hospitality of this country, which creates a deep impression for those who have already gone through Myanmar tours. Their costumes are very simple, which reflect the friendly and unsophisticated in living style.

History of Myanmar Traditional Dress

The traditional dress of Burmese people is said to be date back to the 1750s where it was first designed with stunning jewelry by those who held positions of power. worn in the Konbaung court. Women wore floral head ornaments, uniquely decorated blouses, felt footwear, and a htamein, which you can see many women wearing today. The traditional outfits of Myanmar for men included a turban, hnyat-phanat slippers, a silk jacket embroidered with fur, and a cotton shirt. Myanmar dress changed slightly at the end of the British era in the country. When Indian immigrants made their way to Myanmar, the style was also altered slightly to mimic their dress.

Traditional costumes of Myanmar contain two sets, offered for both Burmese men and women.

Myanmar Traditional Dress for Burmese Men

Longyi (sewing pants and tight pants) is the name of the traditional clothes of the men, which is a perfect combination of the shirt or jacket called Taipon (traditional clothes). It's quite flexible in size, shapes for matching with the man's body. specifically, It's a sheet of cloth that has about 2 meters long, 80 centimeters wide and frequently sewed into a cylindrical shape, which is worn around from the men's waist to their feet.

Moreover, there is one interesting point is that men's dress is strapless and quite loose; therefore, when they have to move regularly, they often have to adjust the skirt and wrap it back tight even in the middle of the street.

However, Longyi is designed without pockets, so it quite hard to carry cash, mobile phone or other personal items, make sure to bring your handbag, bag to hold these items. Men's jacket with 2 layers, fabric buttons, bright wear in the daytime, black and dark color wear in the night. The head wrapped a white turban with a protruding corner sharp like the leaves.

Myanmar Traditional Dress for Burmese Women

Burmese women's traditional clothes are Thummy. Compared with Laos or Thailand's dress, Thummy is quite similar. They do not wear the turban-like men. Both Burmese women and men wear flip-flops.

Besides the traditional costume, Myanmar people wear European clothes on many occasions and when they wear suits, they wear shoes. Basically, Burmese people often mix Longyi with other items of clothing, from T-shirts, shirts, jackets, to vests.

When and Where Myanmar People Wear Traditional Clothes

Compare to other countries' traditional costumes such as Ao Dai (long dress) of Vietnam, Kimono of Japan or Hanbok of South Korea, which is only worn on special occasions, events and some national festivals, the traditional dress of Myanmar are worn regularly in daily life while doing homework, riding a motorbike, going to work and even in sports competitions. There are some reasons:

Firstly, the weather in this country is so hot as 40 degrees so the costumes' material is suitable to make people feel comfortable.

Secondly, as mentioned above, these traditional clothes are very easy to mix with other items.

Thirdly, the structure and style of Burmese traditional costumes are very simple; therefore, they are easy to put on and take off when needed in daily life.
Last but not least, it also becomes a multifunctional item in many cases. For example, they can be pulled up to be used as the "raincoat", "the UV sun shirt"..., or Burmese women can enroll it to make a stable substrate to carry commodities (fruits, rice bags, foods) without holding hands.

How can people work or play sports with that kind of skirt? That question will vanish completely as soon as you enter the Burmese's normal life. From taxi drivers, fishermen to farmers, they are all wearing longyi without any inconvenience, sometimes they stop to wrap their longyi tighter. A young soccer player said: "Wearing longyi to kick the ball is really comfortable and hardly being fell. It's even much more comfortable than wearing pants".

It is obvious that the way Burmese people wearing traditional costumes is not euphuistic and also the same as the lifestyle of Myanmar people. When visitors take Myanmar vacation, they can see that Burmese women rarely wear makeup even in the special occasion in their country. Therefore, tourists will certainly have the feeling that everything is so simple, peaceful and they are always welcomed by friendly and sincere Myanmar people. Taking Myanmar tours, trying to wear their traditional costumes and interacting with the local people promises to help tourists enjoy an unforgettable experience.

Where to Buy Myanmar Dress & Traditional Costumes

Wearing Myanmar dress is a great experience for tourists when traveling to the country. Longyi and Thummy are sold in many stores across the country. Base on the quality that you can purchase them at different prices. Kyal Sin Longyi Shop at I-20, Ground Floor, Yuzana Plaza, Yangon is an ideal place for you to purchase Myanmar dress at high quality. Additionally, you can find them in Bogyoke Aungsan Market with various designs.

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Traditional Dress of Myanmar | History & Interesting Facts

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The traditional costumes of Myanmar are considered as a symbol expresses clearly about the unique culture and warm hospitality of this country, which creates a deep impression for those who have already gone through Myanmar tours. Their costumes are very simple, which reflect the friendly and unsophisticated in living style.

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Myanmar’s traditional medicine system originates from Buddhist philosophy, Chinese medicine, and Ayurvedic concepts (CODEREY, 2020). Seventy-five percent of the Burmese population relies on traditional medicine because it is easily accessible, widely available, and economical (Chan, 2015). Traditional medicine relies on plants and herbs to address a range of illnesses and bodily disorders (Chan, 2015). Asiatic Penny Wort – a wild plant that grows in wet places and the whole plant is crushed into a powder, and used with honey to improve memory, while powdered leaves used with honey and milk helps cure eye diseases (Chan, 2015). These remedies are considered safe, as they have no side effects and do no harm even if they do not benefit the patient (Chan, 2015).

References:

Chan, A. (2015, March 7). A Glance at Traditional Medicine in Myanmar. Myanmar Insider. https://www.myanmarinsider.com/a-glance-at-traditional-medicine-in-myanmar/

CODEREY, C. (2020). Myanmar Traditional Medicine: The making of a national heritage. Modern Asian Studies, 55(2), 514–551. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0026749x19000283

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A Glance at Traditional Medicine in Myanmar - Myanmar Insider

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The belief in turning to nature to heal and cure, is strong in nearly all Asian na- tions, and in Myanmar, even more so. Traditional medicine treatments have been followed in Myanmar for generations and continue to be popular even today, though more in remote rural areas, not least due to non availability of western […]

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The most relevant aspect of competency standard to me was standard 1.2 which emphasizes recognizing the impact of refugee-like experiences and providing trauma-informed care (Competency Standard Framework, 2019). I have developed my knowledge about parameters to consider while dealing with refugee patients (Competency Standard Framework, 2019). Having read about mental and emotional impact of both pre-migration trauma and post-migration stressors I will be able to deliver compassionate and effective care to refugee (Competency Standard Framework, 2019). This knowledge and skills will be useful to me in the workplace because I will apply these skills by creating a safe, supportive environment and adapting my approach to meet their unique needs, ensuring that I consider both their physical and psychological well-being during care.

References:

Competency Standard Framework. (2019, January). Culturally Responsive Clinical Practice: Working with People from Migrant and Refugee Backgrounds. Https://Culturaldiversityhealth.org.au/Competency-Standards/About-The-Standards/. https://moodleprod.murdoch.edu.au/pluginfile.php/4119639/mod_resource/content/3/Culturally-responsive-clinical-practice-Working-with-people-from-migrant-and-refugee-backgrounds-Jan2019.pdf

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People from Myanmar have migrated due to factors such as the military coup, security concerns, and persecution by certain regimes (Tun, 2022). The World Health Organization highlights social inclusion and non-discrimination as essential social determinants of health crucial for refugees arriving in Australia from Myanmar (World Health Organization, 2024). These determinants influence their health outcomes by promoting integration into the broader community, improving access to healthcare, education, and employment opportunities (World Health Organization, 2024). However, Australia's mandatory detention policy, introduced in 1992, has been associated with significant mental health decline among refugees, with many experiencing psychological distress during their time in detention (Killedar & Harris, 2017). Conversely, despite having access to medical services, refugees frequently hesitate to seek healthcare due to certain factors such as psychological trauma and cultural beliefs (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2023).

References:

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2023, November 3). Health of refugees and humanitarian entrants in Australia, Overview: Health services used by humanitarian entrants. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/cald-australians/health-of-refugees-and-humanitarian-entrants/contents/health-service-use/health-services-used-by-humanitarian-entrants

Killedar, A., & Harris, P. (2017). Australia’s refugee policies and their health impact: a review of the evidence and recommendations for the Australian Government. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 41(4), 335–337. https://doi.org/10.1111/1753-6405.12663

Tun, A. (2022). Migration in Post-coup Myanmar: A Critical Determinant in Shaping the Country’s Future? Www.iseas.edu.sg, 2022(37). https://www.iseas.edu.sg/articles-commentaries/iseas-perspective/2022-37-migration-in-post-coup-myanmar-a-critical-determinant-in-shaping-the-countrys-future-by-aung-tun/

World Health Organization. (2024). Social determinants of health. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/health-topics/social-determinants-of-health#tab=tab_1

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The social determinants of health (SDH) are the non-medical factors that influence health outcomes. They are the conditions in which people are born, grow, work, live, and age, and the wider set of forces and systems shaping the conditions of daily life. These forces and systems include economic policies and systems, development agendas, social norms, social policies and political systems.

The SDH have an important influence on health inequities - the unfair and avoidable differences in health status seen within and between countries. In countries at all levels of income, health and illness follow a social gradient: the lower the socioeconomic position, the worse the health.

The following list provides examples of the social determinants of health, which can influence health equity in positive and negative ways:

Income and social protection

Education

Unemployment and job insecurity

Working life conditions

Food insecurity

Housing, basic amenities and the environment

Early childhood development

Social inclusion and non-discrimination

Structural conflict

Access to affordable health services of decent quality.

Research shows that the social determinants can be more important than health care or lifestyle choices in influencing health. For example, numerous studies suggest that SDH account for between 30-55% of health outcomes. In addition, estimates show that the contribution of sectors outside health to population health outcomes exceeds the contribution from the health sector.

Addressing SDH appropriately is fundamental for improving health and reducing longstanding inequities in health, which requires action by all sectors and civil society.

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WHO's work on social determinants of health

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Tuberculosis (TB & LTBI) as common Health Issue

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Tuberculosis (TB & LTBI) as common Health Issue

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Myanmar is among the top 30 countries where Tuberculosis is a major concern(Agud, 2021). Australian studies indicate latent TB infection (LTBI) rates ranging from 7-71%, while active TB occurs in less than 2% of adult refugees (Denholm et al., 2018). Post-arrival screening and LTBI treatment are crucial to preventing TB transmission. Screening involves the Tuberculin Skin Test (TST) or blood Interferon Gamma Release Assay (Health, 2017). A positive TST is indicated by an induration of ≥10mm in adults and children from refugee-like backgrounds, or ≥5mm in individuals with severe malnutrition, HIV, immunosuppression, or recent contact with active TB cases (Denholm et al., 2018). For LTBI, Isoniazid, 10mg/kg up to 300mg per day is prescribed for 6-9 months (Denholm et al., 2018).

References:

Agud, I. G. (2021, November 1). Reaching the unreached: Combatting tuberculosis in the Rohingya refugee camps. Www.who.int. https://www.who.int/bangladesh/news/detail/01-11-2021-reaching-the-unreached-combatting-tuberculosis-in-the-rohingya-refugee-camps

Denholm, J., Bailes, M., & Francis, J. (2018). RECOOMENDATIONS FOR COMPREHENISVE POST-ARRIVAL HEALTH ASSESSMENT FOR PEOPLE FROM REFUGEE-LIKE BACKGROUNDS. AUSTRALIAN REFUGEE HEALTH PRACTICE GUIDE; Victoria foundation house. https://refugeehealthguide.org.au/tuberculosis-tb/

Health, A. G. D. of. (2017). National position statement for the management of latent tuberculosis infection. Www1.Health.gov.au; Australian Government Department of Health. https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/cdi4103-d