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Educational Psychology: Branch of psychology that focuses on understanding teaching and learning in educational settings.
William James: Emphasized the importance of observing teaching and learning in classrooms for improving education. Recommended starting lessons at a point just beyond their level to challenge and stretch their mind.
John Dewey: 1. View of student as an active learner 2. Focus on whole child and their adaptation to their environment 3. All children deserve a competent education. *Learning is experiential*
E. L. Thorndike: Schooling's most important task is to hone children's reasoning skills. Ed. psych should have a scientific base.
Drs. Mamie & Kenneth Clark: Black psychologists, studied black self-conceptions and identity, "Doll Test".
B.F. Skinner: Attempts to precisely determine best conditions for learning. Programmed learning, reinforcing students after each step in a process.
Benjamin Bloom: Taxonomy of cognitive skills, remembering, comprehending, synthesizing, and evaluating.

Constructivist Approach: Learner centered, individuals construct their own knowledge and understanding w/ teacher support.
Direct Instruction Approach: Structured, teacher centered, teacher control and direction.
Differentiated Instruction: Adapting curriculum and instruction for individual variation.

Naturalistic Observation: Behavior is observed in real world.
Participant Observation: Observer-researcher is involved as a participant.
Quantitative Research: using numerical calculations to discover information. (Experimental and correlational)
Qualitative Research: Obtaining information using descriptive measures (Interviews, case studies, journals)

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Development: Pattern of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes that continue through one's life.
Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience: explores links between development, cognitive processes, and the brain.
Developmental Social Neuroscience: socioemotional process, development, and the brain.
Nature vs. Nurture
Epigenetic View: Development is an ongoing mix of hereditary and environmental factors.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Gradual, cumulative change versus distinct stages.
Early vs. Later Experiences
Neuroconstructionist View: Brain development is influenced by both bio and enviro factors; the brain has plasticity.
Myelination: Process of brain cells developing walls of myelin, increases speed of information
Plasticity: Experiences affect brain development, optimal learning environments stimulate positive development.

Piaget
Schemas: Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge.
Assimilation: Child adds new information to existing schema.
Acommodation: Child changes schema to fit new information.
Stages of Development: Sensorimotor (0-2), preoperational (2-7), concrete operational (7-11), formal operational (11-)

Vygotsky
Zone of Proximal Development: Range of tasks that are not too stressfull or difficult, but also not too easy or boring.
Scaffolding: Changing the level of support for a learner. Adjust guidance to fit current performance.
Social Constructivist: Emphasizes the social contexts of learning and construction of knowledge through social interaction.

Language: A form of communication that is based on symbols.

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Ecological Theory: (Broffenbrenner) 5 environmental systems that influence development; Microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
Life-Span Development Theory: (Erickson) Eight stages of development through human life span. Trust versus Mistrust, Autonomy vs shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity versus identity confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, integrity vs despair.

Authoritarian Parenting: Restrictive and punitive
Authoritative: Encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions.
Neglectful: Parents are uninvolved or absent in children's lives.
Indulgent: Highly involved but not restrictive

Montessori Approach: Type of education where children are given a lot of freedom to choose activities. Teachers act as facilitators for student choice.

Self-Esteem: Individual's overall view of themself.
Identity Diffusion: Have not experienced a crisis yet or made identity commitments.
Foreclosure: Made a commitment but not experienced a crisis.
Moratorium: In the middle of a crisis, but commitments are absent or vague.
Identity Achievement: Undergone crisis and made a commitment

Moral Development: (Kohlberg) Development of moral reasoning in three stages; preconventional, conventional, postconventional,
Domain Theory: There are different domains of social knowledge and reasoning. Social contexts are important.

Hidden Curriculum: Every school has a pervasive moral atmosphere.

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Intelligence: The ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences. (There is no perfect defintion because it is so broad).
Binet Tests
Mental Age: Level of mental development compared to others.
IQ: Person's mental age divided by chronological age.

The Wechsler Scales: provide IQ scores as well as composite indexes (Verbal Comprehension, Working Memory)

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory: Intelligence comes in three forms; analytical, creative, and practical.
Gardner's Eight Frames of Mind (Eight Intelligences): Verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinestheitc, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalist.

Emotional Intelligence: The ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively, to understand emotion.

Stereotype Threat: anxiety that one's behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one's group.
Culture fair tests: intelligence test that aim to avoid cultural bias.

Between-class ability grouping (tracking): grouping students based on ability or achievement.
Nongraded (cross-age) program: students are grouped by their ability in a subject regardless of age or grade.
Joplin Plan: Standard nongraded program for reading.
Within Class Ability: Students are placed into groups within their class to account for differences in ability.

Learning and Thinking Styles: Preferred ways of using one's abilities.
Impulsive/Reflective: Tendency to act quickly or take time.
Deep/Surface: Do students approach learning as trying to understand the meaning of content or just trying to learn content?
Optimistic/Pessimistic: Positive or negative outlook on the future.

Personality: Distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world.
Big Five Factors: Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
Person-situation interaction: The best way to characterize an individual's personality is not in terms of personal traits or characteristics alone but also in terms of the situation involved.
Temperament: Behavioral style and characteristic ways of responding.
Easy child, Difficult child, Slow-to-warm-up child.
Goodness of fit: The match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with.

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Learning: A relatively permanent influence on behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills, which comes about through experience.
Behaviorism: behavior should be explained by observable experiences.
Mental processes: thoughts feelings and motives that each of us experiences but are not seen by others.
Associative Learning: learning that two events are connected or associated.
Cognition: "thought", psychology has become more focused on cognition.

Classical Conditioning: Organism learns to connect stimuli. Neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful one.
Operant Conditioning: Consequences of behavior produce changes in the behavior.
Reinforcement (reward): Consequence that increases behabior
Punishment: decreases behavior
Positive Reinforcement: response grows because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus. Adds reward.
Negative Reinforcement: Response increases because it is folllowed by the removal of stimulus. Takes away aversive.

Effective Reinforcers: Individualize the use of reinforcers
Premark Principle: High probability activity is a reinforcer for a low probability.
Schedules of Reinforcement: When and at what interval do you provide reinforcement.
Contracting: putting reinforcements in writing.

Punishment tells students what not to do, instead of what to do.

Social Cognitive Theory: (Bandura) Social and cognitive factors, as well as behavior, play a role in learning.
Self-Efficacy: the idea that one can produce positive outcomes through their effort.

Observational Learning
Model behavior for students.

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Cognitive Psychology: Approaches to psychology that seek to explain behavior by examing mental processes.
Congitive Resources: Capacity and speed of processing.

Encoding: How information is stored in memory
Automaticity: Ability to process information wiht little to no effort
Strategy Construction: creation of new procedures for information processing.
Metacognition: "Knowing about knowing" Theory of Mind
Attention: focusing of mental resources.
Preschoolers: Salient/obvious information will grab attention.
After age 6-7: Children pay more attention to information relevant to a task or problem. (Cognitive Control)

Memory: retention of information over time.
Encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Atkinson Shiffrin Model: memory involves a sequence of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory stages.

Behavioral Approach: Behavior is explained by observable experiences. Mental processes do not explain behavior.
Cognitive Behavioral: Cognitive processes along with social and environmental factors influence behavior.
Information Processing Approach: Children cognitively manipulate, monitor, and strategize information.

Encoding: Process by which information gets stored in memory
Automaticity; Ability to process information with little or no effort.
Strategy Construction: Creation of new procedures for processing information.
Self-Modification: Children learn to use what they have learned in previous situations/circumstances to adapt responses to a new situation.

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Productive Struggle: Challenge your students in order to grow their brainpower.
Dependent doesn't mean deficient: Every student starts out as a dependent learner, in early school years we have to make them into independent learners.
Pedagogy of Poverty: (Martin Haberman 1991) practices that leave students with outdated skills and shallow knowledge.
Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT): "An educators ability to recognize students' cultural displays of learning and meaningmaking and respond positively and constructively with teaching moves that use cultural knowledge as a scaffold to connect wha the student knows to new concepts and content..." Use existing cultural knowledge to make connections and teach now content.
Intellective Capacity: Fluid intelligence and intellective competence; the increased power the brain creates to process complex info more efficiently.

Four Practices of CRT:
Awareness: Locate and acknowledge sociopolitical position, sharpen cultural lens, lean to manage social-emotional response to student diversity.
Learning Partnerships: Establish connection with students, leverage trust bond, give feedback in emotionally intelligent ways, hold students to high standards.
Information Processing: Understand how culture impacts the brain, orchestrate leaning to it builds students' brain power in culturally congruent ways, use brain-based information processing strategies common to oral cultures.
Community Building: Integrate cultural elements and themes, use cultural practices and orientations to create a socially and intellectually safe space, routines that reinforce self-directed learning.

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Concepts: Groups objects, events, and characteristics on the basis of common properties.
Rule Example Strategy: Define concepts, clarify terms, give examples.
Concept map: Visual representation of a concepts connections
Prototype matching: individuals decide whehter an item is a part of a categoy by comparing it to the most typical items.

Thinking: manipulatins and transforming information.
Executive Function: Higher level cognitive processes.
SelfControl/Inhibition, Working Memory, Flexibility.
Inductive Reasoning; Specific to general
Deductive Reasoning: General to specific.
Critical thinking: Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating evidence.
Mindfulness: Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible.

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Surface Culture: Observable and concrete elements of culture such as food, dress, music, and holidays.
Shallow Culture: Unspoken rules around everyday social interactions and norms. Nonverbal communication that build raport comes from shallow culture. Strong emotional charge.
Deep Culture: Knowledge and assumptions that govern our worldview. Ethics, cosmology, spirituality, group harmony.

Cultural Archetypes: How to handle many different cultures in the classroom. Cultures share certain common values and worldviews.
Collectivism and Individualism: What is a culture's orientation towards either? Collectivist: Value relationships and cooperation. Individualistic: Value individual achievement and independence.
Oral and Written Traditions: What does the culture rely on for knowledge transfer? Oral traditions require interaction, written less so.

Sociopolitical Context: Policies and practices that contribute to disparities and unequal opportunities for people of color.
Implicit Bias: Unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that shape responses to groups.
Structural Racialization: Seemingly benign well-intended policies create and reinforce an unequal status quo within society.

The Myth of a Culture of Poverty: Poverty is not a culture. Coping skills and mistaken for norms and beliefs. Poor people do not normalize or glorify negative aspects of living in poverty. There is no culture of poverty, the idea promotes deficit thinking that defines people by weaknesses and blames them for said weaknesses.

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The physical structures of the brain are hardware, culture is the brain's software.

Lizard Brain: No think, only do
Reticular Activating System (RAS): Responsible for alertness and attention.
Limbic Region: Links emotions, behavior, and cognition. Creates schema that we use as background knowledge.
Thalamus: Directs information to other parts of the brain.
Hippocampus: Brain's memory center
Amygdala: Fear center, reacts to social or physical threats, sends cortisol to lizard brain.

Neocortex: Houses executive function, has the ability to rewire itself and adapt.

Parasympathetic nervous system: Keeps us relaxed and seeks to satisfy needs, releases endorphins.
Sympathetic nervous system: Keeps us alert and ready to avoid danger.
Polyvagal nervous system: Keeps us connected to others.

Culturally Responsive Brain Rules:
1. The brain seeks to minimize social threats and maximize opportunites to connect with others in community.
2. Positive relationships keep our safety-threat detection system in check.
3. Culture guides hoe we process information.
4. Attention drives learning.
5. All new information must be coupled with existing funds of knowledge.
6. The brain physically grows through challenge and stretch.

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3 Internal Tasks for Uncovering Implicit Bias: 1. Identify your cultural frame of reference. 2. Widen your cultural aperture. 3. Identify your key triggers.
Frames of Reference: examine aspects of your own culture.
Interpretation Aperture: create space for alternative explanations, realize when explanations are coming from your own frame of reference. 1. Description 2. Interpretation 3. Evalutation.
Identify Triggers: Anticipate situations where you might experience amygdala hijack.
Emotional Self-Management: be aware of your emotions and use that awareness to control them.
Negativity Bias: The brain is 20x more focused on bad things.
3 things for self-management: 1. Identify what sets you off 2. Label your feelings 3. Create an "early warning system"

SODA: Stop, observe, detach, and awaken.

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Section 1: Social vs. Cognitive Constructionist Approaches
Social Constructivist Approach: Emphasizes social contexts of learning, knowledge is mutually built and constructed.
Situated Cognition: Idea that thinking is located in social and physical contexts, not inside the mind. Knowledge is connected to the context in which the knowledge is created.

Section 2: Teachers and Peers Jointly Contribute to Student's Learning
Cognitive Apprenticeship: An expert stretches and supports a novice's understanding and use of a culture's skills.
Tutoring: Cognitive apprenticeship between and expert and a novice. Can be adult to child or child to dhild.
Cooperative Learning: Students work in small groups to help each other learn.

Section 3: Small Group Structuring
Flexible Grouping: Assign students to heterogenous groups to reflect diversity and offer students the chance to work with peers of different backgrounds, abilities, etc.
Team Building Skills: Spend time in the ealy stages of class to teach teamwork.
Roles: Assign specific roles to students so they know what their responsibilities are, encourage accountability.

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Positive relationships that are "caring" are one of the major pillars of CRT.

Affirmation: Show students that they are trustworthy. Acknowledging the personhood of each student and appreciating all aspects of them.
Learning Partnership: Learning is a partnership between student and teacher.
Raport + Alliance = Cognitive Insight
Validation: Explicit acknowledgement that you are aware of the inequities that impact student's lives.
Trust: Students will bein to feel cared for when they recognize and expereince familiar form of affection and nurturing. Be authentic and vulnerable.

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The goal of a culturally responsive teacher is: "To provide resources and personal assistance so students cultivate positive self-efficacy beliefs and a positive academic mindset."

Education Must Be Transformative: Help "students develop the knowledge, skills, and values needed to become social critics who can make reflective decisions and implement the decisions into effective personal, social, political, and economic action."

False Hope: Hokey Hope and Hope Deferred.
Critical Hope: Material Hope: Offering the material means and resources for action. Socratic Hope: Channelling righteous indignation into action.

Alliance: A relationship of mutual support as partners navigate through challenging situations.
Learned Helplessness: student's belief that they have no control over their ability to improve as a learner.
Stereotype threat: A student becomes anxious about their inadequacy as a learner because they believe it will confirm negative stereotypes about their group.
Internalized Oppression: Student begins to belive the negative social messages about their group.
Validation has to focus on the resilience of communities of color.
Therapeutic Alliance: -A shared understanding and agreement to tackle a specific goal -A shared understanding and agreement about ht etasks necessary. -A relational bond based on mutual trust that creates emotional connection and sense of safety.

The Learning Partnership Alliance: The Pact: Formal agreement between a teacher and student. Teacher as Ally and Warm Demander: The teacher acts as an ally to the student in their quest toward independent learning. Offers both care and push. Student as Driver of their Own Learning: The student commits to being an active participant in the process and taking ownership of learning.

Quality Feedback: Instructive rather than evaluative (actionable information). Specific and in the right dose. Timely. Delivered in a lowstress environment

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Instructional Planning: Developing a systematic, organized strategy for lessons. What to teach and how to teach it.

Behavioral Objectives: Staements about chages the teacher wants to see in student's performance. Students behavior: Focus on what the student will learn or do. Conditions under which the behavior will occur: State how the behavior will be evaluated or tested. Performance criteria: Determine what level of perfomrance will be acceptable.
Task Analysis: Breaking down a complex task into component parts.

Direct Instruction: Structured, teacher centered approach with high teacher direction and control, high expectations, maximum time on academic tasks.
Orienting: Establish a framework for the lesson and orient students to the new material. 1. Review previous day 2. Discuss objectives. 3. Provide clear, explicit instructions. 4. Give an overview of the day's lesson.
Lecturing, Explaining, and Demonstrating Goals: 1.Present t information and motivate students interests in a subject. 2. Introduce a topic before students read about ti on their own, give instructions on how to perform task. 3. Summarize or synthesize information. 4. Provide alternative points of view or clarifying issues.
5. Explain materials that students are having difficulty learning.
Mastery Learning: Learning one concept or topic thoroughly before moving on to a more difficult one.

Learner Centered Instructions: Moves focus towards the student.
Problem Based Learning: Emphasize real-life problem solving.
Essential Questions: Questions that reflect the heart of the curriculum, most important things that students should explore and learn.
Discovery Learning: Students construct an understanding on their own.

Technology:
The Internet Can Help: Navigating and integrating knowledge. Collaborative Learning. Computer-mediated communication. Improving teacher's knowledge and understanding.
SAMR

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Incentive: Positive or negative stimuli that can motivate behavior.
Humanistic Perspective: Students have the capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose their destiny, and positive qualities.
Maslows hierarchy of Needs: Individual's needs must be satisfied in order of; physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.
Self-Actualization: Highest level of needs, motivation to realize one's full potential.
Competence Motivation: People are motivated to deal effectively with their environment, master their world, and process information efficiently. Motivation to be good at things.
Need for Affiliation or Relatedness: Motive to be connected with other people

Extrinsic Motivation: Doing something to obtain seomthing else.
Intrinsic Motivation: Internal motivation to do something for its own sake.

Attribution theory: Individuals want to discover the underlying causes of their own behavior and performance.
Mastery Orientation: Task-oriented, focus on learning strategies and the process of achievement.
Helpless Orientation: Trapped by experience of difficulty, attribute difficulty to lack of ability.
Performance orientation: Focus on winning rather than achievement, success comes from winning.
Mindset: The cognitive view individuals develop for themselves. Can be fixed or growth.
Self-Efficacy: Belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes.
Delay of Gratification: Postponing immediate awards to obtain a larger more valuable award later.

Social Motives: Needs and desire are learned through experiences with the social world.

Failure Syndrome: Having low expectations for success and giving up at the first sing of difficulty.

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To get dependent learners to act on feedback or to be strategic, they have to first believe in themselves as learners.
Academic Mindset: Beliefs, attitudes, or ways of perceiving oneself in relation to learning and intellectual work. What we belive about ourselves as learners and our abililty are the catalysts for learning.
Fixed Mindset versus Growth Mindset.

Strategies for Shifting Student Mindset:
Help Students create a counter narrative about their identity as leaners.
Use Images, quotes, and poetry to ignite student's imagination about whats possible.
Notice and acknowledge when they are acting according to the elements of an academic mindset.
Help students connect with their current expertise and competencies.
Help students interrupt negative self-talk.

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Active Processing:
Stage 1 Input: The brain decides what information it should pa attention to. Something that is relevant, stimulates curiosity, elicits an emotional response.
Stage 2 Elaboration: Makes material memorable and meaningful. Moves info from short term to long term memory. Connect new material to old material
Stage 3 Application: Applying new information through deliberate practice and real-world application. Place-based and problem based learning.

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Standardized Tests: Tests with unifrom procedures and scoring. Provide information about progress, assess strengths and weaknesses, provide information for planning and improving instruction.
Norm Group: Group of individuals previoulsy tested, provide bassis for interpeting scores.
Norm referenced Tests: Scores are compared with how others performed.
Criterion referenced tests: Perfomance is compared with established criteria and standards.

Validity: Does a test measure what it is intended to measure?
Content validity: Tests ability to sample the content that is being measured.
Criterion validity: Can a test predict performance as measured by other assessments?
Concurrent validity: Relation between a tests scores and other criteria that are currently available.
Predictive Valitidy: Does a test predict future performance?

Reliability: Does a test produce a consistent, reporducable result?
Test-retest reliability: Does a test yield the same results when given on two occasions?
Alternate Forms:
Split-Half:

Aptitude Tests: Predict ability to learn a skill or accomplish something with furhter training.
Achievement test: Measure what the student has learned.

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Preassessments: Assess what your students know before beginning instruction. Adjust instruction based on needs.
Formative Assessments: Assessments during instruction. Monitor student's learning during the process to inform teaching decisions.
Summative Assessments: Assessment after instruction, document student performance.
Learning Targets: What should students know and be able to do. "Students will..."

Authentic Assessment: Evaluating student's knowledge or skill in a context that approximates real world or real life as much as possible.
Performance Assessment: Assess both what students know and can do. Subjective, so use a rubric both to guide student work and grading.
Performance Criteria: Specific behaviors a student needs to perform as part of an assessment. Tell students specifically what you will be grading.
Portfolio: Collection of a student's work that demonstrates skills and accomplishments. Can be a collection that tracks progress, or one that showcases best work.

Balancing Grades: Base grades on a series of assessments instead of just tests. Balance student's strengths and weaknesses and reduce importance and subsequent stress of one test.

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Effective classroom management maximizes children's learning opportunities.

Meet students needs for nurturing relationships and create opportunities for self-regulation.

Students are active learners, encourage a "beehive of activity".

Goals and strategies:
-Help students spend more time on learning and less on non-goal-directed activity,
-prevent students from developing problems (Keep students busy with engaging meaningful tasks, clear rules and regulations)
-Manage instruction (Student response systems)

Physical Layout of the Classroom
-Reduce congestion in high traffic areas
-Make sure you can see all students
-Make materials easily accessible
-Make sure students can easily observe presentations
-Personal the classroom (post student work, positive expressions)

Classroom management
-Authoritative management: Encourages students to be independent thinkers but still monitors effectively and establishes boundaries when necessary.
-Authoritarian: Restrictive and punitive (no bueno)
-Permissive: Gives considerable autonomy but does not offer support or managment. (no bueno)
-Rules and procedures: Classrooms need clearly defined rules and procedures. Rules are expectations for behavior (i.e "Respect others" or "Cell phones must be turned off"). Procedures are routines or expectations for specific activities.
-Develop a positive relationship with students
-Get students to share and assume responsibility
-Reward appropriate behavior (Choose effective reinforcers, Use prompts and shaping effectively, use rewards to provide information about mastery, not to control students behavior)

Communication
-Speak with clarity, using understandable vocabulary and precise language.
-Avoid: criticizing, name-calling and labeling, advising (condescendingly), ordering, threatening, moralizing.

Dealing with PRblem Behaviors
Minor interventions: Use nonverbal cues, keep activities moving, move closer to students, redirect behavior, provide needed instruction, directly and assertively tell student to stop, give the student a choice.
Moderate interventions: Withhold a privilege or a desired activity, isolate or remove students, impose a penalty
Use others as resources: peer mediation, parent-teacher conference.
Enlist the help of the principal or counselor: Find a mentor

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Ethos vs. Artifacts: Culturally responsive classrooms have more than cultural artifacts, they are emotionally stable, supportive, and responsive.
Aesthetics and symbols: find authentic cultural elements to display.
Routines and rituals: Open the day with a centering activity, use music or call and response the facilitate transitions, create transition routine.
Instructional Conversation: Giving students language to talk about their own learning and thinking process. Helping Trios (Each student presents something they are working on and get help from classmates) Chalk Talk (Students write responses to an essential question on a board/paper. World Cafe(Students rotate through tables discussing an essential question and recording parts of their conversation.