# data[].attributes.body
China, India, and wes asia were impacted during the Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution was the Critical transition that resulted in the birth of agriculture.

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military conquest, trade, pilgrimage and missionaries. the first revelation to the prophet muhammad at the age of 40

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The Holocaust was the persecution and murder of million of Jews. Romani people, dissidents.

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Consolidating power in the monarchy of the newly unified spanish kingdom. Extended its reach across europe and the americans

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-The Reconquista had a major effect on the evolution of the muslim and christian populations during this period and offers a unique. A series of campaigns by christian states to recapture territory from the muslim.

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1492- Columbs "discovers" the American's 

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1492- Columbs "discovers" the American's 

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Columbus journey's to the American's opened the way for European countries to colonize and exploit those lands and their peoples.

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The islamic world and to india, Korea, japan.

it changed the face of warfare in europe and would play a significant and destructive role during the age of exploration and colonial expansion .

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increased production and efficiency, lower prices, more goods, improved wages and migration from rural areas to urban areas.

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The modern jewish state is not only the "promised land" for Jews, but the only country in the world where they form a majority of the population.

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Aimed to separate the minoritarian white populations from the black populations, by designating areas.

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Division of turkish- Held Syria , Iraq, lebanon and Palestine. Negotiations were begun in November 1915 and the final agreement took it name from the chief negotiators from britain and france

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Forced germany and other central powers to take all the blame of world war 1. this meant a loss of territories, reduction in military forces, and reparation payments to allied powers.

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The Bosnian War resulted in the death of around 100,000 people, and the displacement of over two million men, women and children. Bosnian serb troops launched an assault on the capital of Sarajevo.

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Adolf hitler was appointed chancellor of germany in 1933 following the following series of electoral victories by the nazi party.

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Asia,Latin American and later on africa were impacted. Green Revolution greatly increased productivity by creating crops that would be resistant to pests drought and other hazard.

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D-Day put Allies on a decisive path towards victory, beginning with the Normandy beaches, they punched back against Axis forces until germany was forced to surrender less than a year later

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-The Crusade ultimately resulted in defeats for europeans. And a muslim victory, many argue that they successfully extended the reach of christinaly. The crusade conquered niecea in turkey and antioch and then went on to seize Jerusalem and they established a string of Crusade - Ruled states.

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Developing countries in southeast Asia and Linda. Green Revolution led to high productivity of crops throughout adapted measures such as 1 increased area under farming.

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1969- neil Armstrong steps onto the surface of the moon 

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1969- neil Armstrong steps onto the surface of the moon 

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Southwestern United States was impacted. It taught us about the composition of the moon. it gave us the first perspective of the earth from space.

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Threatening wildlife and spreading toxins. plastic also contributes to global warning.

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the war has been a source of significant instability in the Middle East since 2011.

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quickened the spread of knowledge and discoveries and literacy in renaissance europe. the printing press revolutionized society by standardizing language, spreading ideas, increasing literacy and growing the printing industry.

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A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. It marked a dramatic improvement on earlier printing methods in which the cloth, paper, or other medium was brushed or rubbed repeatedly to achieve the transfer of ink and accelerated the process. Typically used for texts, the invention and global spread of the printing press was one of the most influential events in the second millennium.

In Germany, around 1440, the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg invented the movable-type printing press, which started the Printing Revolution. Modelled on the design of existing screw presses, a single Renaissance movable-type printing press could produce up to 3,600 pages per workday, compared to forty by hand-printing and a few by hand-copying. Gutenberg's newly devised hand mould made possible the precise and rapid creation of metal movable type in large quantities. His two inventions, the hand mould and the movable-type printing press, together drastically reduced the cost of printing books and other documents in Europe, particularly for shorter print runs.

A finding in 2015 brought evidence of quires as claimed by extensive research, printed in 1444-1446 possibly assigned to Procopius Waldvogel.

From Mainz, the movable-type printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes. In the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. By the mid-17th century, the first printing presses arrived in colonial America in response to the increasing demand for Bibles and other religious literature. The operation of a press became synonymous with the enterprise of printing and lent its name to a new medium of expression and communication, " the press".

The arrival of mechanical movable type printing in Europe in the Renaissance introduced the era of mass communication, which permanently altered the structure of society. The relatively unrestricted circulation of information and (revolutionary) ideas transcended borders, captured the masses in the Reformation, and threatened the power of political and religious authorities. The sharp increase in literacy broke the monopoly of the literate elite on education and learning and bolstered the emerging middle class. Across Europe, the increasing cultural self-awareness of its peoples led to the rise of proto- nationalism and accelerated the development of European vernaculars, to the detriment of Latin's status as lingua franca. In the 19th century, the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press by steam-powered rotary presses allowed printing on an industrial scale.

Economic conditions and intellectual climate

Medieval university class (1350s)

The rapid economic and socio-cultural development of late medieval society in Europe created favorable intellectual and technological conditions for Gutenberg's improved version of the printing press: the entrepreneurial spirit of emerging capitalism increasingly made its impact on medieval modes of production, fostering economic thinking and improving the efficiency of traditional work processes. The sharp rise of medieval learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating.

Technological factors

Technologies preceding the press that led to the press's invention included: manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing, and invention of eyeglasses. At the same time, a number of medieval products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. Gutenberg took up these far-flung strands, combined them into one complete and functioning system, and perfected the printing process through all its stages by adding a number of inventions and innovations of his own:

Early modern wine press. Such screw presses were applied in Europe to a wide range of uses and provided Gutenberg with the model for his printing press.

The screw press which allowed direct pressure to be applied on a flat plane was already of great antiquity in Gutenberg's time and was used for a wide range of tasks. Introduced in the 1st century AD by the Romans, it was commonly employed in agricultural production for pressing wine grapes and olives (for olive oil), both of which formed an integral part of the Mediterranean and medieval diet. The device was also used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also been inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century and which worked on the same mechanical principles.

During the Islamic Golden Age, Arab Muslims were printing texts, including passages from the Qur'an, embracing the Chinese craft of paper making, developed it and adopted it widely in the Muslim world, which led to a major increase in the production of manuscript texts. In Egypt during the Fatimid era, the printing technique was adopted reproducing texts on paper strips by hand and supplying them in various copies to meet the demand.

Gutenberg adopted the basic design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the machine quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the pressing power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the printing process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed.

Movable type sorted in a letter case and loaded in a composing stick on top

The concept of movable type existed prior to 15th century Europe; sporadic evidence that the typographical principle, the idea of creating a text by reusing individual characters, was known and had been cropping up since the 12th century and possibly before (the oldest known application dating back as far as the Phaistos disc). The known examples range from movable type printing in China during the Song dynasty; in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, where metal movable-type printing technology was developed in 1234; to Germany ( Prüfening inscription) and England ( letter tiles) and Italy ( Altarpiece of Pellegrino II). However, the various techniques employed (imprinting, punching and assembling individual letters) did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Tsuen-Hsuin and Needham, and Briggs and Burke suggest that the movable-type printing in China and Korea was rarely employed.

Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps. A goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a special hand mould, the matrix. The Latin alphabet proved to be an enormous advantage in the process because, in contrast to logographic writing systems, it allowed the type-setter to represent any text with a theoretical minimum of only around two dozen different letters.

Another factor conducive to printing arose from the book existing in the format of the codex, which had originated in the Roman period. Considered the most important advance in the history of the book prior to printing itself, the codex had completely replaced the ancient scroll at the onset of the Middle Ages (AD500). The codex holds considerable practical advantages over the scroll format: it is more convenient to read (by turning pages), more compact, and less costly, and both recto and verso sides could be used for writing or printing, unlike the scroll.

A paper codex of the acclaimed 42-line Bible, Gutenberg's major work

A fourth development was the early success of medieval papermakers at mechanizing paper manufacture. The introduction of water-powered paper mills, the first certain evidence of which dates to 1282, allowed for a massive expansion of production and replaced the laborious handcraft characteristic of both Chinese and Muslim papermaking. Papermaking centres began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy, reducing the price of paper to one-sixth of parchment and then falling further; papermaking centers reached Germany a century later.

Despite this it appears that the final breakthrough of paper depended just as much on the rapid spread of movable-type printing. Codices of parchment, which in terms of quality is superior to any other writing material, still had a substantial share in Gutenberg's edition of the 42-line Bible. After much experimentation, Gutenberg managed to overcome the difficulties which traditional water-based inks caused by soaking the paper, and found the formula for an oil-based ink suitable for high-quality printing with metal type.

Function and approach

Printing press, engraving by W Lowry after John Farey Jr., 1819

This woodcut from 1568 shows the left printer removing a page from the press while the one at right inks the text-blocks. Such a duo could reach 14,000 hand movements per working day, printing ca. 3,600 pages in the process.[3]

A printing press, in its classical form, is a standing mechanism, ranging from 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2.1 m) long, 3 feet (0.91 m) wide, and 7 feet (2.1 m) tall. The small individual metal letters known as type would be set up by a compositor into the desired lines of text. Several lines of text would be arranged at once and were placed in a wooden frame known as a galley. Once the correct number of pages were composed, the galleys would be laid face up in a frame, also known as a forme, which itself is placed onto a flat stone, 'bed,' or 'coffin.' The text is inked using two balls, pads mounted on handles. The balls were made of dog skin leather, because it has no pores, and stuffed with sheep's wool and were inked. This ink was then applied to the text evenly. One damp piece of paper was then taken from a heap of paper and placed on the tympan. The paper was damp as this lets the type 'bite' into the paper better. Small pins hold the paper in place. The paper is now held between a frisket and tympan (two frames covered with paper or parchment).

These are folded down, so that the paper lies on the surface of the inked type. The bed is rolled under the platen, using a windlass mechanism. A small rotating handle called the 'rounce' is used to do this, and the impression is made with a screw that transmits pressure through the platen. To turn the screw the long handle attached to it is turned. This is known as the bar or 'Devil's Tail.' In a well-set-up press, the springiness of the paper, frisket, and tympan caused the bar to spring back and raise the platen, the windlass turned again to move the bed back to its original position, the tympan and frisket raised and opened, and the printed sheet removed. Such presses were always worked by hand. After around 1800, iron presses were developed, some of which could be operated by steam power.

The function of the printing press was described by William Skeen in 1872:

this sketch represents a press in its completed form, with tympans attached to the end of the carriage, and with the frisket above the tympans. The tympans, inner and outer, are thin iron frames, one fitting into the other, on each of which is stretched a skin of parchment or a breadth of fine cloth. A woollen blanket or two with a few sheets of paper are placed between these, the whole thus forming a thin elastic pad, on which the sheet to be printed is laid. The frisket is a slender frame-work, covered with coarse paper, on which an impression is first taken; the whole of the printed part is then cut out, leaving apertures exactly corresponding with the pages of type on the carriage of the press. The frisket when folded on to the tympans, and both turned down over the forme of types and run in under the platten, preserves the sheet from contact with any thing but the inked surface of the types, when the pull, which brings down the screw and forces the platten to produce the impression, is made by the pressman who works the lever,-to whom is facetiously given the title of "the practitioner at the bar.".

Gutenberg's press

Johannes Gutenberg, 1904 reconstruction

Johannes Gutenberg's work on the printing press began in approximately 1436 when he partnered with Andreas Dritzehn-a man who had previously instructed in gem-cutting-and Andreas Heilmann, owner of a paper mill. However, it was not until a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg that an official record existed; witnesses' testimony discussed Gutenberg's types, an inventory of metals (including lead), and his type molds.

Having previously worked as a professional goldsmith, Gutenberg made skillful use of the knowledge of metals he had learned as a craftsman. He was the first to make type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, which was critical for producing durable type that produced high-quality printed books and proved to be much better suited for printing than all other known materials. To create these lead types, Gutenberg used what is considered one of his most ingenious inventions, a special matrix enabling the quick and precise molding of new type blocks from a uniform template. His type case is estimated to have contained around 290 separate letter boxes, most of which were required for special characters, ligatures, punctuation marks, and so forth.

Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more durable than the previously used water-based inks. As printing material he used both paper and vellum (high-quality parchment). In the Gutenberg Bible, Gutenberg made a trial of colour printing for a few of the page headings, present only in some copies. A later work, the Mainz Psalter of 1453, presumably designed by Gutenberg but published under the imprint of his successors Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer, had elaborate red and blue printed initials.

The Printing Revolution

The Printing Revolution occurred when the spread of the printing press facilitated the wide circulation of information and ideas, acting as an "agent of change" through the societies that it reached. Demand for bibles and other religious literature was one of the main drivers of the very rapid initial expansion of printing. Much later, printed literature played a major role in rallying support, and opposition, during the lead-up to the English Civil War, and later still the American and French Revolutions through newspapers, pamphlets and bulletins. The advent of the printing press brought with it issues involving censorship and freedom of the press.

Mass production and spread of printed books

Spread of printing in the 15th century from Mainz, Germany

European book output rose from a few million to around one billion copies within a span of less than four centuries.[47]

The invention of mechanical movable type printing led to a huge increase of printing activities across Europe within only a few decades. From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany, printing had spread to no less than around 270 cities in Central, Western and Eastern Europe by the end of the 15th century. As early as 1480, there were printers active in 110 different places in Germany, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, England, Bohemia and Poland. From that time on, it is assumed that "the printed book was in universal use in Europe".

In Italy, a center of early printing, print shops had been established in 77 cities and towns by 1500. At the end of the following century, 151 locations in Italy had seen at one time printing activities, with a total of nearly three thousand printers known to be active. Despite this proliferation, printing centres soon emerged; thus, one third of the Italian printers published in Venice.

By 1500, the printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million copies. In the following century, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies.

European printing presses of around 1600 were capable of producing between 1,500 and 3,600 impressions per workday. By comparison, Far Eastern printing, where the back of the paper was manually rubbed to the page, did not exceed an output of forty pages per day.

Of Erasmus's work, at least 750,000 copies were sold during his lifetime alone (1469-1536). In the early days of the Reformation, the revolutionary potential of bulk printing took princes and papacy alike by surprise. In the period from 1518 to 1524, the publication of books in Germany alone skyrocketed sevenfold; between 1518 and 1520, Luther's tracts were distributed in 300,000 printed copies.

The rapidity of typographical text production, as well as the sharp fall in unit costs, led to the issuing of the first newspapers (see ) which opened up an entirely new field for conveying up-to-date information to the public.

Incunable are surviving pre-16th century print works which are collected by many of the libraries in Europe and North America.

Circulation of information and ideas

"Modern Book Printing" sculpture, commemorating Gutenberg's invention on the occasion of the 2006 World Cup in Germany

The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a community of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries through the establishment of widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to bring on the scientific revolution. Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful and profitable. It was suddenly important who had said or written what, and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. This allowed the exact citing of references, producing the rule, "One Author, one work (title), one piece of information" (Giesecke, 1989; 325). Before, the author was less important, since a copy of Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made in Bologna. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author has been entirely lost.

Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became common, though they previously had not been unknown. The process of reading also changed, gradually moving over several centuries from oral readings to silent, private reading. Over the next 200 years, the wider availability of printed materials led to a dramatic rise in the adult literacy rate throughout Europe.

The printing press was an important step towards the democratization of knowledge. Within 50 or 60 years of the invention of the printing press, the entire classical canon had been reprinted and widely promulgated throughout Europe (Eisenstein, 1969; 52). More people had access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss these works. Book production became more commercialised, and the first copyright laws were passed. On the other hand, the printing press was criticized for allowing the dissemination of information that may have been incorrect.

A second outgrowth of this popularization of knowledge was the decline of Latin as the language of most published works, to be replaced by the vernacular language of each area, increasing the variety of published works. The printed word also helped to unify and standardize the spelling and syntax of these vernaculars, in effect 'decreasing' their variability. This rise in importance of national languages as opposed to pan-European Latin is cited as one of the causes of the rise of nationalism in Europe.

A third consequence of popularization of printing was on the economy. The printing press was associated with higher levels of city growth. The publication of trade-related manuals and books teaching techniques like double-entry bookkeeping increased the reliability of trade and led to the decline of merchant guilds and the rise of individual traders.

Industrial printing presses

At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, the mechanics of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press were still essentially unchanged, although new materials in its construction, amongst other innovations, had gradually improved its printing efficiency. By 1800, Lord Stanhope had built a press completely from cast iron which reduced the force required by 90%, while doubling the size of the printed area. With a capacity of 480 pages per hour, the Stanhope press doubled the output of the old style press. Nonetheless, the limitations inherent to the traditional method of printing became obvious.

Koenig's 1814 steam-powered printing press

Two ideas altered the design of the printing press radically: First, the use of steam power for running the machinery, and second the replacement of the printing flatbed with the rotary motion of cylinders. Both elements were for the first time successfully implemented by the German printer Friedrich Koenig in a series of press designs devised between 1802 and 1818. Having moved to London in 1804, Koenig soon met Thomas Bensley and secured financial support for his project in 1807. Patented in 1810, Koenig had designed a steam press "much like a hand press connected to a steam engine." The first production trial of this model occurred in April 1811. He produced his machine with assistance from German engineer Andreas Friedrich Bauer.

Koenig and Bauer sold two of their first models to in London in 1814, capable of 1,100 impressions per hour. The first edition so printed was on 28 November 1814. They went on to perfect the early model so that it could print on both sides of a sheet at once. This began the long process of making newspapers available to a mass audience (which in turn helped spread literacy), and from the 1820s changed the nature of book production, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other metadata. Their company Koenig & Bauer AG is still one of the world's largest manufacturers of printing presses today.

Rotary press

The steam-powered rotary printing press, invented in 1843 in the United States by Richard M. Hoe, ultimately allowed millions of copies of a page in a single day. Mass production of printed works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a much faster pace. Hoe's original design operated at up to 2,000 revolutions per hour where each revolution deposited 4 page images, giving the press a throughput of 8,000 pages per hour. By 1891, The New York World and Philadelphia Item were operating presses producing either 90,000 4-page sheets per hour or 48,000 8-page sheets.

Also, in the middle of the 19th century, there was a separate development of jobbing presses, small presses capable of printing small-format pieces such as billheads, letterheads, business cards, and envelopes. Jobbing presses were capable of quick setup (average setup time for a small job was under 15 minutes) and quick production (even on treadle-powered jobbing presses it was considered normal to get 1,000 impressions per hour [iph] with one pressman, with speeds of 1,500 iph often attained on simple envelope work). Job printing emerged as a reasonably cost-effective duplicating solution for commerce at this time.

Printing capacity

The table lists the maximum number of pages which the various press designs could print per hour.

General:

Printing presses:

Other inventions:

1. For example, in 1999, the ^ A&E Network ranked Gutenberg no. 1 on their "People of the Millennium" countdown Archived 29 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine. In 1997, Time-Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium Archived 10 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine; the same did four prominent US journalists in their 1998 resume 1,000 Years, 1,000 People: Ranking The Men and Women Who Shaped The Millennium Archived 3 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. The Johann Gutenberg Archived 14 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine entry of the Catholic Encyclopedia describes his invention as having made a practically unparalleled cultural impact in the Christian era.

2. ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 67f.:

From old price tables it can be deduced that the capacity of a printing press around 1600, assuming a fifteen-hour workday, was between 3.200 and 3.600 impressions per day.

3. Ch'on Hye-bong 1993, p. 12:

This method almost doubled the printing speed and produced more than 40 copies a day. Printing technology reached its peak at this point.

4. ^ Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1976). The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450-1800. London: New Left Books. Quoted in: Anderson, Benedict. Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo. Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico, 1993. ISBN 978-968-16-3867-2. pp. 58f.

5. ^ Weber 2006, p. 387:

At the same time, then, as the printing press in the physical, technological sense was invented, 'the press' in the extended sense of the word also entered the historical stage. The phenomenon of publishing was born.

6. Anderson, Benedict: ^ Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo, Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico 1993, ISBN 978-968-16-3867-2, pp. 63-76

7. ^ Bloom, Jonathan (2001). Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 8-10, 42-45. ISBN 0-300-08955-4.

8. Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin; Joseph Needham (1985). Paper and Printing. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 5 part 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 158, 201.

9. Briggs, Asa and Burke, Peter (2002). A Social History of the Media: From Gutenberg to the Internet, Polity, Cambridge, pp. 15-23, 61-73.

10. Germany: ^ Brekle 1995, pp. 23-26, Brekle 1997, p. 62, Brekle 2005, p. 25; England: Lehmann-Haupt 1940, pp. 93-97, Brekle 1997, p. 62; Italy: Lipinsky 1986, pp. 75-80, Koch 1994, p. 213. Lipinsky surmises that this typographical technique was known in Constantinople from the 10th to the 12th century and that the Venetians received it from there (p. 78).

11. ^ Skeen, William (1872). Early Typography. Ceylon: Government Printer, Colombo. p. 122.

12. ^ Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 58-69) ISBN 0-471-29198-6

13. Needham 1965, p. 211: ^

The outstanding difference between the two ends of the Old World was the absence of screw-presses from China, but this is only another manifestation of the fact that this basic mechanism was foreign to that culture.

Widmann 1974, p. 34, fn. 14:

In East Asia, both woodblock and movable type printing were manual reproduction techniques, that is hand printing.

Duchesne 2006, p. 83; Man 2002, pp. 112-115:

Chinese paper was suitable only for calligraphy or block-printing; there were no screw-based presses in the east, because they were not wine-drinkers, didn't have olives, and used other means to dry their paper.

Encyclopædia Britannica 2006: "Printing":

The second necessary element was the concept of the printing press itself, an idea that had never been conceived in the Far East.

14. The British Library ^ Incunabula Short Title Catalogue Archived 12 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine gives 29,777 separate editions (not copies) as of 8 January 2008, which however includes some print items from the 16th century (retrieved 11 March 2010). According to Bettina Wagner: "Das Second-Life der Wiegendrucke. Die Inkunabelsammlung der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek", in: Griebel, Rolf; Ceynowa, Klaus (eds.): "Information, Innovation, Inspiration. 450 Jahre Bayerische Staatsbibliothek", K G Saur, München 2008, ISBN 978-3-598-11772-5, pp. 207-224 (207f.), the Incunabula Short Title Catalogue lists 28,107 editions published before 1501.

15. Peck, Josh. "The State of Publishing: Literacy Rates." ^ McSweeney's Internet Tendency. McSweeney, 5 July 2011. Web. 28 August 2014.

16. ^ SPIEGEL, Malte Herwig, DER (28 March 2007). "Google's Total Library: Putting The World's Books On The Web". Der Spiegel. Archived from the original on 28 January 2012.

17. ^ "Howard Rheingold, "Moblogs Seen as a Crystal Ball for a New Era in Online Journalism", Online Journalism Review". 9 July 2009.

18. ^ Eshgh, Amy. "Copyright Timeline: A History of Copyright in the United States | Association of Research Libraries® | ARL®". www.arl.org.

19. ^ Julia C. Crick; Alexandra Walsham (2004). The uses of script and print, 1300-1700. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-521-81063-0.

20. ^ Nick Bilton (14 September 2010). I Live in the Future & Here's How It Works: Why Your World, Work, and Brain Are Being Creatively Disrupted. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-307-59111-1.

21. ^ Jeremiah Dittmar. "Information technology and economic change: The impact of the printing press". VoxEU.

22. ^ Prateek Raj. "How the Postal System and the Printing Press Transformed European Markets". Evonomics.

23. ^ Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 130-133) ISBN 0-471-29198-6

24. ^ Peck, Harry Thurston. (1895). The International Cyclopædia A Compendium of Human Knowledge, Revised with Large Additions · Volume 12. Dodd, Mead & Company. p. 168.

Bibliography

On the effects of the printing press

(Google book)

Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten (2009), "Charting the "Rise of the West": Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", The Journal of Economic History, 69 (2): 409-445, doi:10.1017/s0022050709000837, S2CID 154362112

Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. (1980), The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29955-8

Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1997), The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450-1800, London: Verso, ISBN 978-1-85984-108-2

Man, John (2002), The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World, London: Headline Review, ISBN 978-0-7472-4504-9

-- (1958). Prelude To Independence The Newspaper War On Britain 1764 1776. Alfred A.Knopf.

Technology of printing

Bolza, Hans (1967), "Friedrich Koenig und die Erfindung der Druckmaschine", Technikgeschichte, 34 (1): 79-89

Brekle, Herbert E. (1995), "Eine weitere Spur einer typographischen Werkstatt beim Kloster Prüfening im 12. Jahrhundert", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, 70: 23-26

Brekle, Herbert E. (1997), "Das typographische Prinzip. Versuch einer Begriffsklärung", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, 72: 58-63

Ch'on Hye-bong: "Typography in Korea", Koreana, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1993), pp. 10-19

Stearns, Peter N. (ed.). Encyclopedia of World History (6th ed.). The Houghton Mifflin Company/Bartleby.com. Citation

Duchesne, Ricardo (2006), "Asia First?", The Journal of the Historical Society, 6 (1): 69-91, doi:10.1111/j.1540-5923.2006.00168.x

Fontaine, Jean-Paul (1999), L'aventure du livre: Du manuscrit medieval a nos jours, Paris: Bibliothèque de l'image

Hanebutt-Benz, Eva-Maria (2000), "Gutenbergs Erfindungen", Gutenberg. Aventur und Kunst: Vom Geheimunternehmen zur ersten Medienrevolution, Mainz: Stadt Mainz, pp. 158-189

Hind, Arthur M., An Introduction to a History of Woodcut, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1935 (in USA), reprinted Dover Publications, 1963 ISBN 0-486-20952-0

Issawi, Charles (1980), "Europe, the Middle East and the Shift in Power: Reflections on a Theme by Marshall Hodgson", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 22 (4): 487-504, doi:10.1017/s001041750000949x, S2CID 143805644

Koch, Walter (1994), Literaturbericht zur mittelalterlichen und neuzeitlichen Epigraphik (1985-1991), Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Hilfsmittel, vol. 14, München, p. 213, ISBN 978-3-88612-114-4

Lipinsky, Angelo (1986), "La pala argentea del Patriarca Pellegrino nella Collegiata di Cividale e le sue iscrizioni con caratteri mobili", Ateneo Veneto, 24: 75-80

Lucas, Adam Robert (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture, 46 (1): 1-30, doi:10.1353/tech.2005.0026, S2CID 109564224

Needham, Joseph: "Science and Civilisation in China", Physics and Physical Technology (Vol. 4), Mechanical Engineering (Part 2), Cambridge University Press, 1965

Onken, Björn (2009), "Presses", in Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.), Brill's New Pauly

Encyclopædia Britannica 2006: "Printing". Retrieved 27 November 2006

Schneider, Helmuth (2007), "Technology", in Scheidel, Walter; Morris, Ian; Saller, Richard (eds.), The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World, Cambridge University Press, pp. 144-171, ISBN 978-0-521-78053-7

Thompson, Susan (1978), "Paper Manufacturing and Early Books", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 314 (1): 167-176, Bibcode:1978NYASA.314..167T, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1978.tb47791.x, S2CID 85153174

Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985), Paper and Printing, Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology (Vol. 5, Part 1), Cambridge University Press

Weber, Johannes (2006), "Strassburg, 1605: The Origins of the Newspaper in Europe", German History, 24 (3): 387-412, doi:10.1191/0266355406gh380oa

White, K. D. (1984), Greek and Roman Technology, London: Thames and Hudson

Wolf, Hans-Jürgen (1974), Geschichte der Druckpressen (1st ed.), Frankfurt/Main: Interprint

External links

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A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. It marked a dramatic improvement on earlier printing methods in which the cloth, paper, or other medium was brushed or rubbed repeatedly to achieve the transfer of ink and accelerated the process.

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2004 Facebook launches                                                                                    

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2004 Facebook launches                                                                                    

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enables global economies activity by helping to unlock new opportunities through connecting people and businesses. Communication and Connectivity was impacted with facebook.

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"Facebook" is arguably one of the most recognizable names of the 21st century.

The popular social media site is known as a place to share photos, post on your "wall" and ultimately update your friends and family about what you're up to lately.

Mark Zuckerberg, born in White Plains, New York, is best known as a creator of Facebook - with the story of his success one of trial, error and ultimately success.
FACEBOOK COMMUNITY RUSHES TO AID GEORGIA BOY WHO WAS MAULED BY THREE PIT BULLS
On this day in history, Feb. 4, 2004, Harvard student Mark Zuckerberg launches what was then known as The Facebook.

Zuckerberg's path to Facebook started in 2003 with an online program called Facemash, of which he was primary developer.

The concept revolved around the notion that students could judge the attractiveness of fellow college students who were using the program, according to Britannica.

The site was considered initially successful - with 450 students joining right off the bat.
HOW TO CHANGE YOUR FACEBOOK PASSWORD
Facemash violated a university policy, however - and was shut down after just two days, as Britannica noted.

Zuckerberg noted the fast success of Facemash and decided to launch a different site for Harvard students, called The Facebook, in February 2004.

This intriguing site was different - allowing students to post photos and information about themselves, such as their class schedules, according to Britannica.
SOCIAL MEDIA USE MAY IMPACT ADOLESCENTS' BRAIN DEVELOPMENT, STUDY SAYS
The popularity increased - and the site was soon expanded to include students at Yale and Stanford.

Within the first four months of the site's going live, more than 250,000 students were on The Facebook - spanning over 34 schools, according to Britannica.

By the end of 2004, The Facebook had over one million users - and Zuckerberg had dropped out of Harvard to run the business.

Continued success came when the platform introduced a tagging feature and unlimited photo uploads - and lowered the sign-up age to 13.
CLICK HERE TO SIGN UP FOR OUR LIFESTYLE NEWSLETTER
Facebook was also able to monetize its app early on by allowing companies to buy advertisement space within the site.

Over the years, Facebook - based in Menlo Park, California - has faced backlash for a lack of privacy and for selling users' data, according to History.com.

The story of Facebook's founding and its early and complicated road to success was turned into a movie in 2010 starring actor Jesse Eisenberg and featuring Justin Timberlake - called "The Social Network."

(At the 83rd Academy Awards, the film received eight nominations, including for Best Picture, Best Director and Best Actor for Eisenberg - and won for Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Original Score and Best Film Editing.)
CLICK HERE TO GET THE FOX NEWS APP
Zuckerberg's technology company Facebook, Inc. today owns multiple companies such as Instagram, WhatsApp, Messenger and more.

In October 2021, Facebook, Inc. announced that its parent company name would change to Meta Platforms - alluding to a virtual reality experience for users on their platforms, according to Britannica.

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On this day in history, Feb. 4, 2004, Harvard student Mark Zuckerberg launches 'The Facebook'

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Facebook is one of the most popular social media platforms in the world. On this day in history, Feb. 4, 2004, Mark Zuckerberg launched what we know today as Facebook.

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2018- Cambridge  analytica  goes bankrupt

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2018- Cambridge  analytica  goes bankrupt

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united states and britain . on may 2018, cambridge analytica and it parents company SCL filed for insolvency proceedings and closed operations.

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Cambridge Analytica to File for Bankruptcy After Misuse of Facebook Data (Published 2018)

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The consultant, which said it would cease most operations in the United States and Britain, relied on Facebook data to profile and target voters during the 2016 campaign.

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480 BC- the battle of thermopylae ends in defeat for the geeks.

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480 BC- the battle of thermopylae ends in defeat for the geeks.

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expanded the persian empire ever further. its market in the beginning of several important Greek victories against the Persians and boosted the morale of all geek city-states.

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Thermopylae ( Θερμοπύλαι; "Hot Gates"): small pass in Greece, site of several battles, of which the Spartan defeat against the Persian invaders in 480 is the most famous.

Introduction

After careful preparations, the Persian king Xerxes decided to attack the Yaunâ (Greeks) in the summer of 480. His commanders had warned him that great risks were involved: in 490, at Marathon, about 10,000 Athenians had defeated 25,000 Persians. Therefore, Xerxes prepared himself well and built a very large army. The Greeks, who had against all odds managed to overcome their perennial struggles and had accepted Spartan leadership, understood that if they wanted to survive the invasion, they first had to annihilate the Persian transport fleet, because without its support, the enemy army would be forced to return. The Greek navy therefore made a stand at Artemisium.

Meanwhile, the Spartans, commanded by their king Leonidas, were to keep the coastal road at Thermopylae (the name, "hot gate", is derived from a sulfurous spring in the neighborhood). By occupying this position, the Spartans and their allies would prevent the Persian army from attacking the Greek navy in the rear. In Antiquity, Thermopylae was more narrow than today; the sea reached as far inland as the modern road (cf. this photo).

Battle

Fifth-century hoplite.

To synchronize the attack on Thermopylae with the fight at Artemisium, Xerxes waited four days before he ordered his soldiers to attack the contemptibly small Greek garrison of 4,000 men. He first sent the Median and Elamite contingents, which were easily repelled by the defenders of the narrow road.

A second wave of troops consisted of the ten thousand Immortals, who were, according to Herodotus of Halicarnassus (our main source) the royal bodyguard. These elite troops did no better.

The Persian position did not improve during the second day of battle. When Xerxes' soldiers passed through the narrow gap, they were killed by their opponents, who had longer spears and better armor. Against these "men of bronze", the Persians were no match. Many of them fell into the sea and drowned.

If we are to believe Herodotus, it was at this moment that a Greek named Ephialtes told the great king about the possibility to turn the position of the Greek army. There was a mountain path. The story is hardly credible: the Persian scouts were probably perfectly capable of finding the path themselves. Anyhow, during the night, the Immortals, commanded by Hydarnes, made a detour and attacked the Greek contingent that guarded the path.

The exact route of the nightly attack cannot be identified. This is just one of the many tracks in the hinterland of Thermopylae. The fact that a nightly operation was possible, makes it possible to date the battle of Thermopylae to a night with more or less full moon: 17, 18 and 19 September (or one day later).

The Unsolved Riddle

At the beginning of the third day, the Greeks learned that the Persians would soon descend from the mountains and attack their rear. At this point, Herodotus' account becomes confused. In one line ( 7.219), he says that many Greeks decided to leave and abandoned Leonidas; after this, he says that there were also reports that Leonidas commanded them to go away ( 7.220). Anyhow, only the Spartans (300 Spartiates and 900 helpers), 700 Thespians, and 400 Thebans remained. It is possible that they also wanted to leave, but that they were trapped when the Immortals arrived. The historian Charles Hignett has famously called the reason why Leonidas stayed "an unsolved riddle", and there's little to add to that conclusion.

Herodotus admits that he is puzzled. Having said that the people abandoned Leonidas and having offered the other interpretation, he wonders why Leonidas might have ordered the soldiers to stay. What follows is introduced with the word gnomê ( 7.220), which he always uses when he offers a personal opinion: Leonidas decided to stay because an oracle had announced that Sparta would either be destroyed or lose its king. Leonidas preferred the second alternative. It may be true - was not an uncommon military practice - but it smells of propaganda, and the story may well have been invented during the difficult months between the defeat at Thermopylae and the victory at Plataea.

Endgame

Reportedly, Leonidas ordered his men to go forward against their opponents, who were lashed towards the Spartans by their officers. When Leonidas fell, a bitter struggle over his body broke out. Herodotus tells that the Greeks drove off their enemy four times, and finally succeed in dragging the corpse away. This is too homeric to be true, and again we do not know if this really happened: those who were close to Leonidas, did not live to tell their stories.

Still according to Herodotus, the Thebans, whose support for the cause of Greece was halfhearted, deserted their allies and surrendered. Probably, this has been written with the benefit of hindsight: the Thebans later collaborated with the invader.

It is more probable, however, that the Thebans at Thermopylae were fighting for Greece as well. Only when these soldiers, the most anti-Persian men of Thebes, had been taken captive, their town was prepared to collaborate. With some justification, Herodotus has been accused of "malice" by a later author, Plutarch.

After the death of Leonidas and the end of Theban resistance, the surviving Spartans and Thespians retreated to a small hill, where they were killed by Persian archers. Later generations have always venerated this hill; for example, Philostratus calls it "the loftiest spot" in Greece.

This part of Herodotus' story is probably correct: after all, the Theban survivors could later have told it to him, and the inhabitants of the nearby villages must have known the hill, which was still covered with arrowheads in the nineteenth century. ( Reportedly, a local blacksmith found many of them and was happy with a large supply of raw material.) Modern archaeologists have also found several arrowhead; similar projectiles have been excavated in Asia and in Greek towns, where they were dedicated to the eternal gods.

After the fall of Thermopylae, the road to Greece was open. Artemisium was evacuated, and it became unavoidable that Thebes would be captured and Athens sacked. It was only during the naval battle of Salamis that Greece's fortunes were restored, although the winter of 480/479 was an uneasy one, and it was only in the summer of 479 that the Persians were decisively defeated.

The story of the three hundred Spartans (and their usually forgotten allies from Thespia and Thebes), as told by Herodotus, has become a "classic". Today, there's a reconstruction of the epitaph of the Spartan soldiers:

Stranger, go tell the Spartans that here we are buried, obedient to their orders.

There are also two modern monuments, one dedicated to Leonidas, one to the Thespians.

This page was created in 2005; last modified on 24 September 2020.

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Thermopylae ( Θερμοπύλαι; "Hot Gates"): small pass in Greece, site of several battles, of which the Spartan defeat against the Persian invaders in 480 is the most famous. After careful preparations, the Persian king Xerxes decided to attack the Yaunâ (Greeks) in the summer of 480.

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it had some serious damage on German positions in France. a more professional and effective army emerged from the battle.

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The Battle of the Somme, which took place from July to November 1916, began as an Allied offensive against German forces along the Western Front of World War I, near the Somme River in France. The battle turned into one of the most bitter, deadly and costly battles in all of human history, as British forces suffered more than 57,000 casualties-including more than 19,000 soldiers killed-on the first day of the battle alone. By the time the Battle of the Somme (sometimes called the First Battle of the Somme) ended nearly five months later, more than 3 million soldiers on both sides had fought in the battle, and more than 1 million had been killed or wounded.

Battle Begins - July 1, 1916

Prior to the attack, the Allies launched a week-long heavy artillery bombardment, using some 1.75 million shells, which aimed to cut the barbed wire guarding German's trench defenses and destroy the enemy's positions.

On the morning of July 1, 11 divisions of the British 4th Army-many of them volunteer soldiers going into battle for the first time-began advancing on a 15-mile front north of the Somme River. At the same time, five French divisions advanced on an eight-mile front to the south, where the German defenses were weaker.

Allied leaders had been confident the bombardment would damage German defenses enough so that their troops could easily advance. But the barbed wire remained intact in many places, and the German positions, many of which were in trenches deep underground, were stronger than anticipated.

Along the line, German machine gun and rifle fire cut down thousands of the attacking British troops, many of them caught in "no man's land" between the two sides.

Some 19,240 British soldiers were killed and more than 38,000 wounded by the end of that first day-almost as many casualties as British forces suffered when the Allies lost the battle for France during World War II (May-June 1940), including prisoners.

War of Attrition

Other British and French forces had more success to the south, though these gains were limited compared to the devastating losses sustained on that first day of battle.

But British Field Marshal Douglas Haig was determined to press on with the offensive, and over the next two weeks, the British launched a series of smaller attacks on the German line, putting increasing pressure on the Germans and forcing them to divert some weapons and soldiers from the Battle of Verdun.

Early on the morning of July 15, British troops launched another artillery barrage followed by a massive attack, this time on Bazentin Ridge, in the northern part of the Somme. The assault took the Germans by surprise, and the British were able to advance some 6,000 yards into enemy territory, occupying the village of Longueval.

But any small advance continued to come at the expense of heavy casualties in this long and deadly war of attrition, with the Germans losing 160,000 soldiers and the British and French more than 200,000 by the end of July.

Near the end of August, with German morale running low due to lost ground both on the Somme and at Verdun, Germany's General Erich von Falkenhayn was replaced by Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff. The command change marked a change in German strategy: They would build a new defensive line behind the Somme front, conceding territory but allowing them to inflict even more casualties on the advancing Allied troops.

Tanks Join the Battle

On September 15, during an attack at Flers Courcelette, the British artillery barrage was followed by an advance of 12 divisions of soldiers accompanied by 48 Mark I tanks, making their first-ever appearance on the battlefield.

But the tanks were still early in their development stages, and many of them broke down before making it to the front line. Though the British were able to advance some 1.5 miles, they sustained some 29,000 casualties and fell short of a true breakthrough.

As October began, bad weather stymied another Allied attack, with soldiers struggling to cross muddy terrain under fierce fire from German artillery and fighter planes. The Allies made their final advance of the battle in mid-November, attacking the German positions in the Ancre River valley.

With the arrival of true winter weather, Haig finally called the offensive to a halt on November 18, ending the bloody battle of attrition on the Somme, at least until the following year. Over 141 days, the British had advanced just seven miles and had failed to break the German line.

Aftermath

More than anything else, the Battle of the Somme-and especially its devastating first day-would be remembered as the epitome of the brutal and seemingly senseless carnage that characterized trench warfare during World War I. British officers, especially Haig, would be criticized for continuing the offensive in spite of such devastating losses.

Many of the British soldiers who fought at the Somme had volunteered for army service in 1914 and 1915 and saw combat for the first time in the battle. Many were members of so-called Pals battalions, or units that were made up of friends, relatives and neighbors in the same community.

In one poignant example of a community's loss, some 720 men from the 11th East Lancashire battalion (known as the Accrington Pals) fought on July 1 at the Somme; 584 were killed or wounded.

Who Won the Battle of the Somme?

The Allied victory at the Somme-despite its horrific costs-inflicted serious damage on German positions in France, spurring the Germans to strategically retreat to the Hindenburg Line in March 1917 rather than continue battling over the same land that spring.

Though the exact number is disputed, German losses by the end of the Battle of the Somme probably exceeded Britain's, with some 450,000 soldiers lost compared with 420,000 on the British side. The surviving British forces had also gained valuable experience, which would later help them achieve ultimate victory on the Western Front.

HISTORY Vault: World War I Documentaries

Sources

Matt Brosnan, "5 Things You Need to Know About the Battle of the Somme." Imperial War Museums.
David Frum, "The Lessons of the Somme." The Atlantic.
John Keegan, The First World War. (Penguin Random House, 2000).
The 5 Bloodiest Battles in History. Military History Matters.

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Battle of the Somme: Casualties & Who Won | HISTORY

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The Battle of the Somme was a deadly Allied offensive against German forces along the Western Front of World War I, near the Somme River in France.

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1945 An atomic bomb is dropped on   nagasaki 

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1945 An atomic bomb is dropped on   nagasaki 

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The two atomic bombs dropped on japan in 1945 killed.

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THE ATOMIC BOMBING OF NAGASAKI(Nagasaki, Japan, August 9, 1945)
Events >Dawn of the Atomic Era, 1945

The War Enters Its Final Phase, 1945

Debate Over How to Use the Bomb, Late Spring 1945

The Trinity Test, July 16, 1945

Safety and the Trinity Test, July 1945

Evaluations of Trinity, July 1945

Potsdam and the Final Decision to Bomb, July 1945

The Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima, August 6, 1945

The Atomic Bombing of Nagasaki, August 9, 1945

Japan Surrenders, August 10-15, 1945

The Manhattan Project and the Second World War, 1939-1945

The next break in the weather over Japan was due to appear just three days after the attack on Hiroshima, to be followed by at least five more days of prohibitive weather. The plutonium implosion bomb, nicknamed "Fat Man," was rushed into readiness to take advantage of this window. No further orders were required for the attack. Truman's order of July 25th had authorized the dropping of additional bombs as soon as they were ready. At 3:47 a.m. on August 9, 1945, a B-29 named Bock's Car lifted off from Tinian and headed toward the primary target: Kokura Arsenal, a massive collection of war industries adjacent to the city of Kokura.

From this point on, few things went according to plan. The aircraft commander, Major Charles W. Sweeney, ordered the arming of the bomb only ten minutes after take-off so that the aircraft could be pressurized and climb above the lightning and squalls that menaced the flight all the way to Japan. (A journalist, William L. Laurence of the New York Times, on an escorting aircraft saw some "St. Elmo's fire" glowing on the edges of the aircraft and worried that the static electricity might detonate the bomb.) Sweeney then discovered that due to a minor malfunction he would not be able to access his reserve fuel. The aircraft next had to orbit over Yaku-shima off the south coast of Japan for almost an hour in order to rendezvous with its two escort B-29s, one of which never did arrive. The weather had been reported satisfactory earlier in the day over Kokura Arsenal, but by the time the B-29 finally arrived there, the target was obscured by smoke and haze. Two more passes over the target still produced no sightings of the aiming point. As an aircraft crewman, Jacob Beser, later recalled, Japanese fighters and bursts of antiaircraft fire were by this time starting to make things "a little hairy." Kokura no longer appeared to be an option, and there was only enough fuel on board to return to the secondary airfield on Okinawa, making one hurried pass as they went over their secondary target, the city of Nagasaki. As Beser later put it, "there was no sense dragging the bomb home or dropping it in the ocean."

As it turned out, cloud cover obscured Nagasaki as well. Sweeney reluctantly approved a much less accurate radar approach on the target. At the last moment the bombardier, Captain Kermit K. Beahan, caught a brief glimpse of the city's stadium through the clouds and dropped the bomb. At 11:02 a.m., at an altitude of 1,650 feet, Fat Man (right) exploded over Nagasaki. The yield of the explosion was later estimated at 21 kilotons, 40 percent greater than that of the Hiroshima bomb.

Nagasaki was an industrial center and major port on the western coast of Kyushu. As had happened at Hiroshima, the "all-clear" from an early morning air raid alert had long been given by the time the B-29 had begun its bombing run. A small conventional raid on Nagasaki on August 1st had resulted in a partial evacuation of the city, especially of school children. There were still almost 200,000 people in the city below the bomb when it exploded. The hurriedly-targeted weapon ended up detonating almost exactly between two of the principal targets in the city, the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works to the south, and the Mitsubishi-Urakami Torpedo Works (left) to the north. Had the bomb exploded farther south the residential and commercial heart of the city would have suffered much greater damage.

In general, though Fat Man exploded with greater force than Little Boy, the damage at Nagasaki was not as great as it had been at Hiroshima. The hills of Nagasaki, its geographic layout, and the bomb's detonation over an industrial area all helped shield portions of the city from the weapon's blast, heat, and radiation effects. The explosion affected a total area of approximately 43 square miles. About 8.5 of those square miles were water, and 33 more square miles were only partially settled. Many roads and rail lines escaped major damage. In some areas electricity was not knocked out, and fire breaks created over the last several months helped to prevent the spread of fires to the south.

Although the destruction at Nagasaki has generally received less worldwide attention than that at Hiroshima, it was extensive nonetheless. Almost everything up to half a mile from ground zero was completely destroyed, including even the earthquake-hardened concrete structures that had sometimes survived at comparable distances at Hiroshima. According to a Nagasaki Prefectural report "men and animals died almost instantly" within 1 kilometer (0.62 miles) of the point of detonation. Almost all homes within a mile and a half were destroyed, and dry, combustible materials such as paper instantly burst into flames as far away as 10,000 feet from ground zero. Of the 52,000 homes in Nagasaki, 14,000 were destroyed and 5,400 more seriously damaged. Only 12 percent of the homes escaped unscathed. The official Manhattan Engineer District report on the attack termed the damage to the two Mitsubishi plants "spectacular." Despite the absence of a firestorm, numerous secondary fires erupted throughout the city. Fire-fighting efforts were hampered by water line breaks, and six weeks later the city was still suffering from a shortage of water. A U.S. Navy officer who visited the city in mid-September reported that, even over a month after the attack, "a smell of death and corruption pervades the place." As at Hiroshima, the psychological effects of the attack were undoubtedly considerable.

As with the estimates of deaths at Hiroshima, it will never be known for certain how many people died as a result of the atomic attack on Nagasaki. The best estimate is 40,000 people died initially, with 60,000 more injured. By January 1946, the number of deaths probably approached 70,000, with perhaps ultimately twice that number dead total within five years. For those areas of Nagasaki affected by the explosion, the death rate was comparable to that at Hiroshima.

The day after the attack on Nagasaki, the emperor of Japan overruled the military leaders of Japan and forced them to offer to surrender (almost) unconditionally.

The War Enters Its Final Phase, 1945

Debate Over How to Use the Bomb, Late Spring 1945

The Trinity Test, July 16, 1945

Safety and the Trinity Test, July 1945

Evaluations of Trinity, July 1945

Potsdam and the Final Decision to Bomb, July 1945

The Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima, August 6, 1945

The Atomic Bombing of Nagasaki, August 9, 1945

Japan Surrenders, August 10-15, 1945

The Manhattan Project and the Second World War, 1939-1945

Next
Sources and notes for this page.

Portions of the text for this page were adapted from, and portions were taken directly from the Office of History and Heritage Resources publication: F. G. Gosling, The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb (DOE/MA-0001; Washington: History Division, Department of Energy, January 1999), 53-54. Also used was the report on "The Atomic Bombings ofHiroshima and Nagasaki" in the official Manhattan District History, produced by the War Department in 1947 at the direction of Leslie Groves, especially pages 1-19; the "Atomic Bombings" document is available in the University Publications of America (UPA) microfilm collection, Manhattan Project: Official History and Documents (Washington: 1977), reel #1/12; the report itself is a government document. For an account of the mission, see the "Eye Witness Account: Atomic Bomb Mission Over Nagasaki" press release, written by William L. Laurence of the New York Times and released on September 9, 1945; this is also available on reel #1/12 of the UPA Manhattan Project microfilm collection. Summaries of Hiroshima and Nagasaki casualty rates and damage estimates appear in Leslie R. Groves, Now It Can Be Told (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 319, 329-330, 346, and Vincent C. Jones, Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb, United States Army in World War II (Washington: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1988), 545-548. For a description of Kokura Arsenal and interesting reflections on its postwar fate, see "Chapter 4: Kokura" of Paul Saffo's essay "The Road from Trinity: Reflections on the Atom Bomb"; this is available on Paul Saffo's web site at http://www.saffo.com/essays/the-road-from-trinity-reflections-on-the-atom-bomb/. The map showing the flight paths for the Hiroshima and Nagasaki missions is reproduced from Gosling, Making the Atomic Bomb, 52. The photographs of Fat Man and of the general devastation at Nagasaki are courtesy the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (via the National Archives (NARA)). The photograph of the destruction at the Mitsubishi facility north of ground zero is courtesy the Los Alamos National Laboratory; the photograph was taken by Robert Serber and is reprinted in Rachel Fermi and Esther Samra, Picturing the Bomb: Photographs from the Secret World of the Manhattan Project (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 1995), 190. The photograph of the mother and child is courtesy the Department of Energy (via NARA). The photograph of the bodies in the trench is reprinted from Vincent C. Jones, Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb, United States Army in World War II (Washington: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1988), 548.

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Manhattan Project: The Atomic Bombing of Nagasaki, August 9, 1945

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THE ATOMIC BOMBING OF NAGASAKI (Nagasaki, Japan, August 9, 1945) Events >Dawn of the Atomic Era, 1945 The War Enters Its Final Phase, 1945 Debate Over How to Use the Bomb, Late Spring 1945 The Trinity Test, July 16, 1945 Safety and the Trinity Test, July 1945 Evaluations of Trinity,