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The ancient Maya had rich knowledge of their environments, and the diversity with their lands provided them access to a wide variety of botanical species. While some plants such as maize, beans, and squash were grown and consumed in all eco zones, other species may have been more localized. With farming being very crucial to the Maya people, their diet mostly consisted of plants. At first glance, the Maya diet can be viewed as lacking, with maize as the main staple. Although, most research supports the maize staple theory, there are there are very important theories about supplemental foods which would cause the Maya diet to be more nutritious than previously thought.
For example, one theory from Bennet Bronson suggests that the Maya utilized crop diversification and used supplements to fill the crucial nutritional gaps associated with the maize staple diet. This diet was supplemented by other crops such as sweet potatoes and manioc which gave "higher caloric value per unit of land". Aside from maize being the staple food, ramon was a key factor in the Maya civilization. Essentially, it is most likely the Maya diet consisted of all the possible theories.

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At the archeological site of Cerén, the Netting's Model was used to further explain the diet of the Maya people. As the Maya town was frozen in time due to a volcanic eruption, researcher Michelle Woodward discovered along with maize production at this site, there were a variety of other crops found such as legumes, cucurbits, manioc, chile, cacao, nance, hackberry, cotton, gourds, capulin, avocados, pine, guava, and more. "The crop diversification through the infield crops
would have perfectly supplemented nutritional gaps in a maize-legume diet and show that the
nutritional requirements of humans would have been met by the diet at this site" (Woodward). Discoveries as such defy the argument that the classic Maya did not have nutritious diets and were 'plagued' by famine and food insecurity.

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Reed, David M. "Ancient Maya Diet at Copan, Honduras, as Determined Through the Analysis
of Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes." Paleonutrition: The Diet and Health of
Prehistoric Americans. Ed. Kristin D. Sobolik. Carbondale: Southern Illinois U, 1994.
210-21. Print.

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Woodward, Michelle R. "Considering Household Food Security and Diet at the Classic Period
Village of Cerén, El Salvador (AD 600)." Mayab 13 (2000): 22-33.

Watson, Rachel E., "The Diet and Subsistence Methods of the Maya: Their Health and Cultural
Consequences from the Pre-Classic Era to Today" (2017). Honors Undergraduate. Paper 1.

Reed, David M. "Ancient Maya Diet at Copan, Honduras, as Determined Through the Analysis
of Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes." Paleonutrition: The Diet and Health of
Prehistoric Americans. Ed. Kristin D. Sobolik. Carbondale: Southern Illinois U, 1994.
210-21. Print.

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Introduction: Farming Techniques and Food Security

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Introduction: Farming Techniques and Food Security

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One of the most prominent aspects of Maya culture was the importance of food and food production. The Maya lived off of a heavy plant-based diet and this is because of the vast amount of natural resources that they had available to them. The thing that really helped the Maya was their expansive knowledge on farming that allowed them to be able to develop multiple techniques for agriculture as a way to better adapt to the ever-changing environment that surrounds them as well as increase biodiversity.

The Maya, given their geography in the Yucatan peninsula, experienced often times very dry conditions which resulted in an environment that was not ideal for growing and raising crops. Despite this factor however, scientist have done studies on things like the soil in the area as well as studied how the Maya managed their water due to the fact that water was not readily available as rain came with the seasons, and found that the Maya developed different tools and farming practices that allowed them to domesticate crops. In the book “The Maya World” the authors touch on these topics and came to the conclusion that, after observing the paleoecology within Maya agriculture, the Maya interacted with their surroundings in many ways that not only affected the environment, but also reveals that the Maya were able to create intricate agricultural systems and practices which allowed them to survive.

Maize was considered a very important staple food for the Maya and part of the reason why is because it was easy to store and can be grown in abundance. In studying the production of Maize different farming techniques such as swidden farming which helped to clear fields and create new fertile soil and therefore, aided in the creation of future crops, Milpas which was the Mayan word for large scale corn fields, bajos which were swampy areas located in Maya lowlands, chultuns as possible water or food storage, and tajos which helped to maintain the fertility of soil, the Maya have been able to build an intricate farming system with lots of biodiversity that was able to sustain their people for thousands of years. It is also important to note that there is very little research done on Maya farming/ agricultural practices and so it is important that we continue to do research because in studying Maya agricultural practices, it not only reveals different aspects of Maya history and culture, but it also can show patterns in environmental and climate changes.

Intro: McNeil, Cameron L.
2020    Favored Plants of the Maya. In The Maya World, edited by Scott R. Hutson, and Traci Ardren, pp. 183-202. Routledge, London and New York.

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Example of swidden farming; biochar being released into soil from burned vegetation. (From "Maya Milpa: Fire and the Legacy of Soil; 2013)

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The technique of Swidden was used a lot in Maya farming culture. According to Ronald Nigh in his article “The Maya Milpa: Fire and the Legacy of Soil” this practice is more commonly known as slash and burn which includes the process of clearing forests, burning the plant debris and then what is left is fresh fertile soil to plant crops. Nigh explains that the reasons why Swidden is being used to describe this technique is because the term slash and burn has been correlated with a negative view point as it is seen as being more primitive even though this technique is anything but that. This technique is used frequently in Mesoamerica and primarily in areas around a lot of trees. According to Nigh, researchers found that swidden farmers made up of Lakandon Maya were able to control the burn temperature and thus was able to produce a very nutrient rich, fertile soil because of biochar, an ingredient in ADE (Amazonian dark earths), entering the soil.

Burning crops comes with so many more benefits such as acting as a form of pest control, creating ash which, “replenishes nitrogen, and adds phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, and manganese”, (Nigh, 2013) as well as helping in reducing the amounts of weeds in the milpas overall. A lot of work comes with swidden farming. The Maya first need to be sure the weather is okay for a burn meaning steady winds and no chance of rain. Then during the burn, the Maya need to be able to contain the fire which they do by using fire breaks which are, “strips of land that have been cleared free of vegetation and debris, forming a perimeter around the clearing.” In doing so this helps in containing the fire and after about 45 minutes, the burning is done and all that’s left is the nutrient rich soil that will soon be used for maize.

Swidden (slash and burn): Nigh, Ronald, and Stewart AW Diemont. “The Maya Milpa: Fire and the Legacy of Living Soil.” Frontiers in ecology and the environment 11.s1 (2013): e45–e54. Web.

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Example of a Milpa showing abundance of biodiversity (From http://www.maya-ethnobotany.org Date: NA)

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Maya planted vast amounts of corn in fields they referred to as milpas. Milpas played a very important role in the lives of Maya people as they provided one of their most important crops, maize. Though primarily used to produce corn, it is also is used to produce beans and squash as well. This trio is also known as the three sisters. The reason why milpas are able to sustain so much biodiversity has to do the with nutrient rich soil as mentioned before and due to this not only do the Maya have a reliable source of food, but they also are able to add a lot of diversity to their everyday diets rather than just relying on one type of crop. It is also important to note that, because this is a long time practice, the Maya are able to know how much they need to take when it comes to environmental resources and do not go overboard to the point where the practice becomes unsustainable.

Another important fact about milpas is that, according to the article “Climate-Smart Adaptations and Government Extension Partnerships for Sustainable Milpa Farming Systems in Mayan Communities of Southern Belize”, author Kristin Drexler, the milpas are a significant aspect to Maya community, ceremonies, and rituals. The reason why is because, since it is a staple food source, the community works together to tend to the milpas and make sure they are growing properly. Rituals and ceremonies for the milpa also take play on a community scale and they are performed to ensure good weather and health for the future crops.

Milpas: Drexler, Kristin. “Climate-Smart Adaptations and Government Extension Partnerships for Sustainable Milpa Farming Systems in Mayan Communities of Southern Belize.” Sustainability (Basel, Switzerland) 13.6 (2021): 3040–. Web.

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Diagram of what traditional Maya Chultuns look like in Labna, a Mesoamerican archaeological site (from http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/chultun.htm;date:N/A)

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In the northern lowlands of the Yucatan peninsula, water is something that does not come around too often due to the geography. Because of this the Maya in the northern lowlands needed to get creative on how they stored water. Their solution was to create underground holes which were lined with plaster and helped to catch water when it was raining. This way, these chultuns were able to successfully hold plenty of water for the people living in the communities. However, according to the article, “An Experimental Approach to the Function of Classic Maya Chultuns” author Dennis E. Puleston discusses the theory that chultuns located in the southern lowlands possibly had other purposes besides water storage.

One of the major differences between northern and lowland chultuns, according to researchers, is that the lowland ones were much more shallow and were not shaped the same way. Thomas Gann, an amateur archaeologist, hypothesized that if these lowland chultuns were used for food, they were used to store mostly maize. However, after extensive experimentation on this topic, researchers found that the only food that was able to survive storage in these lowland chultuns are the ramon seeds. This theory by O. F. Cook in 1935, that these chultuns in the lowlands were for ramon seeds rather than water was deemed plausible because of the fact that, at the time, the ramon tree was another important staple food source for the Maya. Though chultuns are mostly used for water, as they are found in abundance in areas that lack frequent rainfall, researchers have continued to experiment with other possible uses.

Chultuns: Puleston, Dennis E. “An Experimental Approach to the Function of Classic Maya Chultuns.” American antiquity 36.3 (1971): 322–335. Web.

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Picture of a Bajo from El Tintal (Picture from: https://weather.msfc.nasa.gov/archeology/peten_bajos.html; date: N/A)

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According to the book “The Maya”, it states on page 21 that bajos are typically swampy areas located in some areas of Peten. Though bajos do not hold any nutritional value to crops, researchers suggest that the bajos served other purposes such as acting as damns to prevent flooding as bajos were known to have a lot of water. Researchers in the article titled, “Arising from the Bajos: The Evolution of a Tropical Landscape and the Rise of Maya Civilization” it is discussed how early Maya (around 4,000 B.P.) who began settling in the lowlands may have picked to settle here because not only was water available throughout the year because of these land depressions, but also because these areas were able to support vegetation.

Though most crops, specifically maize, do not respond that well to overly wet areas, “The Maya” book suggest that the Maya who occupied these lowlands could have utilized the technique of “flood-recession farming” which refers to the process of farming in a known flood area and then, over time, the water in the area eventually dries up until the next rain season. This idea was suggested by Vernon Scarborough who knows that bajos become increasingly dry during the winter season, thus the practice of flood-recession farming” seems possible. Though the bajos themselves were not very good for crops, the Maya utilized the soil that was around the bajos because that soil was good crops. The Maya in the lowlands were successfully able to use these bajos to their advantage and in doing so, they not only had a stable water source, but they also adapted to the environment to better interact with the vegetation.

Coe, Michael D., and Stephen Houston. The Maya. 9thth ed., Thames & Hudson, 2015, pp. 14-22

Bajos: Dunning, Nicholas P et al. “Arising from the Bajos: The Evolution of a Neotropical Landscape and the Rise of Maya Civilization.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92.2 (2002): 267–283. Web.

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This is a diagram of what a Tajo set up would look like. In this photo, number 4 represents the tajo which acts as a terrace to block the plants from the river.

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Tajos, according to the article titled Semiarid ethnoagroforestry management: Tajos in the Sierra Gorda, Guanajuato, Mexico” were giant terraces which helped with creating rich soil. These were especially beneficial in those areas where soil was not as fertile. These worked by capturing sediments that would erode away within the stone walls and over time as more collects, the sediments eventually become fertile and are now suitable crops to be planted and were usually built alongside rivers so that it could capture the river sediment. The water from the river is controlled by gates and able to enter into the tajos because of channels and constant upkeep of the tajos by the Maya people. Within these terraces would be milpas with the three sisters (maize, squash, and beans). Because Mexico in general is usually very dry, the soil on its own is not normally great for planting or domesticating crops. However, the tajos have helped greatly with combating these harsh conditions.

Because the tajos were built along river banks or around areas that were prone to floods, the Maya had to consistently keep up with maintenance other wise they risked having all of their crops get flooded out. The tajos were good for providing biodiversity to areas where biodiversity was not very common. With that being said, if the crops were to be ruined because of something like weather, the Maya who lived in the areas with poor soil risked losing their food source. This is why everyone worked together to run this intricate farming system.

Hoogesteger van Dijk, Vincent M, Alejandro Casas, and Ana Isabel Moreno-Calles. “Semiarid Ethnoagroforestry Management: Tajos in the Sierra Gorda, Guanajuato, Mexico.” Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine 13.1 (2017): 34–34. Web.

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Intro: McNeil, Cameron L.
2020    Favored Plants of the Maya. In The Maya World, edited by Scott R. Hutson, and Traci Ardren, pp. 183-202. Routledge, London and New York.

Swidden (slash and burn): Nigh, Ronald, and Stewart AW Diemont. “The Maya Milpa: Fire and the Legacy of Living Soil.” Frontiers in ecology and the environment 11.s1 (2013): e45–e54. Web.

Milpas: Drexler, Kristin. “Climate-Smart Adaptations and Government Extension Partnerships for Sustainable Milpa Farming Systems in Mayan Communities of Southern Belize.” Sustainability (Basel, Switzerland) 13.6 (2021): 3040–. Web.

Coe, Michael D., and Stephen Houston. The Maya. 9thth ed., Thames & Hudson, 2015, pp. 14-22

Chultuns: Puleston, Dennis E. “An Experimental Approach to the Function of Classic Maya Chultuns.” American antiquity 36.3 (1971): 322–335. Web.

Bajos: Dunning, Nicholas P et al. “Arising from the Bajos: The Evolution of a Neotropical Landscape and the Rise of Maya Civilization.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92.2 (2002): 267–283. Web.

Hoogesteger van Dijk, Vincent M, Alejandro Casas, and Ana Isabel Moreno-Calles. “Semiarid Ethnoagroforestry Management: Tajos in the Sierra Gorda, Guanajuato, Mexico.” Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine 13.1 (2017): 34–34. Web.

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Maya people placed a high value on plant resources due to the versatility plants provided them. Plants are used for food, ritual, medicinal, cultural and social purposes. The main target of the project is to highlight the importance of how plants connected with Maya people and give some insight on the forms they used plants as medicine.
Before modernization of medicine and cultivation of pills, there was a era of solely relying on the capabilities of plants. Plants have played a vital role in the medicinal practices of Maya people. The human-environment relationship is complimentary according to Maya people.  During the Classic period of Maya civilization (300 AD-900AD), there were many scientific advancements regarding research of plants in medicine (Fedyniak, 2007). Unfortunately, Maya medicine texts were destroyed during the Spanish inquisition leaving these medicinal practices to be passed down through generations orally. Due to the destroyed information on these plants, there are many unknowns about how plants were used for medicinal purposes but there is some intact history that was passed down and written.

Maya medicine thrived because of the amount of land they occupied throughout Mexico, Belize and Guatemala (Schuster, 2001). The forests are diverse and species-rich. This afforded healers of Maya medicine the opportunity to discover remedies for illnesses and diseases. The healers were key to understanding plants and their medicinal properties and were sought out for their native plant expertise as well as their spiritual guidance. Plants and people interconnected in the sense of Ch’ulel’, healers are there to make sure there is a balance in the body. The plants take care of the physical illness and the healer takes care of the spiritual aspect (Schuster, 2001). Depending on the illness, healers will choose what type of plants are appropriate to begin the process of healing. One of the Six Principles of Maya Medicine is the concept of hot/cold/neutral based on classifications of plants that healers have (Walshe-Roussel). The idea of the Hot/Cold principle is that hot plants treat cold illnesses and cold plants treat hot illnesses. Aside from plants being classified as hot or cold, their colors were indicative of their capabilities to treat illnesses. For example, yellow plants were used for infections/ailments of the liver and spleen. Blue plants were to treat nervous systems and white plants were typically plants to stay away from because they were often poisonous (Schuster, 2001).  Common cures were to address illnesses, such as cough, cold, headaches, fever and periodic epidemic diseases like smallpox, yellow fever, or measles.

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IxChel and ItzamnaT: from a classic period pot depicts the goddess Ix Chel (center) caring for an ailing Itzamná (right) and a female healer.

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In traditional Maya medicine, diseases and illnesses are seen as semi personified meaning that it was the disease could be manipulated and controlled by the healers. Healers would pray to the goddess Ixchel - Maya Jaguar Goddess of the Moon represents fertility, rains, rainbows, sacred healing and medicine. Plant medicine and sacred healing are under her domain (Guerra, 1964). Maya people had the Nine Benevolent gods that they would pray to but they would pray to the goddess Ixchel for matters pertaining to health and medicine (Schuster, 2001). Incantations and prayers to ancient deities and their Gods were the center of their religion.

Aside from destroying texts of medicine and plants that were made, Spaniards attempted to erase anything that had to do with ancient rituals of healing. The Spaniards did not understand their religion and wanted to impose their religion but were unsuccessful. There is written word from 1571 that depicts the disapproval of their rituals and their beliefs:

“The physicians and the sorcerers assembled in one of their houses with their wives … they opened the bundles of their medicine, in which they kept many little trifles and … little idols of the goddess of medicine, whom they called Ix Chel.” (Guerra, 1965)

Fortunately, through the amount of the events they endured, they never gave up their religion nor stopped their practices.

References:
Guerra, Francisco. (1964). Maya Medicine. Medical History. 8(1): 31–43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033334/pdf/medhist00160- 0037.pdf.

Schuster, A. M. H. (2001). On the Healer’s Path. Archaeology, 54(4), 34–38.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/41779526

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Brysonima crassifolia an ancient locust tree known as Chi, known for its properties of relieving yellow fever symptoms 

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Byrsonima crassifolia is a locust tree that was common for people in Chiapas also know as Chi by Maya people. When Maya people were conquered, they were exposed to many diseases such as yellow fever, dysentery, blood in their vomit. Tarantula seizure/eruptions and asthma (dr. young). Yellow fever is a viral disease that causes bleeding from the mouth, nose, eyes and stomach which is considered the most advanced phase of yellow fever (“Yellow Fever, 2018”). Maya people would use boil the bark and prepare it as a tea, a cup would be ingested alone (Berlin, et all, 2015). An incantation/prayer for people who presented with symptoms of yellow fever. This plant was described as:

“...The yellow koch-plant, the black koch,/ the chiuoh-xiu, are his arbor. Very yellow would be the fruit of the put ("papaya"). The balam-kuch-ci ("jaguarvulture-agave"): This enters into the anus of tarantula-eruption, tarantula-seizure. Then he took the rough exterior of the chi ("nancen"). This is his arbor, where he took his force…” (Roys, 1965)

References:

Berlin, Elois Ann, et al. Medical Ethnobiology of the Highland Maya of Chiapas, Mexico: The Gastrointestinal Diseases, Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 2015.

Perishable. “Ancient Mayan Wisdom.” D. Gary Young, https://www.dgaryyoung.com/blog/2018/ancient-mayan-wisdom/.

“Yellow Fever.” World Health Organization, World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/yellow-fever.

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It is often thought that food in ancient Maya was just associated with feasting events. There is evidence that shows foodstuffs, including plants, were an essential part of cave ritual practices. In a cave in Chiapas, Mexico, a hieroglyphic text was found that depicts a feast in a cave. Macrofaunal remains indicate that domesticated plant foods and trees were staples of cave rituals (Spenard, King, Gaiwad, 2020.) Plants were used for symbolic and archaeological practical reasons in cave rituals. During warfare, caves were often targeted and desecrated. The fact that enemies of the Maya went out of their way to destroy these places shows how sacred caves were to them.

Caves were and still are essential to Maya culture. Caves were places where you could contact nonhuman people or environmental forces. Water in caves was often associated with the underworld, life, and death, night and day. Caves are also tightly related to the creation story, powerful spiritual forces, destruction, and control of water, rain, and the earth (Butler, Morehart, 2021) hence the significance of rituals in caves. Caves were often portraited in the Popol Vuh the Maya book of creation. The Lord of the underworld, Xibalba lures and sacrifices the Hero twins’ father. The twins grow up, learn to play ball and then challenge Xibalba. Once they defeated Xibalba they resurrect their dad who becomes the Maize God (Butler, Morehart, 2021).

Jars found inside caves are strong evidence of rain rituals being performed inside the mountains. Other rituals performed in caves were fertility rites and agriculture, in association with deities. These rites were conducted to ensure a productive harvest and the maintenance of life. Some of these rituals were thought of as asking permission from the deities before planting crops, then repaying the deities with food offerings after harvest. Today, Modern Maya of Zinacantan, highlands Mexico still make pilgrimages to caves and mountains to communicate and repay the Earth Lord. Some rituals had political ties to them like negotiations and socioeconomic factors (Morehart, 2005)

One of the big questions surrounding cave rituals is, who participated in them? From the literature, we can hypothesize that in Pacbitun, Belize both elites and common people, at times including females participated in cave rituals. Some rituals included ingesting mind-altering beverages, burning pine tree bark, consuming cacao, and willow tree leaves and barks in association with water. It is important to not make inferential leaps regarding the social statuses of those who used caves. There is not enough archaeological evidence to deduce socioeconomic and political affiliation.

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 lord presents offering in vessel to deities. (Shanti Morrell-Hart, Plant Foodstuff of the Ancient Maya ) 

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Photo of white Willow tree bark. Often used in Maya cave rituals and ceremonies.  (Photo credit to: autoimmunewellness.com)

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Various species of Willow trees can be found in Central America. These trees thrive in damp environments or areas near water. The bark of willow trees and their leaves possess analgesic, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. which were often used for medical purposes. Maya of the highlands of Chiapas considered willows to be the origins of water. They would plant willow trees near water holes so the trees would thrive and not dry up. We can deduce that willows were a significant part/element of high importance of cave rituals associated with water. Only bark or leaves from the tree were used. There is no evidence suggesting that wood from the willow tree was utilized. Evidence shows that the willow tree was integral to ceremonies in caves. Current Maya still holds the willow tree in close association with water. At Actun Lak, chamber 1 two vessels were found that contained traces of Salicylic Acid. The vessels are thought to have been used to store offerings that were left behind. Salicylic Acid has been found in different vessels in different sites throughout Belize. The constant use of willow in different regions is a strong indicator of how integral willow trees were during cave ceremonies and rituals, and how its symbolism is closely associated with water.

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Ceramic vessels in Tzul’s Cave. Photo by Terry Powis.

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Photo of Vanilla beans.  Vanilla was often used as a flavoring for cacao other beverages. (88 acres, Photo Credit: Nielsen-Massey Vanillas)

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It was thought to be added to beverages regardless of whether they were used in rituals or not. It was often used as flavoring. Vanilla is a useful proxy for fermented beverages used in ritual contexts. Although not much information about how vanilla is tied into rituals and ceremonies has been found. A study conducted at Tzul’s cave detected biomarkers for vanilla in one of the vessels found at this site (Spenard, King, Gaiwad, 2020.) Therefore we can hypothesis that vanilla was used as part of cave rituals to add flavor to balche’ which is a mild intoxicant or another type of drink that did not contain cacao. Today, people of Belize combine vanilla with skunk urine and perfume as a type of love charm to prevent loved ones from leaving. A specific species of vanilla has also been used to flavor tobacco.

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Pine (Pinus SP) Cave: Actun Lak (photograph by Megan Parker).

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Other wood identified in caves in the Habin (Pisxidia sp) branches and wood from this tree is used for fruit rites and traditional rain ceremonies by modern Yutatek. At various sites around Pacbitun, pinewood has been detected as a type of wood required for ritual toolkits. Pinewood was not exclusively used, there have been other types of woods found at these sites which suggest the use of easily obtain woods that had symbolic or social meaning depending on rituals participants lived experiences, and social standing. Different types of woods are also thought to have been associated with different ancestors. The act of burning the wood symbolized calling ancestors to be a link between the living and the gods. This type of ritual happened around the classic Maya period, but the burning of various wood still remains a common practice among Maya people. The burning of objects creates appropriate food for the gods, essentially an essence that can be consumed. The rituals were often meant to invoke the gods and ask for protection and blessings. Protium copal is a type of wood associated with water and rain. Copal and Pine smoke have a fragrance that was used as incense during rituals. Charcoal remains indicate the use of Ficus, flowers from fig trees are believed to provide good fortune. The site of Actun Lak contains an alter in the near section, It has been heavily burned and 98 percent of the wood charcoal found was pine. The pieces of wood provided a radiocarbon date of 770-940 AD (Parker, M., Spernard, J., 2020.) It is possible that pinewood was burned to produce symbolic rainclouds.

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Photo of fresh cacao beans. (Photo credit to: Tropicalfruitbox.com )

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Often associated with nobility in Classic Mata society. Pacbitun, Belize.

Available in pre-Hispanic Maya area to both nobility and most people. Cacao was often used in rituals and lineage feasts. It was grown in the western Belize valley. In Actun Hayach Naj Cave there are traces of cacao in a vessel that was tested. From this, we can make a connection to nobles and their practices, and cave rituals. Traces of cacao were found in a vessel along with other biomarkers like Datura and salicylic acid. Which were associated with nobility, shamanism, and water. One vessel in particular only contained traces of Datura and cacao. Datura was used as a hallucinogen often used in rituals. Perhaps cacao was mixed in to provide a better flavor similar to how vanilla was used. From the Evidence of cacao, we can induce that nobility often participated in these rituals. Today, Ch’orti’ Maya of eastern Guatemala still hold strong symbolic similarities between corn and cacao. Depending on which theory you look at, finding cacao residues in jars and plates inside caves can support the idea that these rituals were tied to elite men. The Actun Hayach Naj Cave is located in a prime region of cacao production, meaning that cacao would have been available to most. Although, it would not have been used often by commoners only for important rituals. t is also likely that women in this area participated in rituals since cacao had strong symbolic ties to women. Thus, we can conclude that the Maya of all social classes performed rituals in the caves of Pacbitun

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By Joshua Tree National Park - Sacred datura (Datura wrightii), Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=44188012

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Datura
Genus: Solanaceae
All parts of the Datura flower are toxic and were used to induce mind-altering effects.
Pacbitun, Late preclassic through the Terminal Classic period.

Ancient Maya added Datura to fermented drinks, possibly made from maize. They utilized all parts of the plant, roots, leaves, and seeds. Due to its hallucinogenic properties, it was used in Maya shamanistic rituals and used in cave rituals. Datura was associated with death, war, and directional symbolism. Medicine men often used beverages containing Daruta to diagnose disease. Interestingly enough, traces of Datura are rare. It was usually consumed, so there are little to no archaeological records of it. In Actun Hayach Naj Cave, an offering vessel was found that contained biomarkers for Datura, cacao, and salicylic acid. It was an early classic orange tripod plate found in an artificially enclosed cave.  Other pieces of ceramic in this cave date back to the Classic period. This tells us something about the activities of ancient Maya in caves. We can reinforce the belief that datura was used as a hallucinogen and was significant in cave rituals from ancient imagery and historical texts. Vases depicting the use of enemas in caves are seen through the Maya area. We see a liquid being poured from jars or vases, they probably contained some sort of fermented drink mixed with datura. In these, we see bone tubes, like the ones found in Actun Hayach Naj Cave.  We can deduct those ceremonies were performed while under the influence of drinks possibly mixed with Datura. Although, it would be hard to deduce how often hallucinogens were used or if they were used in most rituals.

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Bursera simaruba - an example of how Yucatan Maya people used the bark and leaves of the Gumbo-limbo tree. 

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Object: Bursera simaruba
Where found: Guatemala/Yucatan
Date: Unknown

Bursera simaruba commonly known as Chacah for Maya people is from the Gumbo-limbo tree. The Chacah tree was known to heal external wounds and can be used as a tea (Alegria, 2021, Roys, 1965). The Gumbo-limbo tree is described as the “red Chacah tree” which can be used for blood-related conditions, burns or rashes. This particular tree is covered with resinous bark that can be peeled off and used for vulnerary or external wounds. The leaves are used for tea. According to Roys, this could be used for fever, seizures and  eruptions. The chacah was to be drunk with peppers and honey. Along with drinking the tea, there would be a ritual performed by the healer as he spoke the words from the manuscript. The plant and ritual in the Ritual of Bacabs is described as:

" ...Who is your tree? Who is the bush of the eruptions? Alas, it is to be created by the red colonte-woodpecker. This is to be created by him. The red nix-che-tree. This is the arrival of the red chacah-tree./ This is the arrival, alas, of the eruptions. They return because of their mother, because of their father, alas. Who is the coolness of my hand, alas, when I arrive, oh, to break the great fierce (or poisonous?) one? I grasp the bowl of my red spring, my white spring, my black spring, when I cool its force (or pain). Oh, I grasp the bowl of my red cenote, my white cenote, my black cenote, when I cool its force (or pain). I grasp the bowl of my red forest-pond (kaxek), oh, my black forest-pond, when I cool its force (or pain)./ I grasp the bowl of my white hail, my black hail, when I cool its force, alas. Amen. The chacah [chacau, chocolate?] is to be drunk with two peppers, a little honey, and a little tobacco-juice. It is to be drunk (Roys, 1965)"

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Late Classic period polychrome Maya vase, Popol Vuh Museum Guatemala; the head of the Maize God as a cacao pod

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The Popol Vuh is the creation story and has close ties to the cacao tree. The cacao tree and Maize God are depicted to be in a complimentary relation ship because when the Maize God dies, the cacao beans are what provide his future generations sustenance to create another generation.

“Cacao grows in pods directly from the trunk of the tree (i.e., not on branches). In order to make chocolate, the pods have to be cut open and the seeds (also called beans) extracted. Next, the seeds and pulp are fermented for several days (up to six), which allows the seeds to germinate briefly. This process is necessary to give the chocolate flavor to the end product.” (Vail, 2014) It was common that the cacao beans were fermented, roasted or ground up.

Cacao played a significant role in ceremonial practices for Maya people but it also had a place in the medicinal aspects. Commonly used when someone had a fever, the person would be put into an herbal bath along with a chocolate and herb drink to break the fever. Cacao is commonly know for drinking during feastivities and special occasions but it was used as medicine and/or used to disguise the flavor of medicine. It was often used as a chocolate paste for better digestion of butter medications. All parts of the cacao plant were harvested and used: beans, bark, leaves and flowers for a variety of different reasons from skin irritation, fevers to external burns. Cacao was also used as a stimulant, weight gain and sometimes snake bit remedies. Maya people were very knowledgeable of their plants and they knew exactly how to use them. Modern day scientific experiments now show that cacao has distinctive compounds that can inhibit microbes and has antibacterial properties.

Martin, Simon. “Tales from the Underworld: Cacao in Ancient Maya Religion.” Cacao in Ancient Maya Religion, https://www.mexicolore.co.uk/maya/chocolate/cacao-in-ancient-maya-religion.

Vail, Gabrielle. “The Food of the Gods: Cacao Use among the Prehispanic Maya.” The Food of the Gods: Cacao Use among the Prehispanic Maya, https://www.mexicolore.co.uk/maya/chocolate/cacao-use-among-the-prehispanic-maya.

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Figure 1: Sastun - sacred stone that translates into “light stone” where healers communicate to spirits and find the cause of illnesses

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Incantations and prayers are said to the Nine Benevolent Maya gods especially to the Goddess Ixchel who is the Goddess of floods, rains, fertility and medical matters. A manuscript known as the Rituals of the Bacabs is well known for its incantations and prescriptions. It is suggested that the manuscript is from an earlier ages and has been translated/transcribed. The sastun is a sacred stone that healers obtain from the Gods to bridge the dive between physical and spiritual world that allows the healer to determine the illness and solutions to heal the illness (Schuster, 2001). The sastun is not something the healer could simply buy at the store, they would have to pray to the Nine Benevolent gods at an alter and wait for it.

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Alegria, Maria Jose Garcia. “Yaxha Park to Photograph Remarkably Colorful Bright Rust Red Peeling Bark in Rain Forests of Guatemala.” Yaxha Park to Photograph Remarkably Colorful Bright Rust Red Peeling Bark in Rain Forests of Guatemala, http://www.maya-ethnobotany.org/ethnobotany-of-Parque-Nacional-Yaxha-Nakum-Naranjo/Bursera-simaruba-palo-de-jiote-chaca-gumbo-limbo-at-Yaxha.php.

Caamal-Fuentes, E. E., Peraza-Sánchez, S. R., Torres-Tapia, L. W., & Moo-Puc, R. E. (2015). Isolation and Identification of Cytotoxic Compounds from Aeschynomene fascicularis, a Mayan Medicinal Plant. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 20(8), 13563–13574. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules200813563

John Richard Stepp. (2018). Ethnoecology and Medicinal Plants of the Highland Maya. Springer.

Roys, Ralph Loveland. Ritual of the Bacabs: A Book of Maya Incantations. Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1965.

Schuster, A. M. H. (2001). On the Healer’s Path. Archaeology, 54(4), 34–38.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/41779526

Walshe-Roussel, B., Otarola Rojas, M., Sanchez Vindas, P. et al. Ethnobotany of Immunomodulatory Treatments Used by the Q’eqchi’ Maya of Belize. Econ Bot 73, 154–170 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-019-09451-6

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The Maya believed in the living breathing souls of plants and they revered them with a sense of honor that may be hard for most people living in the world today to understand or comprehend. They anointed them as embodiments of the Gods themselves and payed tribute to them even going so far to use them for trade as a currency. The Maya  knew the importance of healthy plants and instinctually understood their properties much as a botanist today would. But what takes years of study for a botanist to develop seemed to naturally occur for the Maya.  They shared a deep connection to the spirits of plants and knew how to combine their essences to heal. The Maya understood how the cycles of the seasons changed and how that in turn effected the behaviors of a plant  which they then used. This sacred  knowledge gave them the power to cultivate the landscape around them to fit the plant communities needs.
The Maya imagined their world in cycles of time and being in sync with the seasons allowed them prophetic foresight to know when to plant the seeds when to harvest them and when to feast and even when the plants would lie dormant. They calculated the time so precisely that they erected monuments so they could watch the rising cycle of the sun moon and even collaborate the time frames of the passages of Venus and Mars to know when to contemplate patterns for war. The Maya plant community was directly effected by seasonal changes such as flood and dry spells so thus knowledge also helped them ti they know when enemies would be at their weakest so they could ready the attack.
The calendar round spoke directly to the Maya and how they interpreted it changed their patterns of social interaction and prepared them for times of festivities when they knew the harvest would peak. The Maya knew how to align the plants with their ancestors and how to summon the properties within each plants essence so they could heal the body and cleanse the mind. They imagined their world as in tune and saw how the animal ambassadors of plants interacted with their plant families knowing that if the animal does not use the plant it was most likely poisonous. Then they knew it was medicine in a sense that bitterness gave them clues on how to interact with the plant.
The plants life cycles became obvious to them as they watched and monitored their growth patterns and waited for the changes in the environment to discover clues on how to better nurture the plant world. The Maya were the animal and plant communities caretakers and so the raising of crops became the heart of the people. They took care of the world around them and understood how they could learn to control the ways in which the people could thrive rather than just survive day to day. Thus lead to settlements and a common shared thread of understanding his interconnected all living beings are. The Maya began to sacrifice not fur themselves but to ever give thanks for all the Gods had bestowed and taught them. Their communication through the use of psychotropic plant rituals led them in direction communion with their Gods and ancestor spirits which further drove them to revelations of time and space. The Maya had the will and need to become masters of perception with regards to their life ways. Plants were the key to understanding how they could become one with everything.

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Yaxche the tree of life of the Maya ritual bowl 300-600 A.D. Mesoamerica Time Vault Gallery

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Yaxche the ceiba or kapok tree was believed to be the sacred tree of life from which all living things came forth. The ancient Maya saw it as a gateway as its canopy reached up through the thirteen levels of heavens where the Gods  would perch themselves atop its branches and watch over the works far below. The tree also had its central trunk which climbed down through the earth and it’s rooting system delved down through all the nine levels of Xilbalba their sacred underworld. The ceiba was split open by the rain God Chaac who wielded his snakes and axes to bring out the living plants animals and human race as we know them today. The Maya believe the ceiba to be the channel for communication with the Gods so it is revered for its splendor. It is celebrated in stories like the Polpol Vuh and many Maya still use its resources of fine cotton to this day.
According to the Polpol Vuh the Gods themselves planted from the one mother source tree Yaxche four other ceiba trees one in each direction that were believed to uphold the pillars of the sky itself. The eastern direction held the red ceiba while the west corner of the world was black, the southern corner was yellow while it’s counterpart the north was white. The mother tree Yaxche held the middle position so it was the heart of the quincrux, it connected the three levels of existence, the heavens the earth and Xilbalba. Yaxche was the channel for the souls of men to travel between worlds and communicate with the ancestors and their Gods. It was their axis mundi, central portal of all creation.
The Maya understood and fused this idea into their architectural design to model their life as it is in the stars above. The created what is called quadripartite, an architectural ordering of their world as it was seen from the placement of those original five scared ceiba trees. “Prestigious temples were built and arranged in Quadripartite order in honor of the five Yaxche trees of creation.” (Itzel Almaguer, Historical Mexico). Many works of art of the ceiba tree are imbedded into buildings of the Maya. The trees were planted wherever the rituals of importance such as the ball game were placed within city walls. The souls of dead warriors were believed to ascend the tree to the heavens as well as women who died in childbirth. Being the center of Maya life the ceiba tree was sacred in essence and much of their daily lives revolves around its trunk.

Itzel Almaguer.” Yaxche :The Tree  of Life.” HistoricalMX, accessed November 11,2021. https://historicalmx.org/items/show/141

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This vessel with the head of the Pulque Goddess Mayahuel was discovered by Dominik Bilimek and is on exhibit at Weltmuseum Wien and is dated 1500. 

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It is made of stone, most possibly jade or jadeite. The creation story of Mayahuel is a favored retelling and is within the contents of the famous creation mythology in the Pol Pol Vuh. The story is a beautiful love story of a famous star goddess hidden away from the Gods because she was a favored child of her grandmother and had been reknown for her beauty. Mayahuel lived among the top thirteen levels of heaven and was forbidden to taste the fruit of love by her jealous grandmother Tzitzmitl. As Mayahuel grew she longed for passion and dreamed often of romance and escape. Mayaheul sang from her cloudy skyscape praying to find love her melodies were enchanting and so she hoped love would find her. One night the serpent wind god Ehecatl heard her song filled with longing and sadness and followed its sound to find her. He instantly fell madly in love with the Goddess and stole her away begging her to come down and dance upon the ripe earth with him. But her grandmother forbade it but she so desired him she followed anyways knowing her grandmothers wrath would soon find them. He curled his wind around enclosing her in a sweet windfall and they descended to the earth below. They danced all night becoming one and Mayahuel never returned to her cloud prison. Tzitzmitl was fuming and in her heart she knew that the passion had overwhelmed her grandchild and she plotted the lovers deaths. Knowing her rage was coming Ehecatl melted their bodies together as one until they became the beautiful agave plant the Maya call maguey. The many green spires were symbols of their ascent to heaven while the spikes they he hoped would keep Tzitzmitl away from them. But much to their dismay the grandmother carried her machete and furiously tore the plant to pieces hacking it apart. She then cooked the bits into a broth and fed it to the legions of demons of the underworld. Ehecatl was smarter still he made certain she had missed a piece and carried its essence on his breath of wind and deposited it in the rich volcanic soil. He then cried an ocean of tears for Mayahuel's death and called upon Tlaloc the rain god to give sustenance to Mayahuel's remains, so she could be reborn and ever praised for her beauty and resilience.

Polpol Vuh, Sacred Book of the Quiche Maya People. Translation and Commentary by Allen J. Christenson
www.mesoweb.com

Mezcalistas.com 2021

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Maize God Hun Hunapu’s  rebirth from a turtle carapace Princeton Art Museum discovered in 1834 by W Ranney.

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Hun Hunahpu rebirth plate creation mythology 

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Hun Hunahpu rebirth plate creation mythology 

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In the great creation myths of the Polpol Vuh, the Hero twins Hunahpu and Xbalanque  are set on a mission to find their father Hunahpu and bring him back to the earth freeing him from the confines of the underworld of Xilbalba where he was cleverly tricked into death and demise. They foster a plan to free themselves from death by undergoing the various trails of the death Gods and winning their fathers life back as retribution. They themselves get caught up and finally deceive the death lords into sacrificing themselves thinking that they will be resurrected too along with their clever animation and reanimation as old wise men. This leads to their victory and their eventual resurrection of their father Hunapu who breaks free from a turtle carapace that is struck by the lightning God Chaac where he emerges as the maize God who brings food as sustenance for the lives of the Maya people. The Book of Council is the oldest creation story of the Quiche Maya and the retelling of the wise twin heroes is a much loved tale often depicted in the festivities through dance and music. Many other myths about maize exist as well, connecting Hunahpu to the ceiba world birth tree, as well as the essence of cocoa when the death lords stack his head is stuck upon its' branch in the underworld of Xilbalba as a prize for slaying him and his brother for their annoyance of playing the ball game.

www.mexicolore.co.uk
maya.nmai.si.edu

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Discovered in tomb in Peten area of Guatemala, the writing states it is a drinking vessel for Cocoa. Mayaarchaeologist.co.uk

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Chocolate drinking vessel with Lid Guatemala

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Chocolate drinking vessel with Lid Guatemala

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Cocoa was a sacred plant among the Maya people and much lore surrounds its creation story. Life coming from the old is a core concept in Mesoamerican thought, so life springing forth from something dead is a common theme. The creation story of the maize God who sacrifices himself to the earth to bring forth all the fruits and flowering plants comes to mind when we think about chocolate and its meaning. Centeotl as he is referred to in ancient mexican lore " puts himself under the ground, and from his hair emerged cotton, and from an eye a very good seed which they will gladly eat, called cactzli.... From the nose, another seed called chia. From the fingernails another kind of broad maize, which is the kind they eat today. And from the rest of his body emerged many other fruits, which men gather and sow." (mexicolore.co.uk). It was revered as the first among fruit trees that were produced from the body of their first ancestor maize himself. It became the symbol therefore of fertility and was depicted in many sacred books as carrying the heads of the gods. The tree was always depicted with the gourds sprouting forth from the tree, the heads of gods. In the Polpol Vuh, the maize God Hunahpu is depicted as the talking head of the scared cocoa tree whom impregnates the death lords daughter Cuchumaquic, from his spittle in her hand. She then escapes Xilbalba to carry his grandchildren to the earth to be born as the hero twins. The cocoa tree was recycled energy from the maize god and its association of its anthropomorphic heads as cocoa pods represents the idea that all life returns just as the seeds of one life diminish so sprout a new form of life from its energy.

Dr. Simon Martin, Associate Curator, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. "First Fruit from the Maize Tree and other tales from the Underworld". 2006
Mexicolore.co.uk

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Richard Rose discovered these mushroom effiegies believed to be a representation of association with the ancient flowering God known as Xochipilli

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Maya Teonanacatl Mushroom effigies, the flesh of the Gods

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Maya Teonanacatl Mushroom effigies, the flesh of the Gods

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Xochipilli was the aztec God of flowers who was always depicted in statues with teonanacatl mushrooms covering both his earlobes and his kneecaps among other various pyschotropic plant essences surround his body such as the well known Datura, known as Ololiuqui scrolling along his limbs. He was depicted in states of spiritual ecstacy and was the giver of the flowery language, associated with dance and music. These mushrooms were mixed with pulque and chocolate to infuse the drinks with spiritual energy for communication and transformation to their gods. The creation story of Xochipilli is one of recreation as he was known to take on the deathly flesh of a flayed sacrifical victim as a second skin. From this flayed skin he emerges with a range of wild flowers and plants emerging forth from his body including flowering heads of mushrooms. The resurgence of life from the deathly veil is a common theme as the rotted flesh falls off he becomes reborn and smelling sweetly of new life and energy. Xochilpiil is seen as forever, " in the inebriated state of ecstasy known as temicxoch or the flowery dream." the Datura flower is said to bring one great visions in dreams and so it was used by the Maya in sacred ceremonies to invoke the power of Xochipilli. the mushrooms were known as the flesh of the gods.

fs.fed.us USDA, U.S. Forest Service. United States Department of Agriculture.

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Ardren. (2020). Her Cup for Sweet Cacao: Food in Ancient Maya Society. University of Texas Press.

Desertcart. (n.d.). Retrieved November 21, 2021, from https://belize.desertcart.com/products/119764916-white-willow-tree-salix-alba.

Morehart, C. T., & Butler, N. (2010). Ritual exchange and the fourth obligation: ancient Maya food offering and the flexible materiality of ritual. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 16(3), 588–608. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40926124

Parker, Megan & Spenard, Jon. (2020). Ritual Plant Use in Pacbitun’s Caves: A Social Paleoethnobotanical Approach.

Prufer, Keith M., and James Edward Brady. Stone Houses and Earth Lords : Maya Religion in the Cave Context . Boulder, Colo: University Press of Colorado, 2005. Print.

Powis, Terry G, Sheldon Skaggs, and George J Micheletti. An Archaeological Reconstruction of Ancient Maya Life at Pacbitun, Belize: Edited by Terry G. Powis, Sheldon Skaggs and George J. Micheletti. Oxford, England: BAR Publishing, 2020. Print.