# data[].attributes.headline
Group 7: Two defense systems in bacteria work in a complementary manner to protect from viruses

# data[].attributes.subject
Group 7: Two defense systems in bacteria work in a complementary manner to protect from viruses

# data[].attributes.body
Group members:

Muhammad Hilmi bin Roslin

Nurul Farahin binti Samsudin

Jazmin Qistina binti Jani

Nur Dini Maisarah binti Hezal

Summary
1. Bacteria has a 'defence island' consisting of many immune systems. Two of those systems, BREX and BrxU, work in a complementary way to protect against various bacteriophage types.

2. BrxU as a defence system against modified DNA phages that manage to pass first defence system, BREX. This is because BrxU can sense the DNA with specific modifications.

3. The same DNA modification appears in the human genome, therefore BrxU has potential as a biotechnological tool to better understand about the 'epigenome' that controls human growth and disease progression.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A new study led by a team of bioscientists from Durham University, UK, in collaboration with University of Liverpool, Northumbria University and New England Biolabs, hopes to exploit newly characterized defense systems in bacteria to compare changes to the human genome.

Undergraduates at Durham University have also been working on this research to demonstrate the complex workings of bacterial innate immunity.

Bacteria have evolved a multitude of defense systems to protect themselves from viruses called bacteriophages. Many of these systems have already been developed into useful biotechnological tools, such as for gene editing, where small changes are made to the target DNA.

The researchers demonstrated that two defense systems worked in a complementary manner to protect the bacteria from bacteriophages.

One system protected the bacteria from bacteriophages that did not have any modifications to their DNA.

Some bacteriophages modify their DNA to avoid this first defense system. A second system, called BrxU, protected the bacteria from those bacteriophages with modified DNA, thereby providing a second layer of defense.

The researchers built an extremely detailed 3-D picture of BrxU to better understand how it protects from bacteriophages with modified DNA.

BrxU has the potential to be another useful biotechnological tool, because the same DNA modifications that BrxU recognizes appear throughout the human genome, and alter in cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.

Being able to recognize modified DNA is crucial, as similar modifications are found throughout the DNA of the human genome.

This extra layer of information, the "epigenome", alters as we grow, and also changes in cases of cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.

If we can develop BrxU as a biotechnological tool for mapping this epigenome, it will transform our understanding of the adaptive information controlling our growth and disease progression."

Dr Tim Blower, Study Senior Author, Associate Professor and Lister Institute Prize Fellow, Durham University's Department of Biosciences

The study findings from lead author Dr David Picton and co-workers are published in the journal Nucleic Acids Research.

The 97 undergraduates involved in this work were in the final years of their BSc or MBiol degrees in the Department of Biosciences, Durham University.

As part of a Microbiology Workshop designed to provide research-led teaching, they were tasked with isolating new bacteriophages for study. These bacteriophages thankfully don't harm humans, but just as the human immune system responds to infections, bacteria have been forced to evolve their own immune systems that protect from bacteriophages.

Bacteriophages were collected from the River Wear, College ponds and other waterways around Durham. They were then used to test the bacteriophage innate immunity in E. coli bacteria.

The research was funded in the UK by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council Newcastle-Liverpool-Durham Doctoral Training Partnership, the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, Durham University's Biophysical Sciences Institute, and the Wellcome Trust.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Two defense systems in bacteria work in a complementary manner to protect from viruses

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A new study led by a team of bioscientists from Durham University, UK, in collaboration with University of Liverpool, Northumbria University and New England Biolabs, hopes to exploit newly characterized defense systems in bacteria to compare changes to the human genome.

# data[].attributes.body
Group 3: Artificial Chromosomes Study Sheds Light On Gene Therapy

Group Members:
1. VIVIAN OOI HUI LING (205316)

2. AISYAH NABILAH BINTI RAMLAN (205942)

3. NUR AFANIN DAYANA BINTI ADANAN (206397)

4. INTAN NABIHAH BINTI ADNAN (206764)

5. IZWAN HAKIM BAHARUDDIN (207087)

Summary
-Artificial chromosomes consists of naked foreign DNA introduced into the cell in which it was made up of foreign DNA that mixed with native DNA sequences, thus it exhibits the same properties as natural chromosomes.

-Caenorhabditis elegans, a free-living nematode was used in this research because it contains a gene that can build an artificial chromosome with no native sequence requirement and in this research, the methods that were used to study the unique characteristic of AC is microinjection and in vivo biological process.

-The results show that the preferences to propagate the artificial chromosomes are the DNA sequence composition, complexity, and length, and this preference can be used in gene therapy.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A research team led by Dr Karen Wing Yee YUEN, Associate Professor from the School of Biological Sciences at the University of Hong Kong (HKU), revealed the mechanism of artificial chromosome (AC) formation in the embryos of the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans, a 1-mm long, transparent nematode.

The findings have been published as two back-to-back papers in the influential scientific journal Nucleic Acids Research. The studies have provided insights into the mechanisms of DNA assembly, new centromere formation and have facilitated the engineering of ACs for cloning and gene therapy. In summary, Dr Karen Yuen and postdoctoral fellow Dr Zhongyang LIN have discovered the cellular proteins in vivo (inside a living organism) used for processing foreign, naked DNA fragments to form a chromatin-packaged artificial chromosome and dissected the molecular mechanisms of how kb-sized foreign DNA can be assembled into an over 10 megabase-sized artificial chromosome in C. elegans.
What are artificial chromosomes, and why do they hold the key to future medicine?
Essentially, our DNA is packaged meticulously by proteins to make up the chromatin. If DNA were like a thread, these proteins are the spools that the DNA thread winds around to keep itself organised and neat inside of a microscopic cell. However, what will happen when a foreign, naked DNA thread with no spool is introduced into the environment? Interestingly, the cell is equipped to supply this new thread with its own self-made spools, enabling this naked DNA thread to be stably maintained in the cellular environment as part of the cell's new repertoire. We call this process artificial chromosome (AC) formation.

Amongst the useful applications of artificial chromosomes, one of the most exciting prospects is gene therapy. For example, the fatal, chronic lung disease cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by a mutation in the CFTR gene and is currently an incurable disease. Scientists have been studying the use of bacterial and yeast artificial chromosomes (BACs and YACs) as a vector or carrier to express the normal, functional CFTR gene and overcome the defective CFTR expression in patient cells.

As in life, to manipulate something, we must first understand it. In order to engineer artificial chromosomes, we must first learn how they are formed and maintained.
How new chromosomes are formed and maintained, and the importance of the centromere
Almost two trillion cells divide every day in an average human body. This means that two trillion cells have to make a perfect copy of themselves every time. The cost of cell division that comes short of flawlessness is undoubtedly humankind's worst enemy yet: cancer, in which many are characterised by chromosome instability. One important player in ensuring the faithful inheritance of our chromosomes during cell division is the centromere.

The centromere is a specialised region on each chromosome that connects the chromosome to spindle microtubules to orchestrate chromosome segregation in every cell division. In some cancer cells, centromeres may become inactivated or lost from chromosomal rearrangements and bypass chromosome loss by forming a new centromere on a random, ectopic region. So far, not much is known about new centromere (neocentromere) formation, despite it being implicated in chromosome instability and a driver of tumorigenesis. This is because neocentromere formation is notoriously difficult to study since the process of neocentromere establishment has been challenging to observe, as they are only ascertained when developmental disorders or cancer arise and genomic analyses are performed. In other words, new centromeres are often detected long after their formation and stabilisation.

To conduct studies on centromere formation, Dr Yuen's team utilised a straightforward, direct method: microinjection, developed almost 30 years ago. In other species, such as humans, foreign DNA is recognised and excluded mostly and hence not propagated into future generations as a self-defence mechanism. Surprisingly, C. elegans is one of the rare species that allows foreign DNA, completely devoid of any C. elegans DNA sequence, to fuse into a big, megabase-sized artificial chromosome. Simply put, while C. elegans can build an artificial chromosome with no native sequence requirement, the same cannot be said about other artificial chromosomes from other species like human (HAC), which require some human DNA sequences in order to build and propagate as an artificial chromosome.

To further study this unique characteristic, the team has developed an in vivo fluorescent system to visualise the artificial chromosomes in real-time. Dr Yuen's lab uses this artificial chromosome segregation assay as a functional readout for de novo (from the beginning) centromere formation to investigate factors that affect de novo centromere establishment. Dr Lin identified the histone chaperone RbAp46/48 LIN-53 and acetyltransferase HAT-1 as essential for centromere formation. Here, C. elegans acts as a robust model due to its transparent embryos that facilitate imaging, but also its rare nature to efficiently induce de novo centromere formation and segregate the new artificial chromosomes faithfully within a few cell cycles in the embryos.

The current studies of artificial chromosomes provide novel insights into the chromosomal processes required for de novo centromere formation and chromosome maintenance. Dr Yuen's team revealed the in vivo biological processes necessary for exogenous DNA to become a stably propagating artificial chromosome and unravel the hierarchy in assembling a de novo centromere from foreign DNA fragments. To further dissect the unique characteristic of C. elegans in adopting foreign DNA sequences, Dr Yuen's team also explored if this phenomenon is bound by rules, i.e. manipulating the DNA sequence composition, complexity and length to observe the preferences for building an artificial chromosome in C. elegans.

Using these approaches, we are now able to observe and systematically compare how a new centromere is established on an artificial chromosome and also how a pre-existing centromere is maintained on the C. elegans endogenous chromosomes.
Can artificial chromosomes in worms be the answer to gene therapy?
Finally, how are worms relevant to humans? While the order of how genes are arranged on a chromosome can be consistent across different closely related species, centromere repositioning also occurs throughout evolution. Therefore, the process of new centromere formation may act as a driver of diseases but also serves as a marker of evolution. Furthermore, the results of these studies could help advance the synthetic biology field by exploring how some characteristics can be designed to optimise the establishment of an artificial chromosome by improving the efficiency of de novo centromere formation through accurate segregation to improve the applications of ACs as large-capacity, faithful vectors for cloning and gene therapies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
genes; epigenetics; human biology; down syndrome; genetics; molecular biology; cell biology; epigenetics research

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Artificial chromosomes study sheds light on gene therapies

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A research team led by Dr Karen Wing Yee YUEN, Associate Professor from the School of Biological Sciences at the University of Hong Kong (HKU), revealed the mechanism of artificial chromosome (AC) formation in the embryos of the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans, a 1-mm long, transparent nematode.

# data[].attributes.headline
GROUP 6: How to program DNA robots to poke and prod cell membranes

# data[].attributes.subject
GROUP 6: How to program DNA robots to poke and prod cell membranes

# data[].attributes.body
Group members:
1. SITI NUR MAISARAH BINTI SAMUDIN 207458

2. AIMAN ZULHAKIM BIN ZULKIFLI 207662

3. ATIKAH MUSLIHAH BINTI ROSLAN 207885

4. AALIYAH NATASHA BINTI SHAHRUL AMER 208238

5. NUR HAZWANI BINTI KHAIRUDDIN 209398

Summary of the article
1. Designing the best DNA robots that are made from just a few nucleotides and are pre-programmed by the scientists to use in biosensing and mRNA vaccines by punching ‘holes’ into the membrane to pass important signals across it. By modifying the shape, porosity and reactivity of liposomes, drugs can be delivered in response to the signal.

2. In Pfizer and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines : Liposome nanotechnology has shot into prominence. This work shows new ways to corral liposomes into place and then pop them open at just the right time.

3. Modifying the Liposome, more greater application such as building small molecular systems that sense their environment (biosensing) and respond to a signal to release a cargo, such as a drug molecule when it nears its target.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How to program DNA robots to poke and prod cell membranes

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A discovery of how to build little blocks out of DNA and get them to stick to lipids has implications for biosensing and mRNA vaccines.

# data[].attributes.headline
Group 2: A new way to read H3K27 methylation

# data[].attributes.subject
Group 2: A new way to read H3K27 methylation

# data[].attributes.body
Members:

CHONG VUN KIAN

THEYSIGA A/P SUNDRA RAJAN

AIMIEN NAJWA BINTI ANUAR

ANNA MELYSSA WOO BINTI YUSUF WOO

AINA SOFEA BINTI MOHD SHAFULLAH

Summary
-Histone H3 lysine 27 methylation (H3K27me3) is a process of regulation of DNA transcription.

-Fusarium head blight is a disease that normally affects cereal crops worldwide.

- Study lead by Prof. Ma on the biological function of epigenetic modifications in the pathogenesis and toxin biosynthesis of F. graminearum have discovered the bromo-adjacent homology (BAH)-plant homeodomain (PHD) domain contains the protein BAH-PHD protein 1 (BP1) which is a distinct effector protein that act as a “reader” that recognizes H3K27 methylation in F. graminearum.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Credit: CC0 Public Domain

On September 27, the research team led by Prof. MA Zhonghua at the Zhejiang University College of Agriculture & Biotechnology published an article titled "Fusarium BP1 is a reader of H3K27 methylation" in the journal Nucleic Acids Research.

Histone H3 lysine 27 methylation (H3K27me3) can result in facultative heterochromatin for transcriptional repression. Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) is responsible for catalyzing and maintaining H3K27me3, and polycomb repressive complex 1 (PRC1) for recognizing H3K27me3, catalyzing H2Aub modifications, promoting chromatin compaction for gene silencing and recruiting PRC2 in animals and plants. Although PRC2 is also well conserved in fungi, components of PRC1 are notably absent in this kingdom. Thus, the mechanism for recognition of H3K27me3 remains obscure in fungi.

Fusarium head blight caused by Fusarium graminearum is a devastating disease of cereal crops worldwide. In addition to the yield loss caused by the disease, mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives, produced by the pathogen in infested grains, represent a serious threat to human and animal health. In order to develop new management technologies against this disease, it is urgent to analyze the pathogenesis of the pathogen and the mechanism of toxin biosynthesis.

In recent years, the team led by Prof. Ma has conducted intensive research into the biological function of epigenetic modifications in the pathogenesis and toxin biosynthesis of F. graminearum, including acetylation, methylation, ubiquitination and phosphorylation. In this study, researchers identified the bromo-adjacent homology (BAH)-plant homeodomain (PHD) domain containing protein BAH-PHD protein 1 (BP1) as a reader of H3K27 methylation in F. graminearum. BP1 is distributed in a subset of genomic regions marked by H3K27me3 and co-represses gene transcription. The BP1 deletion mutant shows identical phenotypes on mycelial growth and virulence, as well as similar expression profiles of secondary metabolite genes to the strain lacking the H3K27 methyltransferase Kmt6. More importantly, BP1 can directly bind DNA through its PHD finger, which might increase nucleosome residence and subsequently reinforce transcriptional repression in H3K27me3-marked target regions.

"This study provides novel insights into the mechanism by which PRC2 mediates gene repression in fungi, which is distinct from the PRC1-PRC2 system in plants and mammals," said MA. "It also offers an interpretation of the biological function of H3K27 methylation in regulating the pathogenesis and toxin biosynthesis in F. graminearum."

More information: Guangfei Tang et al, Fusarium BP1 is a reader of H3K27 methylation, Nucleic Acids Research (2021). DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkab844

Provided by Zhejiang University

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
On September 27, the research team led by Prof. MA Zhonghua at the Zhejiang University College of Agriculture & Biotechnology published an article titled "Fusarium BP1 is a reader of H3K27 methylation" in the journal Nucleic Acids Research. Histone H3 lysine 27 methylation (H3K27me3) can result in facultative heterochromatin for transcriptional repression.

# data[].attributes.headline
Group 9: Scientists Pave The Way for Creating 'Mini Biological Computers' in Droplets

# data[].attributes.subject
Group 9: Scientists Pave The Way for Creating 'Mini Biological Computers' in Droplets

# data[].attributes.body
Group members:
1. YAMENE A/P PANDIAN 208410

2. MUHAMMAD KHAIRUL IKHWAN BIN MOHD TARMIZI 208157

3. AKMAL NUR HAKIM BIN AFANDI 207796

4. KU SYAFIQA BINTI KU AZAMI 207577

- Liposomes are small artificial vesicles that act as promising systems for drug delivery that must communicate well with cell membranes in order to pass through

- DNA 'nanostructures' can be used to manipulate synthetic liposomes in ways that make it easier for them to pass through membranes by modifying the porosity, shape and reactivity of a liposome to deliver drug

- The binding of DNA 'computer' to the liposomes can be facilitated by finding the best buffer condition for the liposomes and also coating the DNA with cholesterols

# data[].attributes.headline
Group 8: Bacteria Evolved a Multitude of Defense Systems That Offer Strong Immunity for Protection Against Viruses

# data[].attributes.subject
Group 8: Bacteria Evolved a Multitude of Defense Systems That Offer Strong Immunity for Protection Against Viruses

# data[].attributes.body
Group members:
1. Wan Mohamed Nazeem (207793)
2. Nur Aliya Natasha Binti Shaharudin (207569)
3. Nur Syahirah Binti Debayan (208279)
4. Nurliyana Batrisyia Binti Mohd Suhaimi (207914)

- There are two "belts and braces" defense systems within bacteria to protect itself from bacteriophages highlighted in the article which are the BREX (Bacteriophage exclusion) and BruX mechanism (a type IV restriction enzyme that recognizes DNA modifications and targets specific sequences found on invading phages).
- BREX is able to defend against most bacteriophage invaders (unmethylated nonpalindromic BREX motifs in phage genomic DNA) by allowing phage adsorption but blocking phage DNA replication. It is also not an abortive infection system.
- BrxU system is particularly adept at detecting phages with modified DNA (methylation) that have managed to evade the detection of the first layer of defense which is the BREX system. It is also a promiscuous enzyme, forms an interlocked dimer and requires nucleotide binding and hydrolysis before DNA cleavage. This system also has the potential to be used in biotechnology for identifying modified epigenomes that cause diseases such as cancer.

# data[].attributes.headline
GROUP 5: MetaPlatanus: A metagenome assembler that combines long-range sequence links and species-specific features.

# data[].attributes.subject
GROUP 5: MetaPlatanus: A metagenome assembler that combines long-range sequence links and species-specific features.

# data[].attributes.body
GROUP MEMBERS:

1. DAVEENAH SELVI A/P THAMILSELVAN

2. CHEAH LIAT HUNG

3. FARAH NAJWA

4. NUR IZZATI ADILAH

5. NUR AINA FATINI

New metagenome assembler called MetaPlatanus can generate accurate DNA sequences including uncultured organisms.

Using MetaPlatanus can solve the problems faced in sequencing DNA samples such as high heterogenity of DNA, tricky DNA samples, threaten the fundamental objective of metagenome sequencing, presence of certain organisms that cannot be cultured.

MetaPlatanus can give outputs that were highly contiguous with very few interspecies misassemblies and also assemble many biologically important elements including coding genes, gene clusters, viral sequences, and over-half bacterial genomes.

# data[].attributes.headline
Group 4: Nucleic Acid Research Papers on ViMIC, FACT-seq, COVID19db

# data[].attributes.subject
Group 4: Nucleic Acid Research Papers on ViMIC, FACT-seq, COVID19db

# data[].attributes.body
Group members:
1. NUR LIYANA NADIAH BINTI FISAL (206005)
2. NAVITHA A/P BALACHANDRA RAO (206478)
3. SITI AISYAH BINTI BAKHIRI (206905)
4. FAZRENA BINTI NOORAIDIL (207227)
5. NG RUO CHYI (205421)

1. ViMIC is a database of human disease-related virus mutations, integration sites and cis-effects.
2. FACT-seq is a formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue with antibody-guided chromatin tagmentation with sequencing.
3. COVID19db are used to identified multiple potential drugs and targets for COVID-19.

# data[].attributes.headline
Group 10: Establishing an Internal Quality Control Method for the Stable Extraction of SARS-Cov-2 and RT-PCR-Based Detection

# data[].attributes.subject
Group 10: Establishing an Internal Quality Control Method for the Stable Extraction of SARS-Cov-2 and RT-PCR-Based Detection

# data[].attributes.body
Group members
- Muhammad Fikqran Shah
- Ezzatun Nisa
- Durratul Hana
- Nur Aina Fatnin

1. It is possible to achieve quality control throughout the process (from nucleic acid extraction to nucleic acid detection) even upon using varying extraction methods.

2. The developed method needs to be revised because of the emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants, such as the alpha, beta, gamma, and delta variants 9-15.

3. Further studies should assess data collected from multiple institutions, and on a larger scale to obtain reliable results.

# data[].attributes.headline
Group 1 : DNA Nanostructures Manipulates Cell Membranes for Optimized Drug Delivery

# data[].attributes.subject
Group 1 : DNA Nanostructures Manipulates Cell Membranes for Optimized Drug Delivery

# data[].attributes.body
GROUP MEMBERS
- Nur Hanani
- Lim Ee Von
- Norsuriana
- Shyean Elovnna Billing
- Taiyed Morshed Turzo

1. Drug delivery can be optimized by manipulating cell membrane using DNA nanostructures to modify the porosity, shape and reactivity of a liposome (spherical shaped vesicle used in drug delivery).
2. New DNA nanotechnology allows us to deliver active molecules to a precise location before releasing them.
3. In biosensing, the ability of DNA nanostructures in responding to stimuli creates a more sensitive biosensor.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
By creating DNA origami nanostructures to manipulate lysosome cell membranes and optimizing the conditions for their binding, a team of researchers aims to improve their drug delivery and biosensing capabilities.
A recent research effort led by Matthew Baker (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) and Shelley Wickham (University of Sydney, Australia) has identified the optimal process to manipulate DNA 'nanostructures' to interact with cellular membranes, such as lysosomes. The study could lead to the development of small molecular systems that could dramatically improve the fields of biosensing and drug delivery.

The use of liposomes, nanosized 'bubbles' of cellular membranes, has been well established in drug delivery for cancer and other diseases. However, there is still much room for improvement in this delivery of therapeutics and recently researchers have been using DNA nanostructures to modify the porosity, shape and reactivity of a liposome to deliver this improvement. Getting the DNA nanostructure to effectively interact with the lipid membranes has been a challenge in this endeavor; a challenge that Barker and Wickham set out to resolve.

The team identified that two key issues were obtaining the best buffer conditions to facilitate binding of the DNA to the liposomes and establishing the optimum amount and position of cholesterol additions to the DNA nanostructures that enable them to bind to liposomes.

To address this, the team characterized the effects of each of these conditions including DNA structure, cholesterol conformation and buffer and lipid composition on DNA-liposome binding. The optimal conditions for each factor are documented in the study; For instance, the ideal number of cholesterol modifications to bind a 2D DNA origami tile is between 4 and 8, while placing the modifications on the edge of the tile and using a greater linker length between cholesterol and tile both improved binding.

With the best conditions for binding established, the team demonstrated the increased capability of the optimized liposomes. Describing their achievement, Marker revealed that the team has built a, "...totally new DNA nanotechnology where we can punch holes in membranes, on demand, to be able to pass important signals across a membrane." This clearly demonstrates the advantage that this research could provide for therapeutics that need to deliver their active molecule to a very precise location before releasing them.

However, the impact does not stop with drug delivery. The authors also note that by imbuing lysosomes with the ability to detect their environment new potential applications present themselves.

"One major application of our study is biosensing: you could stick some droplets in a person or patient, as it moves through the body it records local environment, processes this and delivers a result so you can 'read out', the local environment," notes Barker

The authors hope that the research can be used to design more complex lipid-binding nanostructures that can be used for a broad range of applications within nanomedicine, nanotechnology and nucleic acid research. They also intend to develop methods to control DNA pores with light, essentially developing synthetic retinas.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
DNA nanostructures manipulate cell membranes for optimized drug delivery

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
By creating DNA origami nanostructures to manipulate lysosome cell membranes and optimizing the conditions for their binding, a team of researchers aims to improve their drug delivery and biosensing capabilities. A recent research effort led by Matthew Baker (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) and Shelley Wickham (University of Sydney, Australia) has identified the optimal process to manipulate DNA 'nanostructures' to interact with cellular membranes, such as lysosomes.

# data[].attributes.body
BCH3107