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Gap in info: quality of daycare, but can guess based on environment in which they live-mix of formal and informal settlement indicates that the daycare quality may be average.

The environment also indicates that the family is exposed to both good and bad environmental conditions: nutrition, cleanliness of environment and quality of shelter.

Choosing daycare was the best option for her in her financial situation-had to work all day to support the family.

Choosing daycare had many benefits for her children: (see

LO 16)

See LO 13-milestones of development of speech-proves that development was normal

LO 6-milestones of gross motor development-proves that development was normal

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1. Nonceba left her young child at home to go to work. This was not fair to the child. As a mother a mother we expected her to be devastated about letting her child grow out of her sight.
2.Nonceba was quite calm about her child's abnormality where as another mother would have been much worried and would have tried alternate ways to find out why the reason for the child's abnormality.
3.We believe a child should not be limited to certain activities because of their gender
4.black parents do not care much about emotional health so we should also not judge Nonceba for not further worrying about her child mental and emotional health.
5.Thabo feels different From other kids and has a low self-esteem.

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Husband needs to be more open to the idea of helping out to relieve Nonceba of the pressures of simultaneously balancing Motherhood and Work.

Society should normalise the fact that Boys Develop slower than girls.

Thabo should consult a social worker (bullying and bad schoolwork)

Parents especially the dad should be more supportive and involved. Thabo possibly sees Dad as role model.

Thabo’s Strengths need to be emphasized and developed to boost his self-esteem. (sports)

Look at possible causes for poor academic issues regarding bullying.

Thabo should have been left with a family member instead of Day-care.

Thabo need to review his idea of gender roles in a now dynamic society.

Parents can look into entrepreneurial activities that involve Thabo e.g. fixing cars. Thus Thabo can develop his skill-set.

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6.1 Developmental Milestones are behavioural or physical goals  that are achieved by developing children.
Child development refers to the ordered emergence of interdependent skills of sensory-motor, cognitive language, and social-emotional functioning (Engle et al., 2007).

6.2.

1. Gross motor

2. Fine Motor

3. Language and Communication

4. Cognitive

5. Social/ Emotional

6.3

1. Gross motor - crawling, walking, sitting

2. Fine Motor - eating, drawing

3. Language and Communication - speaking, body language

4. Cognitive - thinking and understanding skills

5. Social/ Emotional - interaction with other individuals

6.4. Amount of nutrition, quality of maternal care, genetic inheritance, state of environment in which the child grows, level of education, SES

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Nucleus-membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information and controls the cell's growth and function.

Cytoplasm-material between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane that provides the structure of the cell, contains the cell's organelles and cytosol and is where most metabolic reactions and cellular activities, such as cell division, occur.

Cytoskeleton-highly organised "living gel" that provides the binding sites for proteins and enzymes.

Vacuoles-membrane-bound sacs for storing water, food, enzymes, wastes, pigments etc, where digestion takes place, removes waste and isolates harmful materials.

Mitochondria-sausage-shaped, double membraned, where cellular respiration takes place to produce most of the cell's energy, involved in cellular signalling, differentiation and growth, contains mtDNA that is inherited only from the mother.

Endoplasmic reticulum-network of tubules, vesicles and sacs that are interconnected. Smooth ER stores and transports enzymes and lipids, and the rough ER manufactures lysosomal enzymes and secreted proteins, and glycolsylates and folds proteins.

Ribosomes-small organelles made up of rRNA and protein that use amino acids on tRNA molecules to synthesise proteins from mRNA strands.

Cell membrane-lining between the inside pf the cell and the outside surrounding fluid. It is selectively permeable and controls the diffucion of proteins, water, nutrients and waste into and out of the cell, connects cells to each other and is involved in ion channel conductance and cell signalling. It is also where external structures for specialised cells are contained, e.g. cilia on ciliated columnar epithelia in the lung's airways, and microvilli on cubiodal epithelila of the villi of the intestinal lining to absorb nutrients, and flagella on sperm cells to help them swim towards the egg to fertilise it.

Golgi apparatus-flattened, curved saccules. It modifies, organises and packages, and transports, proteins and lipids from ER to other parts of the cell or the outside of the cell.

Lysosomes-contain hydrolytic/"digestive" enzymes. It is used to destroy harmful substances and invading matter and can help to repair damage to the cell membrane.

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13.1. Universal Stages of Language Development

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13.2. Usage-based theory: An American linguist and psychologist Michael Tomasello devised this theory. "Meaning is use" and "structure emerges from use" are the principles on which Tomasello created the theory. He postulated that children learn with the intention to find something and to determine language conventions.

Noam Chomsky's Theory of Language Acquisition: He believes that children are born with an inherent skill to learn languages and do not learn from imitation. They fabricate and utilise words.

Crystal's Theory of Acquisition: Crystal suggested that children learn language in five stages. The first stage involves saying one word to attract a parent's attention, e.g. "mama", "banana." The second and third stage are when children start asking questions. The fourth stage includes using complex sentences to clarify things. The fifth and final stage comprises of cognitive activities such as suggesting and offering opinions.

REFERENCE
Ariyumbuyutan, J.G. 2020. Theories of Language Learning. Available: Theories of Language Learning - YouTube

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13.1. All babies develop speech in the same way which makes it universal. Universal language development describes the stages in which infants learn to talk.

13.2. The first is the nativist theory which says that children have an ability to learn language at birth. The next theory, is the learning theory and describes how children acquire language by listening to others and reinforcement. The interactionist theory believe that both social and biological factors are necessary for a child to learn a language.

13.3. The hybrid theory is a combination of multiple theories and believes that certain theories are applicable to certain ages.

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1.1 Socio-economic status is the measure of the level of both economic and sociological aspects of a given person's life.

Social Class implies discrete categories
Socioeconomic Status refers to continuous categories.

1.2 Parameters:
Education: Level of education, Tertiary education
School doesn't teach well enough to overcome the stigma attached to Development Rates.

Occupation: Type of job/ qualification (Level of Skills) Nonceba is a teacher at the

local school and Tsepo is a petrol assistant.

Residence: Classification of area relative to quality. (e.g. City, Rural Area)
Khayelitsha (a suburb with a mixture of formal and informal housing).

Income: Amount of income/ Forms of income
Middle Class, Both Parents have to work to supplement Income.

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2.1.

1. Provide food, medical care clothing and shelter

2. Support, guide and encourage education

3. Welcome and encourage friendships

4. Provide opportunities for success

5. Develop self-respect and self-esteem

2.2. A family structure is defined as the legal and genetic relations among relatives living in the same household.

TYPES

1. Nuclear family - both biological parents present with children

2. Same-sex family - both parents are the same sex

3. Single-parent family - only one parent is present with child

4. Grandparent family - one or more grandparents raises a child

5. Extended family - several members of different generations present

6. Step-parent family - a child is raised by one of the biological parents and his/her spouse, who is not a biological parent

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3.1. Parents with a higher socioeconomic status(SES) are more affectionate and less likely to be strict and impose corporal punishment on their children than those with a lower SES. They are also more probable to advocate for education and provide it.

3.2. Parents who work longer hours are unable to spend time with their children. This may cause the children to feel abandoned.
Lower-class parents face similar challenges as they work long hours to earn income to sustain their families. They rarely work menial jobs for passion; they are possibly not qualified to do higher earning jobs and so become distressed because they work very hard for little pay. They unfortunately inflict their distress on children.

3.3. Although affluent parents are practically absent in their children's lives, they have enough resources to fund the children's tutoring and extracurricular activities which mould them into talented and economically viable adults. They do the jobs they love, thus they advocate for education and give their kids a life of excellent quality.
Lower-class parents work menial jobs for passion; they are possibly not qualified to do higher earning jobs and so become distressed because they work very hard for little pay. They unfortunately inflict their distress on children. P

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12.1

Homeostasis refers to the ability of an organism to maintain the internal environment of the body within limits that allow it to survive.

12.2

The Homeostatic control systems consists of 4 main components:

1.    Input Signal from Receptor

2.    Integrating Centre (Brain)

3.    Output Signal (From Integrating Centre)

4.    Response (from Effector i.e. Muscle/Gland)

Negative Feedback

• Output shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity.

• Causes variable to change in a direction opposite to the initial change.

• Controls processes that require continuous adjustments within narrow ranges.

Positive Feedback

• Response enhances the original stimulus.

• Output is accelerated.

• Change proceeds in the same direction as the original disturbance.

• Causes variable to deviate further from the original value.

• Control infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustments.

E.g., Blood Clotting

Note: This will continue until an External Disturbance.

Feedforward Control

• Responses made in anticipation of a change.

• Less frequently used mechanism.

- Secretion of hormones that promote cellular uptake of nutrients increased while food

still in digestive tract.

- Limits rise in blood nutrient concentration after absorption.

Feedforward Control

Malfunction of body systems results in homeostatic imbalance

• Unstable internal environment.

• Cell function disrupted — leads to disrupted.

Aging

• Body’s control system less efficient.

• Internal environment less stable.

• Increased risk of illness.

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4.1 Height (Length <3 yrs)
Mass
Head Circumference

4.2
Shows trends of growth and development. The growth line should be parallel to the standard Growth Line. Continuous measurement is required, as a single measurement would be inaccurate and inconclusive.

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5.1
Good Access to Nutrition (Breastfed Until the age of 6 months) Exclusive Breastfeeding Though there are alternative replacements for breast milk. Nonceba had to go back to work, in doing so she did deprive the children of nutrition.

Immunisation of growing child

Enough of sleep is important

5.2 Malnutrition refers to both ends of the spectrum i.e. Over and Under- nutrition.  Nonceba is unaware of her children's diet and this could contribute to malnutrition. Genes play and important role in the production of hormones such as Growth Hormone.(environmental effects the developing child)
High Protein diet for growth.

5.3 Nonceba had to go back to work, in doing so she did deprive the children of nutrition. Nonceba is unaware of her children's diet and this could contribute to malnutrition. Bullying and teasing on the Psychological front could have affected the son's growth negatively.

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16.1
Prior to three years, opinion is separated on the effects of day-care. Infant day care quality varies greatly, this makes it difficult to give a straight-forward answer on how day cares can influence infants. In the case of poor day care, it is evident that there are detrimental effects to the development of the child in comparison to home-reared infants. However, good day care can result in the development of language skills, social skills and the opportunity to express emotions. Many

16.2
High-quality day care:

Adequate attention to each infant. A small group of infants (no more than five) needs two familiar, loving caregivers.

Encouragement of language and sensorimotor development. In the forms of songs, conversations, and positive talk.

Attention to health and safety. Cleanliness (handwashing), accident prevention,  and safe areas.

Professional caregivers. Caregivers have experience and degrees/certificates in early-childhood education.

Warm and responsive caregivers. Providers engage the children in active play.

Case:
Nonceba decided to send her children to day care as she had to go to work. She chose sending her children to day care over leaving them with their grandmother. The quality of the day care is not stated.

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contributions of each body system to maintaining a constant internal environment

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• Behaviourism
Gender identity is acquired through:
a.) ongoing differential reinforcement – parents teach boys to be boys and girls to be girls by rewarding gender-appropriate behaviour and punish/discourage gender-inappropriate behaviour.
b.) observational/ social learning – child’s behaviour influenced by models, and they adopt the behaviour, attitudes, mannerisms of same-sex models from family/peers/celebrities

Gender differences are due to social reinforcement and modelling.

• Cognitive theory
Children form categories of opposite sexes and acquire gender stability and consistency. From these categories they infer gender-appropriate behaviour.

Gender differences are due to categorisation.

• Epigenetic theory
Gender differences are due to biological differences that are genetically encoded, and the environment enhances the genetic impulses.

Combination of hereditary aspects

• Socio-cultural theory
Gender patterns within the culture, preferred patterns for men and for women.

Gender differences related to patterns found throughout the culture.

• Psychoanalytic
Based on motives and the unconscious needs from childhood. Oedipus complex – boys want to replace their fathers and develop sexual urges towards their mothers. Electra complex – Girls replace their mothers and want to be intimate with their fathers. Driven by unconscious desires by the superego and identification with same-sex parent.

Gender differences are due to unconscious urges.

Relation to case: Primrose and Thabo align their gender identity with their chores and behaviours in relation to cultural norms and seem to be influenced by the socio-cultural theory in their gender identity development.

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10.1
Homeostasis: maintenance of relatively stable physical and chemical conditions within specific limits in the internal fluid environment
Internal environment: The extracellular fluid (includes plasma and interstitial fluid) surrounding and in direct contact with body cells

10.2
Factors in the internal environment that are regulated:
-temperature
-blood pressure and plasma volume
-pH
-concentrations of: salts, electrolytes, waste products, water, nutrients, oxygen and carbon dioxide

10.3
If homeostasis is disrupted, illness or death is likely to follow. Contributes to increased risk of disease, ageing, less effective control systems, disrupted cell function -> pathology, and if negative feedback systems are overwhelmed, destructive positive feedback systems may take over.

Case:
There was no evidence of disturbed homeostasis in Thabo

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7.1
Cell: Smallest, Basic unit of a living organism
Tissues: Group of cells that have the similar structure and function
Organs: Made up of at least 2 types of primary tissue
System: Group of organs that perform a specific function in the body.

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13.1. All babies develop speech in the same way which makes it universal. Universal language development describes the stages in which infants learn to talk.

13.2. The first is the nativist theory which says that children have an ability to learn language at birth. The next theory, is the learning theory and describes how children acquire language by listening to others and reinforcement. The interactionist theory believe that both social and biological factors are necessary for a child to learn a language.

13.3. The hybrid theory is a combination of multiple theories and believes that certain theories are applicable to certain ages.

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Sex : Biological differences between females and males
Gender : set of characteristics set out to differentiate between females and males
EXAMPLE FROM CASE 1
Primrose loves to help her mother with some of the daily chores, like cooking and washing the dishes but Thabo does not help with these chores because he does not regard them as ‘men’s’  work

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17.1. Playing builds a child’s imagination and lets them be creative. It helps them develop relationships when they are playing with others and boosts their confidence. It also improves their language skills through sounds they hear or communication when playing. It promotes physical fitness since they are active and moving when playing. Lastly playing also builds independence since it gives them the choice to play how they want to and have power over their activities.

17.2. Peer groups are important, because they provide emotional support and can help to improve teamwork when children have to work together. It also gives children the opportunity to express themselves in their peer groups. Children also build strong relationships in their peer groups which gives them somebody to talk and play with.

17.3. Solitary play is when a child plays on his/her own with little interaction to others. Parallel play is when children play on their own, but with children around them who are also playing. Cooperative play is when children play with other children. Associated play is when children play and don’t play with another child but will engage some times. Unoccupied play is when a child isn’t playing at all, but observing how the other children are playing.

17.4. There is structured and unstructured active play. Structured active play is when there is a time limit and rules for the activity. During unstructured play children are in control of how they play. They make their own time limits and rules.
Benefits of both structured and unstructured play is that children build confidence, interact and socialize with other children, get physical exercise which is good for them and enables them to explore and learn from the activity.

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18.1. Bullying happens when one person or group is repeatedly hurtful, cruel or harassing towards another person that has less power or physical strength than them. It happens when there is an imbalance in strength.

18.2. a) Verbal bullying: Saying or shouting something hurtful, threatening or disrespectful to someone else.
b) Physical bullying: Harming somebody else’s body or touching them without permission.
c) Social bullying: Trying to hurt someone’s reputation, by for instance spreading bad rumours about the person or humiliating them.
d) Cyberbullying: Saying or posting something harmful or cruel on social media, the internet (online) or on a device.