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The attached word document below is my list of references.

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Based on my journey of completing this project, I am delighted to be able to widen my cultural perspectives which includes the minority ethnics beliefs that I had choose which are Murut, Iban, Kadazan-Dusun, Buginese, and Senoi ethnics. I believe that each of us have our own cultures that we want to preserve even though the world has revolves towards modernization. The preservation of our culture will guide the new generations to get an exposure on how the elderly generations used to live and to know the event sequences that happened which contributed to their culture life up until now. In my perspective, most newer generations nowadays would be clueless when it comes to understanding the reason why the minority ethnics behave in such way. For instance, the reason why they still live in the forests or a place surrounded by nature also the reason why they dress up in a different way compared to us. By having this thought, some of us might have a perception that the "Orang Asli" people does not like to socialize with a wider society. However, little that we know that most of their religious beliefs are associated with the nature  such as their fear of the thunder if one of them misbehave. So, this is why some of them still prefer  to live in the forest. Besides that, the minority ethnic which is Iban ethnic have faith in the augury birds' behaviors. They believe that their daily activities outcomes can be predicted  by the birds' behaviors. The above examples that I had mentioned shows why we need to stay positive by not judging them in a negative way since they were brought up in different surroundings compared to us. In conclusion, every ethnic communities should play their roles in preserving their cultures and never turn a blind eye to learn and understand about other ethnic's culture as it could contribute to the Malaysian society harmony.

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It is an interesting activity to be able to do a detailed research on the cultures that exist in Malaysia. I am certain that there are some of us that do not know in more depth about every culture in Malaysia which includes me as well. Therefore, I made my research on the interesting elements of culture that I would like to explore. I had decided to focus my research on the beliefs of five ethnic in Malaysia which are Murut, Iban, Kadazan-Duzun, Buginese, and Senoi ethnics. I choose "belief" as my focus for this assessment because I find it interesting to have an understanding on the things that the ethnics have faith on as those are the reasons for them to be proud of their ethnic and they keep on preserving the beliefs from the old generations until their new generations. Besides that, I also love to explore on the history parts of their belief such as the legends and myth. I believe that from researching about the ethnics' legend and myth could help me to understand on what contributes to the ethnics ways of life. Besides that, the ethnic that I had choose are Murut, Iban, Kadazan Dusun, Buginese, and Senoi ethnic. I choose the ethnics as I found that there are a lot of sources on the belief element for the chosen ethnics that could guide me throughout my journey to complete this assessment.

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Senoi believes that the people's shadow will become ghost when they die. Corpses are buried across the stream from the settlement since ghosts are unable to cross the flowing water. The great adepts are allowed to be afforded a tree burial. They will make music, dance, and dress up during the mourning which lasts a week to a month. A feast to close the grave will be held after the sixth burial day. "Senoi-Religion and Expressive", (n,d.)

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Pahlawan Apot or also known as "Big nose tracker" is one of the Senoi's legend. He began his career as a member of the Senoi Praaq in PDRM and later on transferred to the VAT 69. He is considered as among the Indigenous pioneers in the country who fought against communists terrorist. Some of his achievement  are successfully recorded five shot against communist terrorist and had involved in 15 battles. (Friends of PDRM,  2016)

The attached Facebook link below contains a wider description and a picture of the warrior.

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Mah Meri's mask carvings are inspired by the Senoi's spiritual beliefs and narural environment and it also display their artistic and abstract imagination. In addition, the carvings are inspired by their myths and legends. Besides that, the masks are used for ritual dancing when worshiping their ancestors' spirits who are believed to have extraordinary powers. "Celebrating Hari Moyang", (2018)

Picture source
(Ryan Alikhsan, 2015)

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OUTBOUND LEMBANG BANDUNG-SKY ADVENTURE INDONESIA

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MYSTERY TOPENG MAH MERI
Large size compared to the masks in general, the expression of which is depicted in the mask is full of mystery and tends to the creepy so conspicuous in a crowd Malaysian International Mask Festival (MIMAF) 2015. That mask Mah Meri tribe, indigenous people who inhabit the island of Carey, one Island in Selangor within 90 kilometers of the city center of Kuala Lumpur.

Eerie impression that vanished when the mask is approached, since the wearer's body language turned out to be very witty mask so entertaining anyone who saw it. Occasionally he moved his hand as if he was parted hair made of palm leaves and said, "Why so serious?"

Ceram and Witty
His name is Elias. Age of approximately 30 years. That night he was clad in a costume from the bark and large-sized mask covering his face is small. It all does not reduce the agility of movement. Occasionally raised his hand and cheek prop holding palm leaves dangling from his head, mimicking the movement of a hair comb, while his legs swung to the right and to the left.
Witty acting. Even though the expression of the mask he was wearing completely away from it. Eye mask with large teeth that also looks great. There was no expression of a smile curved lips there.

Naning Tok is one of the Mah Meri tribe ancestor. Figure highly respected because besides attractive, good-natured Tok Naning also because he often distribute food for the needy. In addition to the mask Tok Naning, there are several types of masks Mah Meri others, including mask Puteri Gunung Ledang, Pongkol and Bojus. Each mask has its own story. Elias pointed to other forms of masks which happened to be approaching. Shape of face masks that nobody has wrinkles under the eyes, sunken cheeks, and lips shut.

2

The opening of the Festival

That night, I was present to witness the opening of the Malaysian International Mask Festival (MIMAF) in 2015 promoted by the Ministry of Tourism and Culture of Malaysia at the invitation of the Malaysian Tourism Promotion Board Jakarta. Held for the first time, Azizah Aziz, Director of Corporate Communications at the Ministry of Tourism and Culture of Malaysia that I met said the festival was inspired by the festival masks legendary Venice, besides that Malaysia save a lot of tradition mask and the most famous is the wooden mask tribe Mah Meri are settled in Carey Island, Selangor.

The stage in the middle of the park pond Kuala Lumpur City Centre appears to have started brightly. Colorful fountains bersembur in every corner of the stage. The atmosphere became more boisterous when YB Datuk Samsudin Bint Ermieyati Mas, Deputy Minister of Tourism and Culture of Malaysia opened the festival that lasts 13 to 16 August 2015. One by one participant festival mask and then performing a dance. Besides Mah Meri tribe, also helped perform mask dances from Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Sri Lanka, China, and South Korea.

3

Second Day Festival
Hotel Grand Millenium where I stay in kawasanBukit Star, my train ride to Bukit Nanas. Just past the two stops with no more than 15 minutes to get in the building Malaysia Tourism Centre also called MATIC, this is where the procession started in 2015 MIMAF mask festival. From MATIC, the mask festival participants will pass through the main roads such as Jalan Ampang, Jalan Sultan Ismail, Jalan P. Ramlee to expire at Suria KLCC.

Again not hard to find Elias and colleagues from the Mah Meri tribe among participants who had filled the auditorium MATIC. Their clothes were striking because it is made from the bark, palm leaves are woven as decoration, as well as a large wooden masks that stand out among the hundreds of costumed people dancing and colorful masks.

Like a dance celebrating, cheerful appropriate dancers move vigorously because this dance is an expression of gratitude to ancestors and requested approval to be kept away from the disease, crop failure, until trouble getting hunted. This dance is considered very sacred because the Mah Meri tribe respect their predecessors, so they also have an annual celebration of the Day of Ancestors. Trace its history, Ancestors Day celebrations because one day tribal elders received the message from the ancestors in his dreams. Not known since when the celebration was held, but until now the celebrations are always held after the Chinese New Year in February or March, and there is no definite schedule every year since the determination of day based on the position of the moon. Determination of Ancestors Day celebrations performed by the Chairman of the Tribe and, according tradition that has been handed down, on the day that the mask will be charged.

Not everyone can wear wooden masks Mah Meri because these masks had prayed before. Meh Meri tribe itself was no one dares any wear masks as they may experience things that are not desirable. Although made of carved wood, masks Mah Meri tribe is not heavy because it is made of lightweight wood island.

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MYSTERY TOPENG MAH MERI Large size compared to the masks in general, the expression of which is depicted in the mask is full of mystery and tends to the creepy so conspicuous in a crowd Malaysian International Mask Festival (MIMAF) 2015.

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Senoi children are believed to be vulnerable and they need protection by having taboos. However, some parents will drop the taboo if it does not applies to their children. Parents would threaten their children if they misbehave as they believe that attitude will cause thunderstorm. "Senoi-Religion and Expressive", (n.d.)

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Ceremonies are conducted in darkness as the spirits are timid. Ceremonial areas are decorated with flowers as the spirits love fragrance and beauty. An adept will sing to attract familiars (demons). In addition, spirit possessions and trance occur everywhere. Ceremonies will usually last from two to six nights only for diseases that involves pain spirits or spiritual health loss. (Reference). "Senoi-Religion and Expressive, (n.d.)

The attached link below is just a brief "familiar" description in general
Familiar picture source
(Britannica editors, n.d.)

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Table of Contents

familiar, in Western demonology, small animal or imp kept as a witch's attendant, given to her by the devil or inherited from another witch. The familiar was a low-ranking demon that assumed any animal shape, such as a toad, dog, insect, or black cat. Sometimes the familiar was described as a grotesque creature of fantasy, an amalgam of several creatures.

The familiar was believed to subsist by sucking blood from a witch's fingers or other protuberances on her body such as a mole or a wart. During the European witchcraft trials of the 15th-17th century a suspected witch was searched for the "teats" by which she fed her familiar, and these, like the devil's brand marks, were considered sure signs of her guilt.

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familiar, in Western demonology, small animal or imp kept as a witch's attendant, given to her by the devil or inherited from another witch. The familiar was a low-ranking demon that assumed any animal shape, such as a toad, dog, insect, or black cat.

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Senoi have faith in gentle spirits and use taboos to control their life. Humans are considered as lonely and vulnerable to any exposure so they make a big effort to avoid from offending the spirits and the heavenly god which could cause thunder and lighting.

Senoi people become adept (good at everything) by having familiars (demon). Familiars appears in their dreams and may get attracted by a a dreamer's body. They believe that familiars can help them to diagnose and cure diseases caused by pain spirits. Women may reject the offer of adopting the familiars since it could be exhausting. However those who reject the familiar could also become adept by becoming a midwives.

Spirit possessions through trances are common. The Senoi believes that the spirits love fragrances and it often attracted with flowers and fragrant leaves.

Senoi believes everyone has several souls which also includes the shadow soul that can turn to ghost (Hays, 2015)

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Orang Asli is the earliest population in Peninsular Malaysia. Most of them are believed to come from China and Tibet which followed the migration routes through mainland of Southeast Asia before they set foot in Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesian archipelago. "Orang Asli" is a Malay term with the literal meaning which is "original people". (Tarmiji Masron, Fujimaki Masami, and Norhasimah Ismail, n.d.)

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Picture source
(Wikiwand, n.d.)

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The afterworld is describe as a distant island located around the area of western seas. The dead comes to the land and wait until all funeral rituals is completed. They must also take a ritual bath, pay for the entrance fee to the heartland keeper, and cross the golden bridge. As for sinners, they must undergo punishments. In Islamicization among the Buginese nowadays, traditional funerals are replaced with Muslims funerals. (Encyclopedia, n.d.)

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Many taboos are associated with pregnancy, childbirth, eating, fishing, planting, and opening windows. For example, the whole fish skeleton must be removed before they can eat the other side. Other than that, buttons should be fastened from bottom to top however button should be unfastened from top to bottom as this signifies a proper event ordering.

Women are not allowed to eat crabs during pregnancy to avoid having an ill-mannered child. ("Buginese in Malaysia", (n.d.)

Prezzi presentation source
(Nidya and Hasan, 2014)

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Balinese Hornet fruit trees during pregnancy A husband shall not cut his hair during his wife's pregnancy Pregnant women are prohibited to hornet fruit trees. The kadazan-dusun people believe that, when a pregnant woman hornet a fruit tree, the baby will have physical disturbance

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It is believed that all princes of divine origin had to leave this world to return to heaven after the sixth generation of rulers descended from Batara Guru along with the other God's children. All Bugis is said to be descended from Luwu' couple or from divine princes sent either from Heaven or the Abyss. (Encyclopedia. n.d.)

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The early Buginese have faith in a supreme deity called "To Papuana" (the owner of everything) and later on the name changed to Dewata S`euwe (the one God). A male and female being are produced from this deity. The main gods of the upper-world and the underworld with approximately a total of nineteen were born from their sexual union. One of the male entity called as Datu Patoto (the prince who fixes destinies) was labelled as the highest god of all. Their children later came to earth to establish around the area of Sulawesi (Encyclopedia, n.d.)

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Referring to La Galigo (myth) , Sangiang Serri (rice goddess) was the first child to be born on earth to Bataru Guru but she died after seven days. She then transformed into a rice plant after the being buried. (Encyclopedia, n.d)

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Buginese has two kinds of rituals which are the one performed by bissu (priests) at pricely courts and the other one is held by the famous practitioners called Sanro who are still very active in Bugis country. Sacrifices such as buffalos and goats or chickens are needed for the two rituals. Glutinous rice is offered in two to eight colours.  In addition, these two rituals are performed during certain phases in the rice cycle and community celebrations to obtain welfare or protection especially in case of bad crops, epidemics, and war. (Encyclopedia, n.d.)

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The Bugis were among the earliest to convert to Buddhism. Later on, most of them converted to Islam during the early 1600s. "Buginese in Malaysia", (n.d.).

Besides their belief towards Allah, there are many spiritual beings to be respected and as a gratitude, they act as the negotiator between humans and their supreme deities (Encyclopedia, n.d.)

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The Bugis comes from the southwest limb of Celebes and they are famous for their adventurism and maritime skill. The Bugis ethnic began to settled in the banks of Kelang and Selangor rivers during the 17th century (Britannica's editors, n.d.)

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Picture source
(Darlisa, n.d.)

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Picture source.
"Nunuk Ragang Sabah, (n.d.)

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According to the legend, Nunuk Ragang was the place where Kadazan Dusun civilization began. The annual visit to Nunuk Ragang and installation of the Huguan Siou or the Paramount Leader of the Kadazandusuns, is carried out on first weekend of July each year.

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It was said, spirits leave the body after their death and rest on Mount Kinabalu until they enter the afterlife (Kadazan-Dusun) afterlife. Villagers will positioned the bodies facing Mountain Kinabalu to ensure they arrive quickly at the resting place. Bobohizan (shaman) will perform rituals and sacrifice chickens to welcome the mountain spirits and wait for their arrival. (Bedford, 2018)

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Kadazan Duzun Afterlife Beliefs (highlighted)

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Referring to their legend, it is believes that the tribe came from one place which is "Nunuk Ragang" which is a fig tree located at the Liwagu and Kogibangan rivers. It is believed that their ancestors swam in the river and climb on the tree branches to have a sun bath. Apart from that, the red sap from Nunuk Ragang roots is believed to  have the ability to cure various diseases. As their number increases, the leaders instructed the followers to move and spread to find their own space and food (Encyclopedia, n.d.)

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PRONUNCIATION: kah-tah-CHAN
ALTERNATE NAMES: Dusun
LOCATION: Malaysia (Sabahstate)
POPULATION: 514.400 (2004)
LANGUAGE: Kadazandusun
RELIGION: Christianity; Islam; animistic beliefs

INTRODUCTION

Sabah, known as "The Land Below the Wind," is the second-largest state in Malaysia. It is situated on the northern tip of the island of Borneo, bordered by Sarawak on its southwestern side and by Kalimantan to the south. Archeological findings show that Sabah was inhabited by people as early as 28,000 years ago. Certain scholars believe that about 5,000 years ago Sabah was settled by Mongoloid-type peoples, and by the 1st millennium BC, Malayic and other related Mongoloid groups migrated from mainland Asia.

It is believed that Sabah's early inhabitants settled in the coastal areas but were slowly driven inland by the later arrival of other settlers. These later settlers were mainly from Malaya and neighboring islands, settling along the coast and along the banks of rivers when they arrived. The descendants of the displaced groups are believed to be today's Kadazan of Sabah, sometimes known as the Dusun. These displaced peoples over the years remained isolated and insulated from outside influences until the late 17th century.

Prior to the formation of the North Borneo Company in 1877, by an Austrian baron in partnership with a British firm, Sabah was divided under the influences of sultans of Brunei and Sulu. In 1881 the North Borneo Company was upgraded into a Chartered Company, giving it official recognition to rule the 73,300 sq km (28,300 sq mi) of North Borneo until the Japanese invasion in 1942. After the war, Sabah became a British Crown Colony until 31 August 1963, when it obtained self-government from the British. On the 16 September 1963, Sabah, together with Sarawak, Singapore, and Malaya, became the Federation of Malaysia.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

Sabah is not only rich in natural beauty and resources, but also in the cultural heritage of its people. It is endowed with a heterogeneous population and is considered to be a melting pot of many indigenous and immigrant groups. It is estimated that there are some 30 indigenous communities using more than 50 indigenous languages and not less than 80 dialects in Sabah. The largest ethnic group is the Kadazandusun, numbering about 514.400 in 2004, who make up 25% of Sabah's population. The group consists of both Kadazan and Dusun and other subgroups. The other main ethnic groups are the Muruts, Bajau, Paitan, and Chinese. The largest non-indigenous group is the Chinese. They dominate trade and commerce. Nonetheless, many of these ethnic groups share similar oral histories, languages, and traditions.

The Kadazandusun are a collection of ethnic groups who speak similar languages and dialects known as Dusunic family, as well as share a common belief system with variations in customs and practices. Within this group exist at least 10 distinct languages with possibly 30 or more dialects. This includes the various subgroups such as the Kadazan of Penampang and Papar, the Lotud, Dusun, Kwijau, Bisaya, Dumpas, Mankaak, Minokok, Maragang, Tangaah, Liwan, Tatanah, Sino-Natives, the Rungus, and other subgroups from Tempusuk, Tambunan, Ranau, and other districts. The Kadazandusun can be found in all districts, but they are mainly in the western half of Sabah.

LANGUAGE

The various subgroups of Kadazan are speakers of the Dusunic languages with dialectical differences in pronunciation and description of words. The differences are a result of poor communication facilities and environmental evolution in the past. Like most other indigenous groups on the island of Borneo, the Kadazan did not possess a written language until the introduction of formal education in the 18th century, therefore oral traditions were very important among the Kadazan. Most of their knowledge was passed down by oral tradition from generation to generation.

The structure of a Kadazan's name is divided into two parts: the first name is the child's name, and the second is the father's first name. Some common male names are Gimbang, Kunul, Kerupang, Galumau, Gantoung, Empurut, Ampingan, and Sangan. Typical female names are Semitah, Rangkumas, Ansayu, Baimin, Salud, Amin, Halimah, Nani, and Mainah.

FOLKLORE

As is true with many other indigenous people on the island of Borneo, Kadazan folklore plays a major role in Kadazan traditions, customs, and worldviews. One of their most popular folk tales is the myth of their origin. According to legend, all the tribes are believed to have come from one common place called Nunuk Ragang, meaning "Red Casuarina Tree," a fig tree located at the confluence of the Liwagu and Kogibangan rivers in the heart of Sabah. Nunuk Ragang grew in plenty at the Liwagu River in Ranau. It is believed that their ancestors used to swim in the river and climb on the branches of the Nunuk Ragang to sun themselves. Red sap from the Nunuk Ragang roots was thought to have curative elements for different kinds of diseases. The Kadazan lived in abundance at Nunuk Ragang, and as their numbers increased, it became difficult to find enough food for every family within the limited area. In order to solve the problem, the leaders exhorted their followers to move and spread out in search of land and space.

RELIGION

Today, the majority of the Kadazan peoples are Christian, though some profess Islam, while others are followers of their ancestors' animistic beliefs. Even though a large number have converted to Christianity and Islam, many Kadazans still have ritual specialists to perform certain ceremonies. This is particularly true during the Harvest Festival. On the other hand, many of the old customs and traditions, such as headhunting, have ceased among the Kadazan.

According to the Kadazan's traditional beliefs, the spiritual universe is presided over by two supreme deities: kinohoringan (male/husband) and umunsumundu (female/wife). They are husband and wife. Under the command of these two deities are the lesser good and evil spirits that dwell within all objects and the natural environment-the forest, mountains, rivers, caves, and the earth itself-that need to be respected. These spirits must be appeased by means of ceremonial observances. Otherwise, the rogon (evil spirit) will inflict sickness and disease on the people or interfere and withhold blessings in secular world. Therefore, the spirits are presented with offerings and are called to attend the feast. These spirits can be encountered in the forest or sought in sacred places, and they also can be contacted in dreams and through mediums, ritual specialists, or priestesses who are called Babalian or Bobohizan (depending on dialect).

Bobolians or bobohizans play a major role in Kadazan ceremonial rituals. Incantations, prayers, singing, trances and animal sacrifices are common practices at these rituals, some of which can last for days. A bobolian plays a variety of roles. As medium, she beseeches spirits to stay away from newborn babies. As healer, she is engaged to exorcize sicknesses brought by evil spirits. At funerals, she heads the rites that guide the deceased spirit towards its final journey up Mount Kinabalu, which stands at 4,101 m (13,455 ft). It is one of the highest mountains in Southeast Asia. It is believed to be the resting place of the souls of the departed Kadazan peoples.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

The Harvest Festival, known as Magavau among the Kadazan of Sabah, is celebrated annually on May 13 and 14. In 1960, the festival was proclaimed as a public holiday by the state government. It is a festival of celebration in honor of the spirit of rice called "Bambaazon," giving thanks to the spirit for the good harvest. It is both a public and private celebration that involves huge parties, traditional dancing, and beauty contests in various parts of town. However, it is important to note that the celebration of Magavau varies in accordance with the different dialects and districts of the state.

RITES OF PASSAGE

In the past, childbirth was usually done at home with the help of a local midwife or experienced elder. Today, many Kadazan babies are born in hospitals or clinics, though there are others who are still delivered in the traditional method. It is a common practice that when a child is born, a bobolian (priestess) will invoke the spirits and pray over the child for its well-being. This is particularly true among those who still practice the traditional religion. When the newborn child is about a month old, the hair-cutting (momuga) ceremony takes place. It is an announcement of the arrival of a new member in the community. Goats, pigs, and chickens are always slaughtered for this occasion.

Traditionally, there are three stages to a marriage. A marriage enquiry known as monohuku is made when the boy is only 12 years old and the girl is 11. The second stage is momuaboi (engagement) when the proposal is accepted. The final stage is called as matod by the Kadazan. When the parents think that the time has come for their children to be married, normally when the girl is 16 and the boy is 17, the wedding date is fixed mutually between both sets of parents and the couple. During the engagement period, the couple stays with their respective parents. During this time, the boy is obliged to help in his future mother-in-law's house, doing chores, such as collecting firewood, plowing the field, etc. Similarly, the girl is expected to help her future mother-in-law in the kitchen and in planting rice in the fields. This is done to prepare the couple for their life together.

A death in a family or village is announced to relatives and neighbors by the monotonous, fast beat of the gong, or by firing a carbide or kerosene bamboo cannon at frequent intervals. The corpse is draped in a clean white cloth and laid on a mat on the floor in a convenient place in the house. Relatives, neighbors, and friends are expected to pay their last respects to the dead person. Usually, a buffalo is killed and portions of the meat are distributed to visiting mourners, or it is cooked to be served with rice to those present at the funeral.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

It is considered impolite to walk upright in front of those who are seated in the house or longhouses. The usual way is to walk with knees slightly bent, holding both hands stiffly at the sides to avoid one's clothes touching other people, or to put both hands palm-to-palm between your knees, and wedge yourself in.

Visitors and friends are always welcome in a Kadazan home. There is no fixed time for visiting, especially among relatives and friends. Upon arrival at the house, a visitor is expected to take off his or her shoes unless told otherwise. He or she will then be offered betel nut, tobacco, or a cigarette. A visitor is usually asked to stay for the night, even if the visitor does not indicate his or her intention to stay. It is to be noted, however, that when a male visitor pays frequent visits to a house where the house owner has a daughter, it may be taken to mean he is interested in marrying the daughter.

Dating among the Kadazan differs from dating in the West. Even when they are engaged, a boy and a girl are "supervised" or observed by their parents and older siblings. A boy may visit his fiancée's house whenever he likes. The girl may do likewise, but she has to be accompanied by her mother, an aunt or an elder sister. If the boy has an elder sister, the boy is allowed to invite his fiancée to stay a night or two at his parents' house. At the same time if either one of them breaks the rules, a penalty will be exacted. However, it is important to note that many of these customs have changed over the years.

LIVING CONDITIONS

Modernization, education, and improved infrastructure have begun to have impact on Sabah's population. Nonetheless, living standards and conditions among the Kadazandusun vary according to their location. Many continue to live in their traditional areas and maintain a longhouse lifestyle, whereby several families live together under one roof. Meanwhile, those who live in suburban areas have living standards comparable to those found in suburban areas in the United States. They have access to modern health services, tap water, electricity, good public transportation services, and other modern amenities. Most Kadazandusun who live in villages, however, have yet to experience a high standard of living. They still rely on the river for water, kerosene for light, and their feet to get from place to place.

Except for Kadazan and Rungus in Kudat, most have long abandoned their longhouses for individual homes, although the houses are still built of wood, bamboo, and thatch. In recent years, a growing affluence is changing this, replacing thatch with tiles and zinc. However, in places where bamboo is in abundance, some houses are made entirely from bamboo, including the pillars, the roof, the walls, and the floor. This is true in the Tambunan District.

FAMILY LIFE

The nuclear family generally provides the basic social unit of Kadazan society and the basis of the household. It is close-knit in terms of personal obligation and responsibility toward one another. The misfortune or disgrace of one member of the family is deeply felt by all kin; likewise, the good luck and prosperity of one are shared by all. Nonetheless, the high rate of rural-urban migration has led to more intermarriage with other non Kadazandusun groups.

A family consists of a husband, a wife, and their children. Sometimes a household includes other members of the extended family, such as grandparents, uncles, and aunts. A woman's primary role is to raise her children and to see daily that the family has enough food to eat. She is responsible for collecting jungle vegetables like fern tops, mushrooms, and young leaves for the evening, while her husband contributes fish or meat to the pot. Every evening the wife is responsible for preparing a good meal for her family.

Like most other native marriage customs in Borneo, the Kadazan marriage is fiercely monogamous. Adultery committed by either the husband or wife is severely punished.

A family may rear chickens, pigs, dogs, and cats not as house pets but for other purposes. Pigs, ducks, and chicken are reared for domestic consumption, while dogs are reared for hunting and cats to chase or kill rats and mice in the house and farms.

CLOTHING

Most of the traditional costumes worn by Kadazan men and women are predominantly dark or black in color. However, today a modern adaptation to the original attire is rich decoration done with colorful embroidery, glittering sequins, and imported gold lace trimming, as well as handmade lace from imported gold thread or yarn. The women's skirts reach down 5 cm (2 in) above the kneecap, with red embroidery running down the sides. Silver coin belts, rattan or beaded waist bands, beaded necklaces, and other silver ornaments and accessories are worn with these costumes. The color of the rattan waist band worn around the waist holds special meaning. Red denotes that the wearer is not a mother, while black denotes that she is, and white signifies that the wearer is a grandmother.

For their headgear, the women wear hats and/or scarves, while the men wear a head cloth called sigah or kain dasar, a piece of cloth draped, folded, and tied according to the style and pattern of the district. It is important to note that dress codes vary from one district to another.

Today, Kadazan women and men wear Western-style clothing for everyday use. This includes skirts, blouses, shirts, pants, tank tops, etc.

FOOD

As in most societies in Asia, rice forms the staple food of the Kadazandusun diet. Rice is eaten at every meal, with meat and/or vegetable dishes. In the village the woman is responsible for collecting vegetables such as young ferns, mushrooms, bamboo shoots, etc., for breakfast, lunch, and dinner. The man is responsible for bringing meat or fish for the meals. Young ferns are one of the Kadazan's traditional foods. There are normally stir-fried with garlic, onion, and shrimp paste, and are served with steamed rice. Nowadays, most Kadazan's kitchen utensils include pans, pots, plates, forks, spoons, etc., which are available in department stores. In the old days, most of their utensils were made from bamboo, wood, and rattan.

EDUCATION

The Kadazan have responded positively to the Malaysian government's effort to encourage education. This is because education can raise living standards by creating wider job opportunities. Consequently, many are able to read and write in both Malay and English. Children at the age of six are required to go to elementary school, and continue on to lower and upper secondary schools. Many obtain the Malaysian Education Certificate, which is equal to a high school diploma in the United States, and some go on to obtain degrees from local or foreign universities or other higher learning institutions. Parental support and encouragement have been driving forces behind the academic success of many Kadazan. Formal education is seen as an avenue toward success in the modern world.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

Music and dance are closely related among the Kadazan. Both are vital parts of nearly every social event, particularly at the village level. Music is played during wedding celebrations, engagement parties, harvest festivals, first birthday parties and animistic religious ceremonies. A Kadazan wedding sees a rare airing of traditional instruments such as the bronze kulintangan (gongs) and gendang (drums made from wood and leather or calfskin). The sompotan, a mouth organ, is another instrument that is popular among the Kadazan. Made from a dried bitter gourd, it is produced in Tambunan and traded throughout Sabah. Sumazan is a dance between a male and female performed by couples or a group of couples to a symphony of kulintangan.

Since the Kadazan did not have a written language in the past, their stories, songs, history, legends, and myths were passed down orally. Only in recent years have measures been taken to document these stories in books, articles, and journals.

WORK

Although the Kadazan were originally farmers or agriculturalists, many have migrated to urban centers and have become prominent figures in the civil service and other professions. In the interior, rice planting is the most common occupation, although, with the introduction of other cash crops such as rubber and coffee, this is likely to change. In hilly areas, some Kadazan still practice shifting rice cultivation. However, this is gradually dying out. Government efforts to modernize and improve socioeconomic status have enabled the Kadazandusun to become part of mainstream society. As a result, a number of them are now political leaders, entrepreneurs, and professionals.

SPORTS

In the past, swimming in the river and climbing trees were the popular sports among the children. Today, both children and adults are becoming more acquainted with sports such as soccer, volleyball, and basketball. In the evening, after they return home from their farms, they get together to play a game in the yard.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

The type of entertainment or recreation that Kadazan enjoy depends on their locality. Kadazan in urban areas have easy access to movies, television, etc., comparable to residents of major cities in the United States or United Kingdom, and their forms of entertainment are very different from those Kadazan who still live in the village. Traditional music, songs, and dance are some forms of entertainment that are still very popular in the village. However, television and videos are becoming an increasingly widespread form of entertainment.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

The availability of local materials, such as bamboo and wood, has greatly influenced the nature of handicrafts of the Kadazan. Bamboo is used for making different kinds of household utensils, baskets, and mats. It is also widely used to build houses and fences. Wood and rattan are two durable materials widely used by the interior people for making huts, baskets, and decorative wall hangings. Rattan is also useful for tying pieces of wood or bamboo together. The weaving of baskets, mats, and other household utensils is done mostly by women during their free time.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

The Kadazan and most natives of Borneo are facing one common problem: obtaining legal rights over their ancestral lands. They are faced with the dilemma of having to give up their rights to the land in favor of land development programs, usually initiated by the state or federal government. Although the socioeconomic status of the Kadazandusun has improved in recent years, they have to cope with changes to their traditional values. For instance, extended families with several generations staying together are being replaced by nuclear families. This has implications on traditional social and support network.

GENDER ISSUES

Like the Iban of Sarawak, the Kadazandusun maintain an egalitarian society with a bilateral descent system. In this sense, men and women has equal standing in the society. However, there is a clear sense of division of labor between men and women. In the village, for instance, the woman is responsible for collecting vegetables, such as young ferns, mushrooms, bamboo shoots, etc., for breakfast, lunch, and dinner. The man is responsible for bringing meat or fish for the meals.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chay, Peter. Sabah: The Land below the Wind. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Foto Teknik Sdn. Bhd, 1988.

Regis, Patricia. "Classification and identity of Sabah's indigenous groups," In The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Peoples and Traditions, edited by Hood Sellah, 108-109. Kuala Lumpur: Editions Didier Millet, 2006.

Sabah Museum. Sabah's Heritage: A Brief Introduction to Sabah's History and Heritage. Kota Kinabalu: Sabah Museum, 1992.

Teo, Albert C. K., and A. G. Sullivan. Sabah: Land of the Sacred Mountain. Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia: Sabah Handicraft, 1988.

-by P. Bala

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
KadazanPRONUNCIATION: kah-tah-CHANALTERNATE NAMES: DusunLOCATION: Malaysia (Sabahstate)POPULATION: 514.400 (2004)LANGUAGE: KadazandusunRELIGION: Christianity; Islam; animistic beliefs Source for information on Kadazan: Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life dictionary.

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Among the Kadazan ethnic, it is widely believed the people suffer from starvation after the Chief God and his spouse created the world and human beings. The deity and his wife decided to sacrifice their only daughter by cutting her to smaller pieces. All good things to eat grew from different portions of her body such as a coconut grows from her head, her arm-bones became sugar cane, and her fingers help to produce bananas. Most importantly, her blood helps to form the first rice plant. Kadazandusun believe the transfigured sacrifice of the daughter is embodied in the rice spirit which is known as bambarayon.

According to the religious belief among the Rungus from Kudat district, Bambarayon is a group of rice spirit who live in a country somewhere beyond the sea. One villager reported the Bambarayon lives at the edge of Piromitan (6 layer where god spirits such as Kinoringan and Minamagun reside). The spirits protect the human beings from sickness, death, and other misfortunes. However, only Bambarayon spirit can do this. Rungus people believe rice was first produced by Bambarayon. As an act of gratitude, the Rungus sacrifice fowl and pigs in their honor. If this sacrifice is not made, a poor harvest is anticipated.

Gumpai Beringgit who belongs to the Tobilung Dusun tells a different legend story regarding the paddy spirit. There once lived seven brothers and each of them had their own land to cultivate paddy. One lady came to each of them during one harvest to seek for a job. All of the brothers except the seventh brother rejected her request since they wanted to save money. The youngest brother could not find the lady when he wanted to checked up on her. To his surprised, the youngest paddy field was more fertile than the other brothers' field. It was then he knew that the old lady was the paddy spirit who came to test the farmers. (Low, K.O, 2012)

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Investigating the Relationship between

Kadazandusun Beliefs about Paddy Spirits, Riddling

in Harvest-time and Paddy-Related Sundait

Original Publication, 2012: http://journalarticle.ukm.my/5963/

Sekolah Pengajian Seni, Universiti Malaysia Sabah

Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah

Jabatan Pengajian Kenegaraan dan Ketamadunan

Fakulti Ekologi Manusia, Universiti Putra Malaysia

43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor

leeyokfee@putra.upm.edu.my

During recent field trips to collect sundait (riddles) from Kadazandusun communities in Sabah, it was noted that many of the riddle answers relate to paddy farming: for example, rice planting activities and related paraphernalia are often mentioned. This paper analyzes collected Kadazandusun paddy related" sundait based on their social context and background. In addition, it also examines traditional beliefs in paddy spirits and the origin of riddling at harvest-time. Some unique aspects of paddy-related sundait are highlighted and the relationship between the belief in paddy spirits and the ritual of harvest riddling is further explored. Keywords: Kadazandusun sundait, paddy-related riddles, paddy spirits, harvest-time riddling

Dalam beberapa kerja lapangan mengumpul sundait (teka-teki) Kadazandusun di Sabah yang telah pengkaji lakukan baru-baru ini, banyak sundait Kadazandusun yang jawapannya berkait dengan unsur padi, aktiviti penanaman padi dan alatan padi telah dikenal pasti. Fokus tulisan ini adalah menganalisis koleksi sundait Kadazandusun yang berunsurkan padi berasaskan konteks dan latar sosial orang Kadazandusun. Selain itu, hubungan antara kepercayaan terhadap semangat padi dan sebab mengapa petani Kadazandusun berteka-teki pada musim menuai turut akan dibincang. Dengan berbuat demikian, keunikan sundait Kadazandusun yang berunsurkan padi akan ditonjolkan selain hubungan antara kepercayaan terhadap semangat padi dan berteka-teki pada musim menuai akan diketahui.

Kata kunci: Sundait Kadazandusun, sundait berunsurkan padi, semangat padi, berteka-teki pada musim menuai

The Kadazandusun1 of Sabah, Malaysia are traditionally paddy cultivators. While those living in the hills and further inland cultivate dry paddy, the inhabitants of the coastal plains and valleys grow the wet variety.2 The rice yield is of the utmost importance to these farming communities and given its prominent role in their lives, it is not surprising that the planting, growing and harvesting of the paddy are of great spiritual significance to the Kadazandusun. One central belief is that the paddy spirits, bambarayon, are present in paddy. Traditional spiritual ceremonies are largely agriculturally-related rituals involving the recitation of long rinait (chants) and performed for the protection of the paddy (Fernando 1978; Phelan 2005; Pugh-Kitingan 2009). One consequence of the Kadazandusun belief in the paddy field as a place inhabited by spirits was the evolution of the traditional harvest practice of riddling.

To date, only five academic works have been published on the Kadazandusun sundait (riddles) of Sabah, namely Evans (1951; 1954; 1955), Williams (1963) and Lokman (2004). Evans (1951) was the first researcher to conduct fieldwork on Kadazandusun riddles . In 1950, he managed to collect fifty examples from Kadamain village, in Kota Belud district. Later in the same year, he documented another seventy four riddles from Tombulion, Kahung Saraiyoh and Tambatuon villages in the same district. Besides giving a brief account and making a full inventory of the riddles collected, Evans (1951; 1954) did little in the way of analysis. Likewise, in his article entitled "Some Dusun Proverbs and Proverbial Saying", Evans (1955) listed fifty one siriban and sundapat. Of these, the sundapat were found to be another sub-category of riddle, i.e. sayings which require a response.

In "The Form and Function of Tambunan Dusun Riddles", Williams (1963) stated that Dusun riddling is a fundamental part of the structure and functioning of Dusun society. Focusing on the forms and social functions of the sundait, he concluded that riddling behaviour could not be categorized as a leisure time game or activity. Furthermore, Dusuns do not view riddles as tests of chance, or luck. From another perspective, Lokman's (2004) study investigates the performance of Kadazandusun riddles as a unique oral skill. Based on the above reviews of the literature, the close relationship between sundait and the cultural significance i.e. riddling during harvest-time was not the subject of the study by all the previous sundait researchers.

Hart (1964), meanwhile, in Riddles in Filipino Folklore stated that in a basically agriculture nation, one might expect that economically important, widely distributed, and indigenous agricultural plants and products would receive emphasis in a riddle corpus. He also assumed rice to be a common subject for riddles in a Southeast Asian country where its animistic nature is accepted by most of the people. As rice is the staple food of the Kadazandusun, the choice of paddy as a "riddle subject" (i.e. the riddle answer) by paddy planters is to be expected. This contention was verified on field trips to Kadazandusun communities conducted in 2009 - 2010, during which a large number of riddles

were collected. On transcription, many of the riddle subjects were found to contain references to "paddy" (e.g. tools, food, activity etc). Besides focusing on the Kadazandusun belief in paddy spirits and the expression of these beliefs via riddling practices conducted at harvest-time, those Kadazandusun riddles with paddy and a wide range of paddy related practices and paraphernalia as the riddle subjects will be examined in detail. In so doing, the author hopes to facilitate a better understanding of the close relationship between sundait, the importance of rice and the cultural significance of the riddling during harvest-time among the Kadazandusun of North Borneo.

According to Dundes (1980), the study of folklore in literature entails at least two distinct methodological steps, namely identification and interpretation. In this research, the author first produced a corpus of Kadazandusun riddles with answers (subject matter) related to paddy using a combination of fieldwork interviews and library research. The collection of paddy- related Kadazandusun riddles was then analyzed with reference to social context, i.e. the specific situation in which the riddling activity is practiced at harvest-time. Finally, the relationship between these riddling conventions and Kadazandusun beliefs about the paddy spirits was analyzed and discussed.

Like most of the Kadazandusun subgroups, riddles are termed as sundait (pronounced as soon/da/it) among the Rungus. Typically, a Rungus villager may ask "Monundait oku po [Let me ask you (a riddle)], ikau mengarait (you answer it.)" [Informant: Manadas Mogiom]. According to Lokman (2004), the word sundait in Kadazandusun is the combination of two words i.e. "sunundait" (to tell or to pose) and "karait" (to answer). The term varies between the different Kadazandusun subgroups. For example, the Tambunan Dusun refer to their riddles as sesandaiten or sunandait (Williams 1963). Evans (1951) also reported that in Kadamaian, Kota Belud, riddles and their answers are called sundait and araiton respectively (Evans 1951). In Kadazandusun, araiton means answering. To sum up, the term sundait is closely related to words like sosundaiton, susundoiton and sunundait as used by other Kadazandusun subgroups to denote a riddle.

LEGENDS RELATING TO THE ORIGIN OF SUNDAIT

A legend related to the origin of the Kadazandusun sundait was obtained from a Rungus informant during one field trip. Rundabang binti Linsapu (Informant 1) recounted the following: Once, a girl was wandering from one place to another looking for her life partner. On the way she met Rumolizan (one of the paddy spirits). At that time, Rumolizan was about to build a ladder for his sulap (hut). He decided to test the girl and uttered the phrase "kazimipas sudorudun" (kazimipas is a special type of wood and sudorudun refers to layers of things). To his surprise, the girl answered, "I know that you are going to build a tukat (ladder) for your hut". Since the clever girl had been able to answer his riddle, Rumolizan decided to marry her. If this story of Rumlizan is truly an ancient one, it is conceivable that the riddle "kazimipas sudorudun" is one of the oldest Rungus sundait; and based on this evidence, the. Rinjamal Montuduk (Informant 2) added that since the time of the legend, riddling has been popular among the Rungus people.

Limpot Majalu (Informant 3) on the other hand, had this to say, "Ah, itu dulu-dulu ada orang Rungus pergi ke tempat bambarayon, dari situ bah mereka bawa balik itu sundait." ("Ah, a long, long time ago, some Rungus went to the dwelling place of the bambarayon (paddy spirit); from there they brought back the sundait (riddles).")

Both the above-mentioned Rungus legends seem to verify that the origin of the sundait is closely linked to legends of the paddy spirits.

THE BELIEF IN PADDY SPIRITS3 AMONG THE KADAZANDUSUN

The belief in bambarayon (paddy spirits) among the Kadazandusun can be traced back to the myths and legends of the various Kadazandusun subgroups. It is generally believed that after Kinoingan (the Chief God) and his spouse4 created the world and human beings, the people were visited by a great famine. In order to save the people from starvation, the deity and his wife decided to sacrifice their only daughter *5 by cutting her into small pieces, and from the different portions of her body grew all things good to eat: her head gave rise to the coconut, her arm-bones became sugar cane and her fingers, bananas. Most important of all, her blood sprang into the first rice plant. Thus the Kadazandusun believe that the transfigured sacrifice of Kinoingan's daughter is embodied in the rice spirit known as bambarayon (Gidah 2001; Daily Express 2010; Leong 2010).

According to the religious beliefs of the Rungus from Kudat district, bambarayon (pronounce as bambarazon by the Rungus) are a group of benevolent rice spirits. They live in a country beyond the sea, although no one can explain its whereabouts. One villager reported that bambarayon live at the edge of the Piromitan *6 layer where good spirits reside. Above the Piromitan layer is the Monkulun layer, where the most powerful spirits (or Gods) - Sambavon*7, Kinoringan, and Minamangun - live. These spirits on the Piromitan and Monkulun planes protect human beings from sickness, death, and other misfortunes, but they do not take care of rice. Only bambarayon can do this. The Rungus believe that rice was first brought to them by bambarayon in the remote past. To show their gratitude to the bambarayon for safeguarding their rice, the Rungus sacrifice fowl and pigs in their honour. If these ceremonies are not performed, a poor harvest is anticipated (Yutaka Shimomoto http://nirc.

nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/afs/pdf/a339).

In addition, several Kadazandusun legends refer to the paddy spirits. One of them is the legend of the paddy without husks. In an earlier time, the Kadazan believed that rice grains did not have husks. Thus rice could be eaten immediately after harvesting. But this did not last very long; for one day, while passing through their neighbour's field, some irresponsible people plucked the unripe grains from the stalks and put them into their baskets. They were even eaten without cooking. As a result, the spirit of the rice became angry and decided to cover the grains with husks, thereby protecting them from the people's terrible plucking habits (Palikat 1988).

Gumpai Beringgit (Informant 1), a Tobilung Dusun, tells a different legend regarding the paddy spirit. According to him, there once lived seven brothers, and each of them had their own piece of land in which to cultivate paddy. During one harvest an old lady wearing an extra large wakid (traditional Kadazandusun backpack) came seeking a job as a paddy cutter. In those days, the payment for such job was in the form of a full wakid of paddy. Due to the large size of her wakid, six of the brothers refused to offer her a job; however the seventh and youngest brother was kind-hearted and let the woman work. At the end of the day, when he went to check on the old lady, to his surprise, she had disappeared from the middle of his paddy field. After that, the youngest brother's paddy yield was greater than ever before. He knew that the old lady was in fact the paddy spirit and that she had come to test the farmers. In general, the Kadazandusun believe that there are seven types of paddy spirits and bambarayon is a general name given to all of them. Evans (1953) listed down all the seven types of paddy spirit and added another category which he named "The class of chief" in the beliefs of the Tempasuk Dusun. The seven spirits referred to are:

1. Ohinopot - helps guard the supply of paddy in the store.

2. Sambilod -looks after the damaged rice and sees that the amount does not increase.

3. Gontolobon - gives rice piled up in "boulders".

4. Momiaud - gives paddy as abundant as spring water.

5. Moniudan - gives paddy as abundant as spring water.

6. Sompidot - gives opidot (full grain in the ear).

7. Kabang - makes the rice kambang (swell) in the cooking pot.

Each type of paddy spirit has a distinct role to fulfill. Gontolobon, for example, has a special capability to supply rice piled up in huge quantities like tontolob (boulders). Prosperous farmers are assisted by most of the seven paddy spirits, who reside in their paddy fields and rice barns; whereas poor farmers are fortunate to receive the help of more than one or two. Evans in 1953 said, "I am told that at Kadamaian, the belief is that if a poor man has only one paddy spirit, it will be Sambilod, or if two, an Ohinopot and a Sambilod. Even the one spirit may desert him and go to a rich man's house, where there is plenty of paddy, only returning when the poor man has a little paddy in store" (Phelan 2005).

Many paddy spirits related rituals are performed before, during and after the harvest. As reported in the Daily Express (2010) under the title "The Rituals of Tadau Kaamatan (Harvest Festival)", the Kadazan of Penampang and Papar district have a series of six paddy spirits related ceremonies, whereas the Lotud Dusun in Tuaran district have eight. Listed below is a brief account of the six paddy spirit related ceremonies observed by the Kadazan:

Before a harvest begins, a bobohizan (ritual specialist) will select and tieup seven stalks of healthy paddy. The stalks will only be selected after the paddy field has been completely harvested. They will then be scatted over the plot. This gesture is to inform the spirits who may be present among the paddy not to cause any disturbances during the harvest; in return each of them will be given something after the harvesting has been concluded.

The bobohizan selects seven stalks of good paddy from the field prior to harvesting. These are then tied together and placed in a tadang (traditional basket for keeping rice). The rest of the rice in the field is then harvested. The seeds from the selected paddy are kept for use during the next planting

The bobohizan takes the tadang containing the seven stalks of paddy to a paddy hut. While reciting chants, she removes the bundle of stalks and inserts them in a bamboo pole kept in the tangkob (large rice storage container). The recital of the chants is to request the paddy spirits to stay in the paddy hut until the next planting season, when the process will be repeated again.

In the rice hut, the bobohizan carefully pours the rice into the tangkob. The same process is repeated a number of times until all the rice has been poured into the tangkob. The bobohizan then recites chants appealing to the rice spirits to keep watch over the rice stored in the tangkob.

This ritual ceremony focuses on the restoration of bambarayon as well as offering the spirit food. In olden days, the Magavau ritual was performed in the paddy field on the night of the first full moon after the harvest. Nowadays, this ritual is carried out in the house of the owner of the field.

After all the serious ritual ceremonies, it is time to celebrate the harvest festival. The Sabah state level Tadau Kaamatan (Harvest Festival) is held annually from 30th - 31st May. After all the merry-making, which includes feasting, singing and traditional dancing, the climax of the Tadau Kaamatan is performed: the selection of the Unduk Ngadau (Harvest Festival Queen).

The Unduk Ngadau symbolizes Huminudon, the daughter sacrificed by Kinoingan. (Daily Express 2010).

According to Kadazandusun beliefs, the role of the paddy spirits is to protect the paddy and to ensure a bountiful harvest. Hence it is important that the spirits are appeased and not offended. Impolite acts, such as shouting in the paddy field and riddling outside of harvest time, are to be avoided. Riddling at harvest time is however an activity designed to please the paddy spirits.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PADDY SPIRITS AND RIDDLING

As the Kadazandusun traditionally believe that bambarayon lives in every grain of rice, harvesting must be carried out with the utmost care: no wastage is allowed. Many taboos are associated with harvesting and with the carrying home of the rice grain; for example, it is a bad omen if a sack of paddy which is being transported on the back of a buffalo from the paddy field to the storage barn happens to fall to the ground (Phelan 2005). According to the report published by the Sabah Museum (1993), the Kadazandusun believe that if riddling is carried out while bush clearing in the paddy field, the job may consume more time than usual or necessary. Hence they will avoid riddling at such times.

Evans (1951), who did his research in Kadamaian and Kahung Saraiyoh village on the west coast of North Borneo learnt that riddles were recounted among workers at harvest-time; while at Kadamaian, folk stories and riddles were exchanged, either in the field or in the home. Gansiau (Evans' informant) told him that, if riddles were recited at other times of the year, the person concerned would be ration do rogon [answered by evil spirits and plagued by bad dreams] (Evans 1951). From observation and interviews, Williams (1963), who focused on the riddles of the Tambunan Dusun in the interior of North Borneo concluded that Dusun Riddling behavior in Tambunan district was associated with harvest activities and the attendant religious celebrations. He was told by his informants: "It is bad luck to say riddles at any time but harvest." Williams' records indicated that the observation of riddling behavior was less difficult during the two monthly

harvest periods than at other times. Besides, Williams (1963) remarked: "Thus, one is told, it is bad luck to say riddles any time but harvest". Accordingly, both Kubin bin Bumbon (Informant 1) and Kanak binti Intang (Informant 2) stated in their interviews that in their youth, their parents used to remind them that it was a bad thing to pose a sundait while clearing bushes. They were advised to entertain themselves by listening to folktales instead. All the informants in this research said that they are prohibited from riddling except for during the paddy harvesting season. Kinindangang Masani (i) and Mongulintip Momgimbal (ii) for example commented as follows:

i. Ah, hanya pada pesta, ah, musim menuai baru boleh "bersundait". Kita tidak boleh "bersundait" kalau bukan musim menuai, musim menuai saja, ah. (Ah, only during the harvest, ah the harvest time then only we can carry out riddling. We do not allow riddling if it is not a harvest season, only during

ii. Ah, sekarang musim menanam padi, sepatutnya tidak "bersundait". Ah, musim dia, pabila sudah musim padi berbuah. Ah, jadi yang betul-betul masa mau mengetamlah... (Ah, now is planting paddy time, by right we shouldn't do riddling. Ah, the right season is, when harvesting paddy. Ah, the correct timing is when we start harvesting...) When asked about why the Rungus can only carry out their riddling activities during harvest season, the above-mentioned informants replied

i. Em... sebab sundait ini, dia berkaitan dengan, dengan itu semangat padi bah, itu Odu-Odu. Semangat padi itu nama Odu-Odu. Ah, yang Odu-Odu itu hanya muncul semasa musim menuai padi. Ah, itu sundait ada kaitan sama Odu-Odu, ah Bambarazon. (Informant: Kinindangang Masani)

(Er... because this sundait (riddle), it is connected with the paddy-spirits. It is Odu-Odu. The name of that paddy-spirit is Odu-Odu. Ah, Odu-Odu will appear when we harvest paddy. Ah, sundait have connection with Odu-Odu, ah bambarazon (paddy-spirits).

ii. Sebab kalau "bersundait", dia boleh mengakibatkan tanaman itu tidak menjadi. Ah, dia jadi rosak (Informant: Mongulintip Momgimbal). (If we do riddling, the paddy plants may not grow well. Ah, they will be destroyed.)

Because of such beliefs, any villager uttering sundait outside the harvest season is liable to be scolded by their parents or other elders in the village. As rice is the staple food for the Rungus, no breaking of the taboo associated with the paddy-spirits is tolerated. Furthermore, the Rungus believe that the paddy-spirits will only appear during the paddy harvesting season. Consequently, riddling at other times will not benefit them, but may offend the paddy-spirits. In contrast, the Rungus believe that if one utters a sundait at harvest time, the paddy-spirits will stay around to protect their paddy. "Menundait" (to pose a riddle) and "Mengarait" (to answer a riddle) are linked to this belief via the

legend recounted by Rundabang (Informant 3). According to the legend, the clever girl brought about the union of a paddy-spirit and a human being by answering the sundait posed by Rumolizan (one of the paddy-spirits). Since the marriage was possible because of a sundait, to "menundait" or to mengarait", is seen as paying homage to the paddy spirit. One of the Tobilung Dusun sundait collected by the author is considered sacred by the paddy planters. Such sundait were specially created by Dusun ritual specialist known as bobolian. According to Gumpai Beringgit (Informant

4), in his youth only the bobolian was allowed to utter such sundait during the paddy harvesting season. Whenever a sundait was posed, it was compulsory for the hearer to answer it. These practices were a way of inviting the Bambarayon to their paddy fields. The peasants were prohibited from directly mentioning the paddy spirit so they would pose this sundait:

Sondiu oku ondidigo (iii),

Kabai oku ondilungo (iv),

Binagung-bagung id sawat (v),

Tarok bungkau kud layagon (vi),

Rinji kanja kumanja (vii).

(Informant 5: Simah Gurimit)

(i) This line is a special form of charm which

uses the classical language of the Tobilung

Dusun. Its literal meaning is "an act of building

a wall" or "something at the wall".

(ii) This line is also a charm uttered in the

Tobilung Dusun classical language. It means

"having a desire to cross the wall without a

(iii) I am leaning and am surrounding (the object

(iv) I am holding and giving support (the object is

(v) There is a bundle, (This "bundle" refers to the

pusakag which is hanging on top of a Dusun

Tobilung's rice barn. It is believed to be the

dwelling place of the paddy-spirits.)

(vi) The melody of bunkau (a musical instrument)

calling them from the ocean,

(vii) They will come home.

[Answer: Paddy and Bambarayon (Paddy and Paddy

This Tobilung Dusun Sundait 1 is posed annually and all the Tobilung folks know the answer. It is a charm used to invite the paddy spirits to the rice barn of the Tobilung Dusun to protect their paddy. The classical language used to perform this sundait is rich in analogies, symbols and metaphors and the whole riddle is closely related to the Dusun Tobilung beliefs in the paddy spirits.

The relationship between the rice spirits and sundait is so significant that the Tambunan Dusun folk went to the extent to create a riddle with "rice spirit" as the riddle subject: "Kano makan ina om au idi kakita." (Let us eat, but you cannot see it. Answer: Rice spirit). Williams (1963) went on to explain: After the rice harvest, the spirit of the rice comes to join in the celebrations. People cannot see her as she eats her food. The psychological aspect of "fear of the unknown" is used by the Rungus of Kudat district during riddling. If one cannot answer a sundait for example, the poser will say, "You must answer the sundait (riddle) or else someone (a spirit) will sleep with you tonight." Such sayings will normally scare small children, and as a result they will try their very best to find the answer by asking their parents, friends or other villagers. But for the Dusun Gana residing in the district of Keningau, if one cannot answer a sundait, the poser will start giving clues; if the recipient is still unable to do so after being given several clues, the riddler has to provide the answer. Leaving the sundait unanswered is considered to be an invitation to the evil spirits to respond. The Kadazandusun will try their very best not to offend the paddy spirits. An example of this concern is evident at harvest time, when a special tool known as linggaman is used to harvest paddy instead of a sickle. Below is one of the sundait linked to the linggaman:

The answer to the above sundait is llinggaman om mongomot (llinggaman and harvesting paddy). The linggaman has a small blade which fits into the Palm of the hand, while its wooden handle protudes between the little finger and the ring finger. Most of the modern paddy farmers in Sabah now use a sickle to harvest paddy, in contrast to the olden days. The use of the llinggaman reflects the respect of the farmers for the rice spirits: they do not wish bambarayon to see the blade of the linggaman as the paddy stalks are being cut (Phelan 2005). According to the different Kadazandusun subgroups there are many other sundait with linggaman as the answer. The difference is in the sundait stems. Rosia binti Maisin (Informant 7), a Liwan Dusun supplied this sundait: "Adi kopisopongo, kopi songgodo kito." (Younger brother come over here, together we rise up and compete with each other). Sakuian binti Keling (Informant 8), a Bundu Dusun supplied two riddles: (i) "Kano mindahu, mongoi toko sangod." (Let us go to the field and have war together. Answer: Wakid (traditional

backpack) and a linggaman) and (ii) "Mansahau molohing, minturopik tanak." (The adult is waiting; kids are flying around. Answer: Wakid (traditional backpack) and linggaman). The Tambunan Dusun also have one such sundait: "Meneni ketin-ketin, memikid tan-tan." (The sound of tin-tin is whistled each year. Answer: linggaman). A linggaman is used at the time of harvest and it makes a tin-tin sound as it cuts down the paddy stalks (Williams 1963). These five sundait referring to the same object illustrate how important the linggaman is in the life of the Kadazandusun peasants: it is an essential medium through which to show respect to the paddy spirits.

The close relationship between harvesting and riddling is also revealed in a Tambunan Dusun sundait: "Nahaba lugu tridenen kagu." (The old wood falls and then comes up again. Answer: Harvesting and riddles). As Williams (1963) explains: once a year peasants cut down the paddy and then they tell riddles.

All the informants verified that during the paddy harvesting season, riddling is carried out all day long - during harvesting on the hill, when at home with the family, on meeting friends, or during feasting and drinking sessions. Even though, undeniably, the Rungus carry out riddling activities at harvest time to amuse themselves, nevertheless the extent of this practice illustrates the depth of their traditional beliefs. Riddling activity can take place anytime after the first stalk of new paddy is harvested to before the planting of the nursery for the next season. There is much opportunity for these customary exchanges as the Kadazandusun adhere to the principle that the more time they spend in the paddy field; the more rice will be reaped. Thus, in order to make harvesting more pleasant and interesting, the harvesters "riddle" their time away. Their spirits are uplifted because, despite the intense heat and the hard work, they are engrossed in solving the riddle (Sabah Museum 1993; Lokman 2004).

THE PADDY-RELATED SUNDAIT

An important question arises when examining Kadazandusun sundait texts: Why are there so many sundait about paddy, paddy-related activities and paraphernalia? Hart (1964) stated that scholars like Archer Taylor imply the existence of a selective process in the choice of the riddle subjects as portrayed in their riddle answers. With regard to selection, Hart (1964) has identified four factors. Firstly, riddle subjects are familiar subjects. Secondly, riddles usually deal with concrete objects, occasionally with processes, and rarely with abstractions. Thirdly, selection of riddle subjects is influenced by people's value systems. Finally, selection of subjects is determined by their inherent riddle potentialities.

Since rice is so important to the Kadazandusun, anything related to its cultivation is likely to be a source of inspiration for their sundait. The same can be said of the Philippines and Thailand, two nations where rice is also the staple food and a riddle subject frequently used by paddy planters. One Filipino riddle in particular, emphasizes the central role of rice: "If there is none, you will die"

[Answer: Rice] (Hart 1964).

During a recent field trip, the author gathered many Kadazandusun sundait where paddy, paddy-related activities and paraphernalia featured as answers. The focus of the following discussions will be those Kadazandusun sundait published by Evans (1951; 1954), Williams (1963) and the outcome of the field work. Firstly, those sundait with "paddy" itself as the riddle subject (listed in Table 1 below) will be highlighted:

Table 1: Sundait with "Paddy" as Its Answer

Mohtua intalo konsok omilo

(Informant 2: Kanak binti

What fruit ripen three times then only can be

Answer and explanations: Paddy. When the

paddy grains are ripe (1st time of ripening);

after being harvested they have to be dried

under the sun or fried over a big pan without

oil (2nd time of ripening) and finally they are

boiled till cooked (3rd time of ripening).

Plants of the large bamboo with fruit like

Answer and Explanation: Paddy - The

poring is the largest species of bamboo. It is

interesting that the Dusun note the kinship

between the bamboo and the paddy plant -

both grasses (Evans, 1951).

Gives birth first and is pregnant afterwards.

Answer and Explanation: Paddy - The seeds

gives birth to the young rice plant, and the rice

plant becomes pregnant with the grain (Evans

Ondig pirompok kito, sopipori

Girl companions standing in rows are we,

together having our heads taken.

Answer and Explanation: Paddy - In reaping,

the heads of the rice plants, all standing in

rows, are cut off by the reapers (Evans, 1951).

When it is whittled, it is taken; when it is held

in the hand, it is not taken.

Answers and Explanation: Paddy and its stalks

- The reference appears to be to young paddy,

such as is used at the fruit fruits ceremony.

This is stripped from the stems by passing the

heads through the partially closed hand. What

is "whittled away" is, therefore, taken while

the stems, held in the left hand, are rejected.

Ordinarily, paddy is trodden out of the ear

You care for it well when it is small; you slay

it when it is full grown.

Answer and Explanations: Paddy - When

small, a paddy plant is well taken care of by

the planter; it will be cut (harvested) when it is

full grown (Williams 1963).

Bamboo at the stem but with fruit of stones.

Answer and Explanations: Paddy - When

paddy grows, the shoots are green and tender

like bamboo; when it is ripe, the grain is hard

like a stone (Williams, 1963). Note that this

Tambunan Dusun sundait is similar to the

Kahung Saraiyoh Dusun sundait (No.1). They

are only different in terms of the language used

and the sundait stem formed.

First giving birth, then pregnant.

Answer and Explanations: Paddy - When

planted paddy seeds grow, the Dusun call these

young paddy plants moganak (to have young);

when the paddy plants bear grains, they are

said to be pregnant (Williams, 1963). Note that

this Tambunan Dusun sundait is similar to the

Kahung Saraiyoh Dusun sundait (No.2). They

are only different in terms of the language used

and the sundait stem formed.

nakatagakon do gonsilo, moli

nopo id gonsilo ina ongomol

I harvested the field and the yellow was gone.

I went home and found that the yellow had

Answer and Explanations: Paddy - The rice

grains are all yellow when ripe and when they

The tree looks like bamboo but its end looks

like sumbiling (a small and thin bamboo).

Answer and Explanations: Paddy plant. The

shoot of the paddy plant looks like a bamboo

shoot, and its sharp end looks like a fine and

Yellow hen get lost, it comes back with many

Answer and explanations: Paddy plant. Yellow

hen is the metaphor for paddy grains which are

yellow in colour. After the grains are harvested

(gone), they will be brought home in huge

quantities (metaphor for many chicks coming

Give birth first before being pregnant.

Answer and Explanations: Paddy. Similar to

Tanaknu putulon liu; ulakan

oruta; au apatai okon nogi

Your child's neck was cut; you got stepped and

hit until crushed into pieces and then boiled;

you did not die but increased in number

Answer and explanations: Paddy grains.

First, the paddy plant was cut (harvested) and

stepped on to separate the grains from the

plant. Next the grains are pounded and finally

cooked. The cooked rice will swell thus and is

considered to have increased in number.

The proliferation of sundait with "paddy" as the answer indicates the central role of rice in Kadazandusun life. These may be in a form of simple or long descriptions (Sundait No. 1-15) or in a more complex poetic form (Sundait No. 16). Sundait No. 15 may be amusing, but the descriptions are precise when come to describing the characteristics of the "paddy" from the moment it is harvested to the time it is cooked. Sundait No. 16 consists of many classical Tobilung Dusun words that are known only to their ritual specialists. Such sundait represent a genre of traditional chants in themselves, being rich in analogies and symbols. Typically, many lines rhyme with each other giving the chants an enchanting quality in terms of the language used. Such sundait serve to emphasize the notion of rice as sacred.

Continuing the analysis, it is interesting to note that sundait No. 3 (Table 1): Igulu maganak, tahuri monontian (Gives birth first and is pregnant afterwards) is similar to sundait No. 10: Gulu nogipagannak ko monontian. (First giving birth, then pregnant) and sundait No. 14: Kopoguru maganak au koh monantian (Give birth first before being pregnant). These similarities may be due to contact between the various Kadazandusun subgroups, but this does not account for the Filipino riddle: Umon-una nga aganak sa agbugui [First it gives birth before becoming pregnant. Answer: rice plant]? (Hart 1964) Furthermore, sundait No. 8 (Table 1): Ipoi-ipoi takura po om id asukod (You care for it well when it is small; you slay it when it is full grown. Answer: Paddy) bears similarities to the Filipino riddle: Kung diotay guina palangga, kung dako na biya-biya [When small, beloved; when big, left alone. Answer: Rice plant] (Hart, 1964). At this point in time, it is hard to say whether such similarities are due to coincidence or the result of contact between the

Kadazandusun and Filipino peoples. Further research is needed to clarify the origins of these riddles, shared or otherwise. To summarise, Table 1 clearly reveals "paddy" to be a main sources of inspiration for Kadazandusun riddle writers.

In term of wet paddy planting, one particular sundait contains a vivid description: Sanan tisan do raat nondilimon ko kadari kagonguli oku po ina bombrain nanperiison (By the edge of the sea, long ago, I went along. When I returned home, there were no green leaves to be seen). In this Tambunan Dusun sundait, the sea is a metaphor for the newly planted rice fields, for when they are flooded, they look like the sea; the people walk along the dikes at this time to go from one place to another. When one returns after harvest, the fields are bare and dry (Williams 1963). Such vivid descriptions refer to linagob (flooded paddy fields), binatan (paddy field dikes) and namut (harvest). In term of dry paddy planting, Yusang binti Kakoh (Informant 11) has a sundait with her: Mandus tandus-tandus id toguanngun nga mahalahap id tohuri (Those in front poking the soil while those behind bending over). This is a common act when planting dry paddy on the slope of a hill. And the answer for this

sundait is mangasok om monupos do parai (planting dry paddy). There is a specific sundait regarding preparing the hill for planting dry paddy: Surubon poh pintokonon nogi (Burn first then poking. Informant: Lanuin bt Bolintok). The answer for this sundait is tumoh (hill for planting dry paddy). It is normal practice for the hill site to be cleared and burned before the surface of the soil is poked with sharp stick to accomodate the paddy seeds.

Another sundait refers to the bearing of grains: Tumagak manuk silou, gumuli nga sanrayat-rayat oh tanak (Yellow hens are disappearing but many chicks are appearing later). According to Kanak binti Intang (Informant 2), yellow hens are metaphors for the paddy flowers, after they fall, many paddy grains (chicks) will appear later. When the paddy is ripe, it is time to guard again them from being eaten by birds. Such important farming activities clearly prompted the sundait creators to practice their art. Table 2 contains two such

Table 2: Sundait Related to Guarding the Ripe Paddy

Kulli no pitamangan, Apo nokulli ong it

(Informant 6: Addek bin Riupa)

The killers making lots of noise but

the victims are quite. When meeting

the sumandak (young girl) the killers

Answer and explanations: Scarecrow

guarding the paddy field. The killers

referred to the sparrows which make

a lot of noise while the paddy plants

remain quite. Sumandak (young girl) is

a metaphor for scarecrow.

Several sundait have "harvesting paddy" as their answer: Sangadau managad, amu innig ot llopok (Cutting trees throughout the day without the cutting sound). According to Mongulintip Momgimbal (Informant), cutting paddy is different from cutting trees which produces a loud noise. After the harvesting job has been done, the paddy has to be stored. In relation to this, the equipment used to store un-husked paddy and rice feature in many sundait. Listed in Table 3 are examples of sundait related to storing paddy.

Table 3: Paddy Storing Related Sundait

Sundait No. 1 in Table 3 is associated with the traditional Kadazandusun practice, whereby a useful tree in the wild is said to belong to the person who first notifies others of its value. The notification is done in specific ways: for example, a man walking in the jungle may encounter a malapih tree which has bark suitable for making cylindrical store-bins for rice without husks. He will then tie a ring of rattan cane around the tree as a notification that it is "engaged" to him (Evans 1954). Sundait No. 2 in Table 3 uses the Talang fish as a metaphor for the malapih tree, and the bark to make the bins is scaled from the tree. Finally, Sundait No. 3 in Table 3 is a straight forward reference to lingkut - a Kadazandusun traditional rice store-bin made from tree-bark.

After being harvested, other works need to be carried out before paddy is pounded in the traditional way. The Kadazandusun peasants either sun them, or use a special method to dry the paddy as revealed in this Tobilung Dusun sundait: Gumara songkokubangan salagon di lumpion (The whole valley was noisy stirred by lumpion (a tool used to stir paddy in a big frying pan) [Informant 13: Abar Gumpai]. The answer to this sundait is gumooi (People frying paddy on the big frying pan without oil for the purpose of drying them). The husked dry paddy has to be pounded before it can be cooked. For this activity, Bunou Masipman (Informant 14) has a sundait: Llinggallinggahon ddallid, timubburullai pallang (A piece of stick keeps on knocking and a white substance appears later). This sundait refers to the act of pounding paddy, when a rice pounder hits the unhusked paddy, its husk comes off, revealing the white rice. After all the husks have been removed from the paddy due to the pounding, it is time to separate the husks and the white rice. Not surprisngly, sundait have also been created to describe this process:

(i) Mara-gara mingana, solovoton do limo, id tanga kaganaan [Noises are on flat land, meeting five solovoton (symbolizes five fingers holding the tray while winnowing paddy) at the middle of kaganaan (the space which separate the husks and the white rice)]. This sundait describes the act of winnowing paddy where the tray will be moved from left to right and vice versa untill all the husks and the white rice have been separated (Anjulipah, Informant 9).

(ii) Iri kesimbor au anuan; iri au kesimbor anuan nogi. (Those that are jumping around will not be taken; those that are not jumping around will be taken). Those jumping around are the paddy husks, while those not jumping are the white rice grains which are heavier than the husks (Informant 2: Kanak binti Intang).

After the process of separating the paddy and its husks, the white rice is ready to be cooked. Several sundait refer to the cooking of the rice. Traditionally, the rice was boiled in a pot over a fire. Hence the sundait: Mara-gara i-ondiu singkulon do maragang. (The hawk cries aloud when thrust by the red). The answer is tapoi om rinakan (fire and a boiling pot of rice). In this sundait, the hawk is the pot which is thrust at by the red tongues of flame. The pot, as it boils, bubbles and shrieks (Evans, 1954). For the sundait creator, the cooked rice resembles "Giring-giring pantai rahat kaasakan." (Little bells at the edge of the seashore with the tide ebbed), to which the answer is akanon (cooked rice). Evans (1951) explains, that when cooking rice, the water is boiled away until the grains are dry. The close connection between paddy, paddy spirits and sundait does not end here. From the rice, the Kadazandusun brew various beverages such as padi tapai (rice wine), lihing or hiing (rice wine sediment) and talak or montoku (distilled rice wine). Rice wine is also one of the main offerings to bambarayon during the thanksgiving ceremony to the paddy spirits. Other than rice, the main ingredients needed to brew rice wine are yeast balls, which have their own sundait: Tontoluk ponsu, sinuluh, mongologiau tinuk (Eggs of a turtle, pierced with a cord that are warbling now). Yeast balls are white and more or less the size of turtles' eggs. They are pierced with a strip of rattan and hung up by it to dry (Evans 1954). Table 4 describes two sundait related to rice wine and the effect of drinking it:

Table 4: Rice Wine Related Sundait

Sompidding ulan-ulan, Pingansak ddo

(Informant 6: Addek bin Riupa)

A piece of the "moon" gives rise to

Answer and explanations: Tapai - Rice

wine. A person may become courageous

after drinking rice wine.

Kara monuvang bbotung, kara avanit.

(Informant 15: Mongulintip Momgimbal)

A Monkey fills up the lake and gets

Answer and explanations: A person

drinking rice wine and who gets drunk.

The solving of sundait is a harvest time amusement for the Kadazandusun folks. While gathering paddy into their wakid (backpacks), they will engage in posing and solving sundait. The practice helps them to make an otherwise monotonous job somewhat pleasant. Wrong answers to riddles produce ripples of laughter and the weary hours of labour pass pleasantly. Kaivola-Bregenhoj (2001) and other riddle researchers considered that leisure time to be the most popular occasion for riddling. For the Kadazandusun however, riddling is a way of killing time during the day while labouring under the hot sun. Sundait are also posed at tapai (rice wine) drinking sessions when groups of men and women gather together in one house after completing a hard day's work. The offering of tapai (rice wine) by the paddy planter is considered a reward for those who helped him in the paddy field. This is done in lieu of wages as there is no payment in money for community cooperation in the work of the fields (Fernando 1978). Concerning the relationship between rice wine and sundait,

Evans (1954) said, "Their effect, when the drink has been made, is to make everybody sing, "as now" riddles being asked - when the people are drinking and rejoicing at harvest-time".

All the sundait referred to in the above discussions are concerned with the four principle agricultural operations: (1) soil preparation; (2) planting; (3) care, and (4) harvest (Honigmann 1959). Rice itself is clearly the main attraction to the Kadazandusun riddle creators, based on the 16 documented sundait with "paddy" as their answer. Second in terms of popularity are the sundait with answers related to matters such as preparation for planting, dry (hill) and wet paddy planting, the paddy field, paddy planting activities, bearing of paddy grains, guarding the paddy field, harvesting, paddy storing, the bin for storing paddy, paddy pounding, rice cooking and finally the rice wine used in conjunction with praying to the paddy spirits and rejoicing at harvest-time. In comparison, although rice is a staple food for other Southeast Asian countries, like the Philippines and Indonesia, it does not feature in their riddles any more than other crops. Rice is not a common riddle subject among pagan Filipinos, and when several hundred Indonesian riddles were examined, rice was the subject of only a few (Hart 1964). Although a colleague of Hart (1964) wrote to him that his "impression" is that rice is a frequent subject in Thai riddles, unfortunately, he did not furnish any figure to support this assertion. Furthermore, Kaivola-Bregenhoj (2001) conceded that themes common and important in a culture may, on the other hand, be missing entirely from the answers to riddles. Although lime trees and oaks are common species in the Cheremis forests, they Never appear as the answers to riddles. Some scholars believe the reason for this is that limes and oaks were used as sacrificial trees in sacred groves; using them as answers to riddles would, therefore, have been taboo (Kaivola-Bregenhoj 2001). But this does not apply to the Kadazandusun. Hart (1964) goes on to say, rice may be a common riddle subject in one Southeast Asian country where its animistic nature is accepted by most of the people. This explains why so many paddy related sundait have been amassed by the Kadazandusun people of Sabah over the last hundred years.

As rice is the staple food of the Kadazandusun their belief in paddy spirits is clearly of great significance. They consider that the role of these spirits is to protect their paddy and to ensure a healthy harvest. In return for this protection the spirits need to be appeased, while giving offence is to be avoided at all costs. As well as carrying out rituals, the Kadazandusun practice riddling at harvest-time as an additional form of appeasement. Consequently, a plethora of sundait has been created over the centuries for this purpose. Many of the sundait subjects relate to paddy practices and paraphernalia (specifically wet and dry paddy planting, preparing the site for paddy planting, the act of planting paddy, bearing of paddy grains, guarding the paddy field, harvesting paddy, equipment used to harvest paddy, equipment used for storing un-husked paddy and rice, the process of drying the harvested paddy, pounding and winnowing paddy, cooking rice, the rice wine and most interestingly - the paddy spirit itself). The wealth of sundait subjects related to paddy and paddy farming indicates the importance of rice to the Kadazandusun; and if nothing else, this study has highlighted that the close relationship between the belief in paddy spirits, riddling in harvest-time and those sundait with paddy as its answers is indeed a prominent characteristic of traditional Kadazandusun cultural practice.

1. The term Kadazandusun - officially coined in the 1990s - is a combination of the words Kadazan and Dusun, devised with the aim of uniting all the subethnic groups encompassed by these two major ethnic groups. The official Kadazandusun language was first taught in schools in 1997 (Reid 1997).

According to the constitution of the Kadazandusun Cultural Association of Sabah (KDCA), Kadazandusun is a generic term for forty indigenous communities of Sabah (Topin 1996). All the informants involved in this research i.e. Bundu, Gana, Liwan, Lotud, Rungus, Tobilung etc. are listed as Kadazandusun sub-ethnic groups in the above mentioned source.

2. Regarding agriculture practice, in the interior district of Tambunan practically every family in the seventy sectors under review has its own paddy field and is thus self-supporting in the commodity. In 1976, four thousand three hundred acres of wet paddy and one thousand seven hundred and fifty acres of hill paddy were cultivated in Tambunan district. The people in Keningau district cultivated five thousand forty three acres of wet paddy and one thousand five hundred and seventeen acres of hill paddy in the same year (Fernando 1978).

3. A variety of synonyms are used for the term "paddy spirit (s)" such as paddyspirit (s) or rice spirit (s) [rice-spirit(s)] or rice soul (s) [rice-soul (s)].

4. The name of Kinoingan's spouse varies according to the different Kadazandusun subgroups. Typically, she is referred to as Suminundu, Umunsumundu and Yumun (Evans 1922; Williams 1965; Leong, 1968).

5. The only daughter of Kinoingan (Kadazandusun Chief God) is now commonly known as Huminudon. She volunteered to sacrifice herself in order to save the human race from famine. According to legend, Ponompuan's flesh became rice, and most sacred of all, her spirit dwelled in the paddy, and became the Sevenin- One Bambarayon, the rice spirit. Since then, Penompuan has been referred to as Huminudon (The Transformed Sacrifice) in the context of Kinoingan's salvation of the Kadazandusun people (Topin, 2003).

6. Piromitan is a layer in the sky. Luma'ag, Dioato, Lugu, and Onkusigal spirits reside on Piromitan. All these spirits help human beings (Yutaka Shimomoto http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/afs/pdf/a339).

7. Sambavon is stronger than any other spirit on Piromitan. Minamangun is the creator and the most powerful deity. Kinoringan is the second most powerful deity (Yutaka Shimomoto http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/afs/pdf/ a339).

8. The transcription of this sundait and the rest of the sundait in this paper are based on the oral reports from the informants representing the different Kadazandusun subgroups. Sundait spellings are in accordance with the informants' spoken language. In other words, all the transcriptions (in terms

of spelling) in this paper are not the same among the different Kadazandusun subgroups; neither are they representative of the official Kadazandusun language.

9. Ethnically, Sama or Bajau or Sama-Bajau are Malays and they exhibit many Malay cultural traits. They are referred to by many names: Orang Seleter in Johor and the waters off Singapore, Orang Suku Laut in Riau and Sama-Bajau in the southern Philippines, Sabah and Sulawesi (Harrisson 1975). 'Sama' in Malay means 'kita' or 'we'. It is believed to have originated from within the group itself, a belief supported by the fact that it is still commonly used as a term of in-group reference. This practice is almost universal in Sabah, the southern Philippines and in southern Indonesia (Gusni Saat 2003).

This research was conducted under the Universiti Malaysia Sabah Seed Money Grant (2009-2010). The author would like to thank Mr. John Mark Storey (proof-reader) and the anonymous reviewer from MALIM who provided many constructive comments prior to publication.

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and Change in a Folklore Genre. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society.

Leong, Frederick Charles. 1968. How The World Was Made? In Marsh, Ignatia

Olim (ed.). Sabah: Legends and Customs. Keningau, Sabah: St. Francis

Xavier's Secondary School.

Lokman Abdul Samad. 2004. Sundait Pengucapan Istimewa Masyarakat

Kadazandusun. (Sundait as a Special Speech of the Kadazandusun).

In Mohd Sarim Hj. Mustajab (ed.). Warisan Budaya Sabah Etnisti dan

Masyarakat: 41-52. Kota Kinabalu: Penerbit Universiti Malaysia Sabah.

Palikat, Nicholas. 1988. The Legend of Hay and Rice. In Ignatia Olim Marsh

(ed.). Tales and Traditions from Sabah: 67-68. Kota Kinabalu: The Sabah

Phelan, Peter. 2005. Comparison: Sabah Local Customs and the Bible. Kota

Kinabalu: Brother Peter Phelan.

Pugh-Kitingan, Jacqueline and Baptist, Judeth John. 2009. Music for Cleansing

the Universe - Drumming and Gong Ensemble Music in the Mamahui

Pogun Ceremonies of the Lotud Dusun of Tuaran, Sabah, Malaysia. Borneo

Research Bulletin: 249-276. U.S.A.: Borneo Research Council, Inc.

Reid, Anthony. 1997. Endangered Identity: Kadazan or Dusun in Sabah. Journal

of Southeast Asian Studies Vol. 28, Mac: 120-136. National University of

Sabah Museum. 1993. Rice Power and Its Magic: A Brief Introduction to the

Culture of Rice in Sabah. Kota Kinabalu: Department of Sabah Museum.

Topin, Benedict. 1996. Sharing on Kadazandusun Culture. Penampang: Sabah

State Library, Penampang Branch.

96 | MALIM - SEA Journal of General Studies 13 * 2012

______________ . 2003. The Significance of Unduk Ngadau in Kaamatan

Festival. Buku Cendera Hati Pesta Kaamatan 2003: 31 - 33. Federal

Territory of Labuan, Malaysia.

Williams, Thomas Rhys. 1963. The Form and Function of Tambunan Dusun

Riddles. Journal of American Folklore: 95-110.

___________________ . 1965. The Dusun: A North Borneo Society. London:

Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Yutaka Shimomoto. Myths and Ritual for Rice Spirits Bambarazon among the

Rungus. In http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/afs/pdf/a339. Accessed

on 10 August 2010.

Notes: The sequence of informants listed below is based on the order in which

they appeared in this article. The words "bin" and "binti" in the middle of the

name indicate "male" and "female" respectively. With reference to the venue,

the Malay word "Kampung" means village.

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Kadazandusun Beliefs About Paddy Spirits, Riddling & Sundait

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Investigating the Relationship between Kadazandusun Beliefs about Paddy Spirits, Riddling in Harvest-time and Paddy-Related Sundait ...

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A lot of scholars believe black colour represents power which helps to protect the wearer from evil spirits while others believe black colour suits the lifestyle of the ethnic people. Besides that, the colour reflects the sense of pride of the Kadazandusun communities. (Cosmas, Sombuling, Anderson, Poninting, n.d.)

Picture source
"Beutiful dancers of Kadazan Dusun", (n.d.)

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The dead body is washed and dressed in fine clothes and sprinkled with rose-water. The body is kept at the house from three to seven days before burial. Nobody can fall asleep in order to keep an eye  for any devil which is believed to be disguised as a large bird and the bird will fly away with the body. Cloth is hung around the dead body as they believe the bird is afraid of the clothes  as it often mistake the cloth for human beings.

Only silent and calmness allowed in the house. Gongs or drums may only be beaten three times a day which happens during sun sets, at midnight, and sun rise.

The deceased body will be wrapped up with cloth and tied to a pole to ease the lifting process until it is successfully buried in the grave.

Family of the deceased will send food to the grave for seven days since they believe that the deceased's soul has not leave the body. So, food is required by the relatives or family members.

Higher rank Kadazan deceased body are placed in large burial jars that is firmly closed. Another expensive jar is placed above the grave.

A feast is held at night three days after the burial. Family members will let fall three drops of candle wax on the floor cracks onto the ground.

The second feast is repeated on the seventh day after the burial but this time seven candle wax drops is made.

The third feast is made on the fortieth day during the midday and night. Usually the son of the deceased will invite the deceased  to join the feast.

The last feast which is much grander is held one hundred year later to mark the change of the deceased's family white mourning clothes and hair cutting. "Kadazan Custom", (n.d.)

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Family members will call a medicine-man who is usually a woman to casts spells, explains the necessary taboos to be followed, and provide necessary medicines for the illness the patient is suffering from which consists of inter alia, tail and skin of a python, tail and fat of ant-eater, cockroaches, bees, rats, rattan roots, nibung-palm roots, betelnut roots, langsat, and wild bananas.

Besides that the medicine-man will also brings a chicken, a pig, and some yellow rice to a large boulder which she believes  to be the living place for evil spirits.

Spells in the spirit language will be chanted at the boulder and followed by placing yellow rice and freshly slaughtered chicken's and pig's blood in a bamboo stem. The bamboo stem will be placed on the boulder as the final step.

The medicine-man will return back home without looking back. After half an hour the caressers (dead animals) are brought back to the patient's house and smeared all over the patient's body. "Kadazan Custom", (n.d.).

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Incantations, prayers, trances, and animal sacrifices are commonly practised for their rituals. Bobolians or Bobohizans (Kadazan priestesses). Bobolian plays an important role to chase spirits away from newborn babies, acts as healers to cast out any sickness or diseases brought by the evil spirits, and leads the funerals by performing rites to guide the dead spirits up until it reaches Mount Kinabalu which is believes to be the resting place for the deads (Bedford, 2018)

Picture of Kadazan Dusun priests
"Wajah dan Karakter", (n.d.)

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Traditionally, Kadazan-Duzun practised animism and they believed all objects have it's own spirits whom unlike other cultures, the spirits will focus on their own life although it is separated into two which are the good -natured spirits and the evil tendencies spirits. However, majority of Kadazan ethnic nowadays are Christian, some are Muslims, and others still stick to their ancestors' animistic beliefs (Bala.P, n.d.). The highlighted article below explains further about the history of their deities.

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Kadazan Duzun Ethnic for religious beliefs

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Kadazan-Dusun is one of several ethnic groups in East Malaysia (Sabah). It covers 28% of the total population in Sabah. (Bedford, 2018)

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Kadazan Duzun highlighted introduction article

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Picture source
(Smart Borneo, n.d.)

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After the death of an Iban person, the dead soul  will cross the "Bridge of Anxiety" towards a world of unimaginable pleasure. After a brief stay, the soul will transform into a spirit which laters on returns to earth in the form of rice-nourishing dew (Hays, 2008)

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Highlighted part for Iban afterlife belief

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Some Ibans from Sarawak believed that the giant crocodile Bujang Senang was actually a human who was cursed post-mortem to become a crocodile. It is said that Bujang Senang was an Iban warrior and he is called as "Simalungun". Simalungun was a famous  warrior during the headhuntings period. No one could easily defeat him (Badd, 2017). Details about the greatness of this Iban legend is further explained in the article below.

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[ Artikel ni asalnya ditulis rakan rakan kami kat SOSCILI. Untuk baca dalam BM, klik sini!]

Other than being known as the land of the hornbills, Sarawak is also known for its crocodiles. This year alone, we've found five instances of crocodile attacks in East Malaysia:

1. A student waiting for his SPM results was taken by a crocodile at Sungai Tapang, Ulu Peking, Sarawak. (23 Feb 2017)

2. A teenage boy died from a crocodile attack after falling into the Kampung Kawi River, in Bintangor, Sarawak. (22 May 2017)

3. An estate worker was gobbled up in front of his friend, while checking his fishing line at Sungai Pelasan, Sarawak. (14 Jul 2017)

4. A man was eaten by a crocodile while fishing with his cousin at the bank of Sungai Kuala Besar, Kampung Hulu Tambak, Sarawak. (27 Sep 2017)

5. An estate worker went missing, believed to have been chomped by crocodiles at Lahad Datu, Sabah. (5 Nov 2017)

Those were among the crocodile attacks reported so far. From 2007 to 2013, the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development had stated that out of 42 reports of crocodile attacks in Malaysia, 40 of them are from Sarawak. These attacks brings to mind the tale of Bujang Senang, a crocodile that once terrorized the Batang Lupar river area back in the 1940s.

While Bujang Senang had in the past been rumored to be as big as a bus, being able to eat a full-grown man in one bite, you might be shocked to know that...

The Ibans believe that Bujang Senang used to be... a man.

Some Ibans in Sarawak believed that the giant crocodile Bujang Senang was actually a human who was cursed post-mortem to become a crocodile. According to the legend, Bujang Senang used to be an Iban warrior named Simalungun. It was said the Simalungun was a famous warrior back when people practiced 'mengayau' ( cutting off and collecting the enemies' heads), and those who stood before him had no chance of defeating him in battle.

This was probably due to the fact the Simalungun practiced a mystic art that caused his body to become invulnerable to weapons, and his enemies knew about that. They also knew that practitioners of the art had to observe a certain taboo, and if Simalungun was to break that taboo, he would become vulnerable again. Simalungun's taboo was a closely-kept secret, so his enemies decided to kidnap his wife and make her tell them what his taboo is.

Simalungun, realizing that his wife had been kidnapped by his enemies, went to confront them at the Batang Lupar river. As the story goes, his enemies released his wife, but before Simalungun can get to her they impaled her with a javelin, killing her on the spot. This caused Simalungun to fly into a rage, and a terrible battle ensued. However, his enemies soon noticed their weapons worked on Simalungun as soon as he stepped into the river.

It didn't take long for them to come to the conclusion that Simalungun's taboo was to never stand in a river, and despite Simalungun's rage, he was soon defeated. Both his and his wife's corpses was left to sink in the river, but for unknown reasons the deities residing in the river cursed Simalungun's body to become a giant crocodile, identified with a white stripe on its back. Ever since then, the crocodile, called 'Bujang Senang', had terrorized the descendants of his killers living near Batang Lupar.

But why is it called 'Bujang' (bachelor) when according to myth, Simalungun was married?

"The colloquial name of 'bujang' means someone who is a champ, a great person, and it's a sign of respect to call a man bujang. So these wild reptiles are called bujang as a sign of respect." - Indet Sanabong, Crocodile Shaman. Excerpt from Kosmo.

Bujang Senang's heyday was said to be in the 1940s, but after that the tales of its atrocity died down... for a while. In the 1980s, Bujang Senang made a comeback.

Bujang Senang raged again, but this time it was defeated... with a nail bullet

On his return in 1982, Bujang Senang's first reported victim was Headman Bangan from the Pali Longhouse in Sri Aman. It was said that the headman was attacked while he was fishing for shrimps by the riverside. His brother, Kebir, who was with him at that time, failed to rescue him. But he did saw a white streak down the crocodile's back, leading him to believe that what they were dealing with was the legendary Bujang Senang.

Following that incident, the local police launched ' Operasi Buaya Ganas ' (Ferocious Crocodile Ops) at all big rivers in Sarawak, but they couldn't find Bujang Senang.

"Bujang Senang continued to rage, and between 1982 and 1991 it was believed that 13 people fell victim to the giant beast's rage. His reign of terror reached its peak in May 1992, when the beast snatched his 14th victim, 20-year-old Dayang, daughter of Bayang, when the Iban lady was crossing the Pelaban River with her mother." - Excerpt from BH Online.

The attack prompted both the police and the villagers to hunt down Bujang Senang. Within four hours, Bujang Senang was cornered, but they failed to kill him with javelins and normal bullets. So a shaman suggested that they use nails as bullets. The suggestion seemed to work, as Bujang Senang finally fell after receiving 40 shots of 10cm nails.

The crocodile's corpse did have a white stripe on its back, but it's not the size of a bus as some have claimed. It was 5.46 meters long, and its belly had a girth of 2.12 meters. Despite the capture, some remained skeptical with the history and legend of Bujang Senang, while others were convinced that the real Bujang Senang is still out there, and what they killed wasn't really Bujang Senang.

Despite its fame, Bujang Senang wasn't the only famous crocodile who attacked people

While in the beginning we mentioned a few cases of crocodile attacks, it would seem that the cases were isolated incidents, judging by the fact that none of the crocodile perpetrators were given specific names. Bujang Senang, on the other hand, received a somewhat legendary status in Malaysia, but there are other notorious crocodiles in Sarawak's history, all with Bujang at the front of their names: Bujang Samarahan, Bujang Tisak, Bujang Belawai, Bujang Subis and Bujang Seblak.

In 2001, the crocodile Bujang Subis was shot dead after eating a 10-year-old boy. The boy's father, upon cutting open the crocodile's belly, discovered both his son's arms and legs inside. The boy's head and other parts were later found floating around at the Niah National Park.

Later, in 2012, the country was again shocked by another crocodile attack, this time by one called Bujang Seblak. The crocodile had eaten a woman named Siah Munsong. A hunt ensued, using both modern and traditional methods.

"Even though we tried to bait Bujang Seblak, it was smart enough to escape the traps we set for him. However, two other medium-sized crocodiles we trapped instead. We believe these two were his minions." - from Utusan Malaysia.

Two weeks after he ate Siah Munsong, Bujang Seblak was finally caught by a crocodile shaman. This time, they knew for sure it was Bujang Seblak, judging by the two gunshot wounds on his eye and jaw from when he was carrying Siah's corpse. Upon weighing the crocodile, they found its weight to be more than 200kgs.

What's interesting about Bujang Seblak's capture was that he was killed by a slap. A shaman's spell-infused slap.

"I had to slap Bujang Seblak in the head to kill him instantly. This was because he tried to resist, and I had to think of my safety as well because the boat I was riding can't handle his weight." - Indet Sanabong, Crocodile Shaman. Taken from Utusan Malaysia.

The handling of crocodiles sometimes involve mystical methods

Indet Sanabong is a famous crocodile hunter in Sarawak: whenever there is a crocodile attack, people will seek him out. Indet was also the shaman who slapped Bujang Seblak dead, but according to him he had already captured tens of thousands of crocodiles all over Sarawak before that. He learned how to catch crocodiles from a teacher in Sipitang, Sabah.

"I put five of my children through school using the money I got from selling crocodiles to crocodile parks and private buyers. But as soon as I found out that my actions were against the law, I stopped." - Indet Sanabong, Crocodile Shaman for Kosmo.

According to Indet, crocodiles don't just attack anybody, as they prefer people who are in a 'puni' or 'punik' state. No, that's not a typo.

"According to the Ibans, 'puni' is sort of like longing for something but not getting it, but in this case it's more like an unfulfilled promise by someone. For example, someone was invited to eat, but instead of eating, he did other stuff. That person is said to be in a puni state." - Indet Sanabong, Crocodile Shaman for Kosmo.

So basically, puni is like some sort of unfulfilled wish or unfinished business. Indet further explained that puni can also happen to crocodiles who have eaten people before. This is because once a crocodile got a taste of human flesh, it will start to like it and actively seek it out, by attacking people. When this happens, Indet have to end the crocodile's puni by feeding it a charmed bait.

Indet claimed that only crocodiles who had eaten humans before will eat the charmed bait. The bait, on the other hand, is made of the meat of a white dog placed on three fishing hooks, all tied to a rope made of living rattan. He further claimed that a crocodile that eats humans already had a curse on them: even without eating the bait, they can still be killed.

"The killing won't involve the use of firearms or sharp weapons, but just my bare hands. After reciting a spell, I would slap the crocodile's head and it will instantly die." - Indet Sanabong, Crocodile Shaman, for Kosmo.

Sarawak's trying to reduce the number of crocodiles, but maybe their population alone isn't the problem

Starting October this year, Sarawak's Forestry Department (JHS) approved 10 licenses to catch crocodiles in Sarawak. Most of the license holders come from the Batang Lupar area, as there's a high number of crocodiles there.

Last year, it was estimated that there were more than 20,000 adult-sized crocodiles in Sarawak. Some rivers were even estimated to have an average of 14 crocodiles for every kilometer of their length. This was the reason the state government declared 60% out of that 20 thousand can be hunted. Besides that, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) had already lowered the status of crocodiles (specifically, Crocodylus porosus) from Appendix I to Appendix II.

"We managed to downgrade the crocodiles from Appendix I to Appendix II, meaning that the species can be hunted, killed and their meat and skin can be marketed globally." - Sapuan Ahamad, Director of Sarawak's Forestry Department, for Utusan Borneo.

However, the effort to cut down on the crocodiles' population didn't go over well with the culture and beliefs of Sarawakians, especially the Ibans. This is because some of them believe that crocodiles are manifestations of a river's spirit, or Ribai. Therefore, they try their hardest to not kill a crocodile, as it may bring them misfortune later.

"The people living by the riversides still believe that killing a crocodile is an unbreakable taboo... Whatever their religion is, when it comes to crocodiles, they will try their hardest to not kill a crocodile, as they fear their lives would be in danger the next time they are near rivers." - Prof Madya Dr. Ruhana Hassan, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, for Harian Metro.

Even though Sarawak's Forestry Department did distribute crocodile hunting licenses, at the same time they are encouraging the people of Sarawak to run crocodile farms. According to them, these farms won't only provide them with crocodile skin and meat, but can also be a tourist attraction, like the Miri Crocodile Farm that pulls in a huge number of tourists to Miri, Sarawak.

The government's permission to hunt crocodiles can be said to be an effort to control their population, and consequently the risk they pose to humans. However, some researchers believe that the crocodile attacks are our fault to begin with, because of river pollution.

"The pollution of rivers is also a factor in crocodile attacks. We have found plenty of plastic bags in the bellies of the crocodiles we've operated on. We have found that crocodiles are attracted to trash as they may think that there is food in the plastic bags." - Christopher Kri Ubang, a wildlife officer from the Sarawak Forestry Corporation (SFC), for Utusan Borneo.

According to media reports, the state of rivers in Malaysia are getting worse. Besides trash, rivers are also exposed to pollution from factories and industries.

The skull of Bujang Senang displayed at the Sarawak Museum may invoke legends of warriors and curses from a bygone era in the visitors' minds. However, at the rate things are going now, one might wonder if crocodile legends a century from now will involve a superhero whose powers came from being bitten by radioactive crocodiles instead.

bujang belawai, bujang samarahan, bujang seblak, bujang senang, bujang subis, bujang tisak, croc attack, crocodile shaman, crocodile slap, Iban, just bujang, myth, nail bullet, sarawak, simalungun, werecrocodile

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Here's the story behind Bujang Senang, a crocodile that once terrorized Sarawak

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Artikel ni asalnya ditulis rakan rakan kami kat SOSCILI. Untuk baca dalam BM, klik sini!] Other than being known as the land of the hornbills, Sarawak is also known for its crocodiles.

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In Iban traditional believes, Iban women's tattoos are connected with weaving ceremonial garments used to put the heads from headhunting trips. Referring to the Vanishing Tattoos documentary, Ibans believe the blood red dye used in weaving expose female weavers into dangerous contact with the spirit world. Iban womens receives scorpion or centipedes form tatoos as a protection from evil spirits (Nandini, 2019).

Picture of Iban women traditional tattoo "Traditional Pattern of Borneon", (n.d.)

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Stock Photo - Traditional patterns of Bornean Iban female tattoo made by modern equipments

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Download this stock image: Traditional patterns of Bornean Iban female tattoo made by modern equipments. - EPY349 from Alamy's library of millions of high resolution stock photos, illustrations and vectors.

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(Harme, 2019)

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Iban communities believe that their tattoos acts as protection charms given by spirits (antu) through their dreams. Iban without tattoos are believed to be invisible by gods. Usually the tattoos are combined with humans, animals, and plants images (Nandini, 2019). The type of Iban tattoos and its meanings are further elaborated in the attached article below.

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Cover image via Bamboo Travel

Did you know that Iban warriors back in the 40s fought against Japanese soldiers that came equipped with machine guns, armed with only tattoos and spears?

All but one soldier came back alive.

The word tattoo is said to have originated from the Tahitian word "tatu", which refers to the act of marking something.

The Ibans believe that their tattoos have protective powers in the form of charms that are given by antu (spirits) through dreams, when one is asleep.

Ibans without tattoos are said to be virtually invisible to gods, as the spirits attached to these tattoos allow the men to be seen by their gods.

Krutak says that about 500 years ago, the art of tattooing was practised widely by approximately 1,000 indigenous tribes all around the world, but over the years most of these ancient tribes have vanished.

An enlightening documentary by Canadian tattoo artist Thomas Lockhart, and writer cum historian Vince Hemingson, shed light on the fascinating world of the vanishing art of traditional Iban tattooing

Both Tom and Vince go on an interesting journey to discover ancient Iban tattoos along with prominent tattoo artists, brothers, Eddie and Sam David of Borneo Ink.

The 49-minute documentary starts with Thomas and Vince's journey to the longhouse of their grandfather's brother, an elderly gentleman named Aki Busai by the Skrang river.

Along the way, they speak about how tattoos were viewed as "primitive and a mark of a savage" by urbanites.

The David brothers are of Iban descent but grew up in Kuala Lumpur and set up their own tattoo parlour, Borneo Ink in the country's capital in 1996. Borneo Ink happens to be one of the very few places in the country that still offers the art of traditional hand-tapped tattoo.

Here are some interesting things about the mysterious world of traditional Iban tattoos:

Tattoos have always been enveloped in a mysterious blanket of tradition, culture and stories from ancient times.

According to a book titled, 'Tattoo History Source Book: An Anthology of Historical Records of Tattooing Throughout The World' by Steve Gilbert, Borneo's illustrious tattoos are considered sacred, magical and are tied closely to the beliefs of the Dayak community.

Their boatman is adorned with tattoos all over his body, from his arms to legs and thighs. In the midst of all those traditional Iban tattoos, sits a cowboy designed tattoo.

In the Vanishing Tattoos documentary, Borneo Ink's Eddie explains how the Ibans are getting more interested in modern tattoos as opposed to the traditional ones.

While tattooing is mostly regarded as a form of body art in present day, it was previously and is still deemed to be something that is symbolic to the lifestyle and daily practices of the native tribes in Borneo.

Borneo tattoos are usually the intricate combination of images of humans, animals and plants in a single design, expressing the integration of all living things in the world.

The bunga terung tattoo is said to be inspired by the design of the aubergine flower and it is mostly tattooed at the shoulders, just by the edge of the collarbone. The spiral in the middle of the bunga terung design is said to originate from the ribbed design on the belly of a tadpole which signifies the beginning of life.

According to blog posting on Jedrzej's Borneo Blog on the history of Iban tattoos, the bunga terung tattoo is placed near the shoulder as it is usually where the straps from backpacks rest.

The tattoo is believed to help strengthen the wearer during his bejalai journey into the woods. During the journey, the young man is said to gain his fame and wealth by helping out other neighbouring Iban communities and the favours would be gifted with tattoos.

The documentary also highlights how the backpiece serves as a protection against evil spirit and it is said to symbolise the connection to gods that offer guidance and protection to the wearer.

There are a few differing interpretations as to what these designs mean. It is also noted that frogs are an important aspect of the Iban mythology as the creator of men and a frog design tattooed on the throat is believed to protect warriors from losing their heads during battles.

Another common design, is the scorpion tattoo, which is usually placed at the arms or thighs of a man and symbolises the journey of the wearer.

Traditional tattoos are a significant part of the world's rich history.

However, the past century has seen the growth and formation of negative perceptions about tattoos.

Over the past few decades, tattoos have gained a great deal of popularity in the world and it is no longer exclusive to indigenous tribes.

The intricate body art has become a common sight, with people from all walks of life donning it according to their preferences.

Unfortunately, since tattoos have a history of being associated with gangs and criminal activities, negative perceptions about people with tattoos have developed over the years. Surveys and research reveal that people with visible tattoos have lesser chances of attaining a job.

However, thanks to more democratic workplaces and better awareness about tattoos, people are starting to become more accepting towards the idea of tattoos and that it is merely a form of body art that has nothing to do with a person's personality and abilities.

With tattoos gaining popularity among the masses, more people are also opting for the traditional designs. Is it offensive for non-Ibans to get traditional tattoos or even alter them?

However, the Iban community has been known to be warm and generous with sharing their traditions and culture

With tattoo parlours like the Borneo Ink and Borneo Headhunters Tattoo and Piercing Studio opening their doors and offering their services that include traditional Iban tattoos, it is proven that it is acceptable for non-Ibans to get the traditional tattoos.

While it is entirely possible for it to still be offensive to some, non-Ibans that are interested in the tribe's traditional tattoos can read up on it beforehand to better understand the meaning and significance attached to specific designs.

Sarawak is a beautiful state, steeped in centuries' worth of tradition, history and culture. Check out these amazing photos of the east Malaysian state:

Make sure you try these delicious local Sarawakian dishes while you're at it!

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Sarawak's Tribal Tattoos Have An Ancient History Not Many Know Of Today

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Cover image via Bamboo Travel Did you know that Iban warriors back in the 40s fought against Japanese soldiers that came equipped with machine guns, armed with only tattoos and spears? All but one soldier came back alive. The word tattoo is said to have originated from the Tahitian word "tatu", which refers to the act of marking something.

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Iban religious practitioners, are divided into three kinds which are bards (recite myth),  augurs (rituals for agriculture and travelling), and shaman (healers). Religious ceremonies fall into four categories which consists of agricultural festivals, healing rituals, head hunting related ceremonies, and dead rituals. Details about how the healing rituals works is further elaborated in the attached article below.(Hays, 2008)

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Highlighted part for Iban healing rituals

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Nowadays, a large percentage of the Iban communities still believe in Animism (their traditional belief) in which all beings possess a soul. For animism believers, they have faith in dreams and bird augury as they would observe the bird's behaviors before proceed with daily activities: farming, hunting, and trading deals (Iban encyclopedia, 2018).

Detailed explanations about animistic beliefs towards bird's behaviors are explained in the attached article below. (ILOVEKCH, 2017)

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"If you never listen to the call of the Omen birds, no amount of charms will make your work prosper". And he adds, "These omen birds are all my son-in-laws; Ketupong, Bejampong, Embuas, Pangkas, Beragai, Papau, and Nendak". Those are the words of Sengalang Burong, the most powerful deity in traditional Iban faith.

Whether you choose to believe it or not, these ancient tradition of respecting the calls of the Omen birds have made the Iban tribe to prosper, expand and thrive to become one of the most populous ethnic in the island of Borneo.

When it comes to waging war, headhunting, paddy harvesting, or even building a new "rumah panjai", the Iban believes that upon seeing or hearing these Omen birds, it is a potential warning signs given from the deity, in order for them to be extra vigilant and cautious. On the contrary, it could also signify good luck and positive energy. It all depends on which Omen birds that gives out the call.

Fast forward to the present time, there isn't much awareness among the younger Iban generations regarding this almost forgotten heritage. Still, it stays as among one of the most important aspect of Iban culture other than Ngepan, Tuak, Ngajat and so on.
1. Ketupong
The eldest and has the most authoritative and deliberative power (In Iban terms: ngasi, bekuasa)

Looks small but aggressive with human.

When heard during paddy harvesting season, it's a sign of bad omen: Bad things will happen to the owner's paddy field.

Similarly if Ketupong is seen at a young paddy field (Umai Temuda), it means that the harvest is going to be bad: Not a good location for paddy planting
2. Beragai
Can present with either good or bad omen, depending on the accompanying sound of its' brother.

When heard alone, it's a good omen: Very good harvest, paddy will be plentiful.

When heard before Bejampung, it's a bad omen: The person hearing it will soon face hardship alongside his/her family.
3. Bejampung
In Iban culture, Bejampung is very keen sighted (mata lansik) and sharp hearing (pending lansik).

Often called by Shaman (Lemambang) to assist in ritual.

Brings good or bad omen in forms of fire

If it enters a house, a bad sign that the house will be engulfed by fire.

If it is found at "Umai Bukit" (Hill Paddy Field), a good sign that the field will be cleansed with ease (umai deka angus ditunu).
4. Pangkas
A sub-species of Woodpecker (Burung Belatuk / Kutuk).

Mostly only Bad Omen.

Bad omen when heard during harvesting (ngetau): The harvested paddy will not sustain for a long time (deka rua diempa).

If heard during headhunting (Ngayau), it shows that the killing of enemies might not be affective (pala munsuh enda ulih pumpung).
5. Ketupong
The eldest and has the most authoritative and deliberative power (In Iban terms: ngasi, bekuasa)

Looks small but aggressive with human.

When heard during paddy harvesting season, it's a sign of bad omen: Bad things will happen to the owner's paddy field.

Similarly if Ketupong is seen at a young paddy field (Umai Temuda), it means that the harvest is going to be bad: Not a good location for paddy planting.
6. Beragai
Can present with either good or bad omen, depending on the accompanying sound of its' brother.

When heard alone, it's a good omen: Very good harvest, paddy will be plentiful.

When heard before Bejampung, it's a bad omen: The person hearing it will soon face hardship alongside his/her family.
7. Bejampung
In Iban culture, Bejampung is very keen sighted (mata lansik) and sharp hearing (pending lansik).

Often called by Shaman (Lemambang) to assist in ritual.

Brings good or bad omen in forms of fire

If it enters a house, a bad sign that the house will be engulfed by fire.

If it is found at "Umai Bukit" (Hill Paddy Field), a good sign that the field will be cleansed with ease (umai deka angus ditunu)

Source : Ricky Nel Frank ( Mister Borneo 2017 - London Qualifier ) Borneo Hornbill Festival. You can follow his journey from his facebook account here : Ricky Nel Frank

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The 7 Omen Birds Of The Iban Tribe, That You Should Know

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"If you never listen to the call of the Omen birds, no amount of charms will make your work prosper". And he adds, "These omen birds are all my son-in-laws; Ketupong, Bejampong, Embuas, Pangkas, Beragai, Papau, and Nendak". Those are the words of Sengalang Burong, the most powerful deity in traditional Iban faith.

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(AsiaTravelTV, 2010)

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Iban Tribes Warriors of Sarawak, Malaysia by Asiatravel.com

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Picture source
(Gorlinski, n.d.)

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They believe that when they die, their spirits will rise to the sky to meet Aki Kaulung, then they will proceed with their afterlife. However, before they could meet Aki Kaulung, they will have to pass through an obstacle which is believed to have a shape of a big caterpillar (batol). Explanation about their afterlife belief is explained at the highlighted part in the journal below. (Abd Hakim, 2014, p.427)

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Journal about Murut (Highlighted for afterlife beliefs part)

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(Herman, 2009)

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Referring to " The Timugun Murut", (n.d.), Murut ethnic's origin had been connected with the legend of a man who was the sole survivor of a dreadful flood who married his handmade clay woman figurine instead of marrying a horrendous-looking woman covered in ringworm. The details of this legend is further explained in the article below.

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The Timugon Murut people reside in a small, well-defined area in the Tenom Valley. Spanning about 20 miles from north to south, over half of the Timugon villages are situated on the western side of the Pegalan River, which runs south in the valley and some villages on its eastern banks.

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Back then, Murut people are well accustomed with headhunting which is one of their ways to defeat their enemies. Headhunting was considered as spiritual belief as they believe that by slicing the head's off could separate the spirits from the dead body. The opponent's spirit will enter their bodies which helps them to increase their spiritual strength. As time passes by, this tradition is no longer practiced but there is those who still practice this tradition. The highlighted part in the  journal below explains in more detailed about the headhunting activity as being part of Murut's spiritual belief. (Abd Hakim, 2014, p.427)

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Journal about Murut (Highlighted at headhunting part)

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Picture source
(Bedford, 2018)

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Urung ritual is held to prevent evil spirit from disturbing the communities when they are doing any activities. This ritual involves using a 25 feet tall tower to place a soft wood carved figurine (Tiningkoulun) that is decorated with two pieces of sarung cloth with a human face. Six pieces of  hanging sarung cloth and two pieces of red and blue colour cloths are placed around Tiningkoulun. Besides that, Murut women's bead handicrafts are placed in the middle of the tower and fish traps: bubuh, net, and hat are placed at the bottom of the tower.  A Murut leader (Ansaa'l) will lead the ritual by performing a prayer and shoot the hanging cloths down. If it suceeds,  they can proceed with the ceremony (Bernama, 2019)

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TENOM: Ethnic Muruts here hold Urung ritual after a death or to receive a special guest especially during a wedding to chase away evil spirits from the newly weds, said Atun Patu, Tenom community head.

Atun, 63, said the ritual is very important for the Murut community as it is part of the inherited tradition of the tribe.

He said Muruts believed in the presence of evil spirits and therefore Urung ritual is held so evil spirits do not disturb the community when various activities taking place.

"Urung ritual for wedding is called 'Ansaluang' or the ritual of entering a home to ward off evil spirits from joining or disrupting the guests when the ceremony is being carried out," he told Bernama here.

Atun said preparations for the Urung ritual involved building a 25 feet tall tower to place a figurine made of soft wood carved with a human face at the top.

The figurine called Tiningkoulun is decorated with two hanging pieces of sarung cloth, he said.

"At the tower, there are six pieces of hanging sarung cloth and two pieces of red and blue colours are placed around the Tiningkoulun (figurine).

Apart from that, Murut womens bead handicrafts are hung in the middle of the tower while fish traps such as bubuh, net and hat are placed at the bottom of the tower," he said.

Atun said a leader from the Murut ethnic community called Ansaál is chosen to head the ritual with a gun to shoot and bring down the hanging cloth at the tower.

Ansa'al commences with a prayer so that evil spirits do not disturb the family, guests and the community, he said.

"If the shot by Ansa'al succeeded in bring down the cloth it means the ceremony can proceed but if he fails even after running out of ammunition to bring down the hanging sarung cloth, another ceremony called Amparawak would be held to ward off bad luck," he said.

Belief in Urung ritual among the younger generations of Muruts is fading due to different religions adopted by them, mixed marriages and the wave of modern lifestyle, he said. - Bernama

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Urung, Murut ritual to chase away evil spirits - Borneo Post Online

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TENOM: Ethnic Muruts here hold Urung ritual after a death or to receive a special guest especially during a wedding to chase away evil spirits from the newly weds, said Atun Patu, Tenom community head. Atun, 63, said the ritual is very important for the Murut community as it is part of the inherited tradition of the tribe.

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Back then, Murut ethnic used to have faith in Aki Kaulung or it is better known as their source of existence. They believed that Aki Kaulung created the mountains and the hills in which contain spirits that could bring great influences towards their life. Nowadays, 82% Murut ethnics are christian, 13% Muslim, and 5% from other religions (Abd Hakim, 2014)

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Murut ethnic who is also known as the "hill people" lives in the interior part of Sabah. They are highly acknowledge for their fearless personality in hunting animals and human's heads. (Bedford, 2018)

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1) Introduction

2) Murut Ethnic
a) Background
b) Religious beliefs
c) Religious ritual
(Urung ritual)
d) Headhunting beliefs
e) Picture of head
hunting activity
f) Legends
j) Afterlife beliefs

3) Iban Ethnic
a) Background
b) Religious beliefs
c) Religious rituals
d) Man tattoo beliefs
e) Example of Bunga
Terung tattoo picture
f) Woman tattoo beliefs
g) Legends
h) Afterlife belief

4) Kadazan-Duzun Ethnic
a) Background
b) Religious belief
c) Religious rituals
d) Illness rituals
e) Funeral rituals
f) Black colour beliefs
g) Legend
h) Myth
i) Nunuk Ragang picture
j) Afterlife beliefs

5) Buginese Ethnic
a) Background
b) Religious belief
c) Religious rituals
d) Origin myth
e) Political myth
f) Legends
g) Taboos
h) Afterlife beliefs

6) Senoi Ethnic
a) Background
b) Religious belief
c) Religious rituals
d) Taboos
e) Senoi mask (mah-
meri) beliefs
f) Legends
g) Afterlife

7) Cultural Mindfullness
Reflection

8) References