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Story
As she turned around to check if the person was still following her, she noticed the silhouette was cast by a short stout man in a top hat. She kept running and when she reached her dorm door, she frantically searched for her ID before realizing she didn't have it with her. Heart pounding, she turned around and recognized the bank teller.
Top-down: perception to sensation
Bottom-up: sensation to perception

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Sensation
- the basic experience of stimulation of the body's senses

vision

auditory

olfactory

gustation

kinesthetic sense (kinesthesis)

vestibular (touch/pain)

- convert physical NRG into nerve impulses
Proprioception
- the perception of movement and spatial orientation by relying on stimuli within the body
Kinesthesis
- awareness of body parts and the perception of moving them in relation to other parts

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Characteristic of sensation
- sufficiently intense
- stimulates receptor cell
- response? send detailed and precise message to brain
Perception
- create meaningful patterns from raw sensory information
- recognize meaningful objects/events
- top down processing: interpreting what we sense

background knowledge

schemas (categories of concepts)

what we are told

Perceptual Set - the psychological factors that determine how you perceive your environment

everyone's is different

believing is seeing

context is important

culture

Wave Aspects
short wavelength: high frequency and violet colors
long wavelength: low frequency and red colors
low amplitude: quieter sound and duller color
high amplitude: louder sound and brighter color

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I can understand the JND, Signal Detection Theory, Parts of the Eye and Path of Vision
How has someone used perceptual set on me? Someone says roast, boast, etc. then asking what does a person put in the toaster, and I say toast instead of bread.
Figure-Ground dynamic
- one object is the focus and all other objects become the surroundings or ground
Absolute threshold
- the minimum stimulation necessary to detect a stimulus 50% of the time
- subliminal and supraliminal stimuli
JND: Just Noticeable Difference is the amount something must be changed in order to detect it 50% of the time

8% change in light, 2% of weight, .3% tone

higher intensity needs higher amount of change (color, light, smell)

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Signal Detection Theory
- predicts when and how we detect the presence of a faint stimulus
- looks at the effects of distractions and interference in perception
- other stimuli, motivation, background, expectations, bias
- signal (reality) vs. decision (think)

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The Visual Path
Cornea: transparent protector, place where light enter
Pupil: adjustable opening in the center of the iris; contracts in bright light, relaxes in dim (reflexive response)
Iris: colored part of the eye that protect from damage
Lens: the transparent part of the eye inside the pupil that focuses light onto the retina by changing its curvature; accommodation lens changes shape according to distance (round=close; flat=far)
Retina: inner lining on the back of the eyeball that contains receptor cells sensitive to light

rods: white, gray, black

20:1 rods to cones

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Theories of Color Vision
- Young-Helmholt Trichromatic Theory

each cone is sensitive to 1 of 3 colors

combined stimulation creates ranges, mixed shades

Afterimage: cones become saturated, see opposite color (this theory cannot explain that)

- Opponent-Process Theory(Hering)

three kinds of cones that work in pairs

red & green, blue & yellow, black & white

if one is stimulated, other is inhibited

Colorblindness: partial or total inability to perceive hue; monochromats, dichromats (no b&w), trichromat

explains both colorblindness and afterimage

- Young cant explain colorblindness because they would say the only one color is lost, but it is lost in pairs

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2 types of ganglion cells

Magnocellur Cells: detect motion

Parvocellur Cells: detect color/identify item

Acuity: ability to distinguish fine details, sharpness
Transduction: Signals are formed into neural impulses as light passes through retina, retina function
Parallel Processing
- processing several aspects simultaneously (color, form, and motion)
Feature Detectors
- Huber and Weisel
- neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific feature form: responsible for brain motion
- shape/form; angle/depth; movement; color

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The Visual Path cont.

Blindsight: ability to respond to something not consciously perceived; primary visual cortex
Blind spot: the point where the optic nerve leaves the eye, no visual receptors
Fovea: line of central focus, only cones (color)
Optic Nerve: carries info to the visual cortex, but goes through thalamus first
Optic Chiasm: spot where nerves cross each other
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN): area in thalamus that interprets images
Occipital Lobe
The path after the retina? receptor cells, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, optic nerve, brain

bipolar cells, specialized neurons connect to rods and cones

ganglion cells: axons made of optic nerve and sends info to thalamus, specifically LGN

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Vision
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wavelength: the distance between one wave peak to another

High frequency: shorter wavelength, bluish colors, high pitched sound

Low frequency: long wavelength, reddish colors, low pitched sounds

long & low, short & high

General

- individual cones = trichromatic theory
- opponent process = other layers of the retina
- surrounding context

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Amplitude
Large Amplitude: tall, brighter, loud
Short Amplitude: short, duller, softer
Ear Structure
a. pinna: outer ear
b. ear (auditory) canal
*ab is outer ear
c. ear drum (tymphonic membrane)
d. hammer (mallus)
e. anvil (incus)
f. stirrup (stapes)
*def are middle ear
g. Oval window: send vibrations to the cochlea
h. cochlea
*gh is inner ear
i. auditory nerve
Semicircular canals: help with balance

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- Frequency Theory

based on amplitude

lower frequency=less neural impulse

higher frequency=larger amount of neural impulses

pro: explain low pitch, but can't explain pitches above 1000 Hz

- Volley Principle

neural cells alternate firing to achieve a combined frequency for middle pitch

place for high pitch, frequency for low pitch, volley for middle pitch

pro: explains all

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Theories of Hearing
- Place Theory

suggested by Helmholtz

ability to hear different pitches of sound is due to location of neuron activity on Basilar Membrane (frequency of soundwave)

high frequency basilar membrane; low frequency cochlea

pro: explains high pitch con: can't explain low=tones

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The Auditory Path
- sound waves enter outer ear and travel to the eardrum, making it vibrate
- the vibrations cause the hammer, anvil, and stirrup of the middle ear to carry them to the oval window
- then the fluid in the cochlea of the inner ear makes the cilia of the basilar membrane to move
- this sends a signal to the Organ of Corti which sends signal to the Auditory Nerve
- thalamus to Temporal Lobe

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McGurk Effect
- perceptual phenomenon the demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision
Hearing Problems
1) Conductive Deafness

problems conducting sound waves to cochlea

ear drum punctured/bones can't vibrate

repaired with hearing aids (amplify frequency)

2) Sensorineural Hearing Loss
nerve deafness (hair cells)
caused by loud noises, age, genetics

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The Chemical Senses
- extremely sensitive, 5 million receptors, recognize over 10,000 odors, low stimulus threshold (few mlcs only)
- smell is so strongly associated with memory because of its direct association to the limbic system
Gustation
- front to back: sweet, salt, sour, bitter, umami; papillae: taste buds, towards the back
- flavor is sensory interaction
Skin
- cutaneous sensations: pressure, temperature, and pain
- pressure only receptors; brain is most sensitive to unexpected stimulation; more tactile nerve endings at the fingertips and lips
-controlled by sensory cortex
- Kinesthesis: sense of body parts adn positions (PNS)
- Vestibular sense: monitors head position and movement, balance; semicircular canals

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Sound Localizations
Monoaural cue: louder sound means closer
Binaural cues (stereophonic): multidirectional audio perspective
Motion Perception Review
Assumption: closer object is larger
Stroboscopic Movement: motion pictures, or flip books
Phi Phenomenon: illusion of movement created by lights blinking on and off, but they're not
Autokinetic Illusion: perceived motion created by single stationary object (slight eye muscle movement makes it move)

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- study path of year and day one notes
- what is JND vs. absolute threshold and how does it relate to sound

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Skin (Pain)
- no one specific receptor or stimulus
- tolerance varies by athletes (mindset), cultures, cognition, physiology (women are stronger)
- Gate Control Theory: a neurological gate in the spinal cord to control the transmission of pain to the brain
- small neurological fibers open (pain)/ large nf close (no pain)
- neurotransmistter for pain endorphins
- drug to relieve pain morphine

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Bottom-up theories
- young helmholtz
- opponent processing
- absolute threshold
- JND (weber's law): two stimuli need to differ by a constant minimum percentage to be seen different
- Place theory
- frequency theory
- color blindness
Top-down theories
- eleanor gibson's visual cliff thoery
- signal detection theory
- john locke theory: we can never really form a complete picture of an object in our minds that matches the object itself as it really is in the material world

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1. Sub-threshold
2. Absolute threshold
3. Difference threshold
4. Difference threshold
5. Absolute threshold
6. Sub threshold
7. Difference threshold
8. Difference threshold
9. Absolute threshold