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https://www.nationalgeographic.org/topics/resource-library-earth-structure/

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The structure of the earth is divided into four major components: the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. Each layer has a unique chemical composition, physical state, and can impact life on Earth's surface. Movement in the mantle caused by variations in heat from the core, cause the plates to shift, which can cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. These natural hazards then change our landscape, and in some cases, threaten lives and property. Learn more about how the earth is constructed with these classroom resources.

Subjects

Earth Science, Geology, Geography, Physical Geography

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The structure of the earth is divided into four major components: the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. Each layer has a unique chemical composition, physical state, and can impact life on Earth's surface. Movement in the mantle caused by variations in heat from the core, cause the plates to shift, which can cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

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https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/conserving-earth/#:~:text=Everyone%20can%20help%20conserve%20fossil,use%20public%20transportation%20whenever%20possible.

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Friday, August 26, 2011

The Earth's natural resources include air, water, soil, minerals, fuels, plants, and animals. Conservation is the practice of caring for these resources so all living things can benefit from them now and in the future.

All the things we need to survive, such as food, water, air, and shelter, come from natural resources. Some of these resources, like small plants, can be replaced quickly after they are used. Others, like large trees, take a long time to replace. These are renewable resources.

Other resources, such as fossil fuels, cannot be replaced at all. Once they are used up, they are gone forever. These are nonrenewable resources.

People often waste natural resources. Animals are overhunted. Forests are cleared, exposing land to wind and water damage. Fertile soil is exhausted and lost to erosion because of poor farming practices. Fuel supplies are depleted. Water and air are polluted.

If resources are carelessly managed, many will be used up. If used wisely and efficiently, however, renewable resources will last much longer. Through conservation, people can reduce waste and manage natural resources wisely.

The population of human beings has grown enormously in the past two centuries. Billions of people use up resources quickly as they eat food, build houses, produce goods, and burn fuel for transportation and electricity. The continuation of life as we know it depends on the careful use of natural resources.

The need to conserve resources often conflicts with other needs. For some people, a wooded area may be a good place to put a farm. A timber company may want to harvest the area's trees for construction materials. A business may want to build a factory or shopping mall on the land.

All these needs are valid, but sometimes the plants and animals that live in the area are forgotten. The benefits of development need to be weighed against the harm to animals that may be forced to find new habitats, the depletion of resources we may want in the future (such as water or timber), or damage to resources we use today.

Development and conservation can coexist in harmony. When we use the environment in ways that ensure we have resources for the future, it is called sustainable development. There are many different resources we need to conserve in order to live sustainably.

Forests

A forest is a large area covered with trees grouped so their foliage shades the ground. Every continent except Antarctica has forests, from the evergreen-filled boreal forests of the north to mangrove forests in tropical wetlands. Forests are home to more than two-thirds of all known land species. Tropical rain forests are especially rich in biodiversity.

Forests provide habitats for animals and plants. They store carbon, helping reduce global warming. They protect soil by reducing runoff. They add nutrients to the soil through leaf litter. They provide people with lumber and firewood.

Deforestation is the process of clearing away forests by cutting them down or burning them. People clear forests to use the wood, or to make way for farming or development. Each year, the Earth loses about 14.6 million hectares (36 million acres) of forest to deforestation-an area about the size of the U.S. state of New York.

Deforestation destroys wildlife habitats and increases soil erosion. It also releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Deforestation accounts for 15 percent of the world's greenhouse gas emissions. Deforestation also harms the people who rely on forests for their survival, hunting and gathering, harvesting forest products, or using the timber for firewood.

About half of all the forests on Earth are in the tropics-an area that circles the globe near the Equator. Although tropical forests cover fewer than 6 percent of the world's land area, they are home to about 80 percent of the world's documented species. For example, more than 500 different species of trees live in the forests on the small island of Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Sea.

Tropical forests give us many valuable products, including woods like mahogany and teak, rubber, fruits, nuts, and flowers. Many of the medicines we use today come from plants found only in tropical rain forests. These include quinine, a malaria drug; curare, an anesthetic used in surgery; and rosy periwinkle, which is used to treat certain types of cancer.

Sustainable forestry practices are critical for ensuring we have these resources well into the future. One of these practices is leaving some trees to die and decay naturally in the forest. This " deadwood" builds up soil. Other sustainable forestry methods include using low-impact logging practices, harvesting with natural regeneration in mind, and avoiding certain logging techniques, such as removing all the high-value trees or all the largest trees from a forest.

Trees can also be conserved if consumers recycle. People in China and Mexico, for example, reuse much of their wastepaper, including writing paper, wrapping paper, and cardboard. If half the world's paper were recycled, much of the worldwide demand for new paper would be fulfilled, saving many of the Earth's trees. We can also replace some wood products with alternatives like bamboo, which is actually a type of grass.

Soil

Soil is vital to food production. We need high-quality soil to grow the crops that we eat and feed to livestock. Soil is also important to plants that grow in the wild. Many other types of conservation efforts, such as plant conservation and animal conservation, depend on soil conservation.

Poor farming methods, such as repeatedly planting the same crop in the same place, called monoculture, deplete nutrients in the soil. Soil erosion by water and wind increases when farmers plow up and down hills.

One soil conservation method is called contour strip cropping. Several crops, such as corn, wheat, and clover, are planted in alternating strips across a slope or across the path of the prevailing wind. Different crops, with different root systems and leaves, help slow erosion.

Harvesting all the trees from a large area, a practice called clearcutting, increases the chances of losing productive topsoil to wind and water erosion. Selective harvesting-the practice of removing individual trees or small groups of trees-leaves other trees standing to anchor the soil.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variety of living things that populate the Earth. The products and benefits we get from nature rely on biodiversity. We need a rich mixture of living things to provide foods, building materials, and medicines, as well as to maintain a clean and healthy landscape.

When a species becomes extinct, it is lost to the world forever. Scientists estimate that the current rate of extinction is 1,000 times the natural rate. Through hunting, pollution, habitat destruction, and contribution to global warming, people are speeding up the loss of biodiversity at an alarming rate.

It's hard to know how many species are going extinct because the total number of species is unknown. Scientists discover thousands of new species every year. For example, after looking at just 19 trees in Panama, scientists found 1,200 different species of beetles-80 percent of them unknown to science at the time. Based on various estimates of the number of species on Earth, we could be losing anywhere from 200 to 100,000 species each year.

We need to protect biodiversity to ensure we have plentiful and varied food sources. This is true even if we don't eat a species threatened with extinction because something we do eat may depend on that species for survival. Some predators are useful for keeping the populations of other animals at manageable levels. The extinction of a major predator might mean there are more herbivores looking for food in people's gardens and farms.

Biodiversity is important for more than just food. For instance, we use between 50,000 to 70,000 plant species for medicines worldwide. The Great Barrier Reef, a coral reef off the coast of northeastern Australia, contributes about $6 billion to the nation's economy through commercial fishing, tourism, and other recreational activities. If the coral reef dies, many of the fish, shellfish, marine mammals, and plants will die, too.

Some governments have established parks and preserves to protect wildlife and their habitats. They are also working to abolish hunting and fishing practices that may cause the extinction of some species.

Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are fuels produced from the remains of ancient plants and animals. They include coal, petroleum (oil), and natural gas. People rely on fossil fuels to power vehicles like cars and airplanes, to produce electricity, and to cook and provide heat.

In addition, many of the products we use today are made from petroleum. These include plastics, synthetic rubber, fabrics like nylon, medicines, cosmetics, waxes, cleaning products, medical devices, and even bubblegum.

Fossil fuels formed over millions of years. Once we use them up, we cannot replace them. Fossil fuels are a nonrenewable resource.

We need to conserve fossil fuels so we don't run out. However, there are other good reasons to limit our fossil fuel use. These fuels pollute the air when they are burned. Burning fossil fuels also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Global warming is changing ecosystems. The oceans are becoming warmer and more acidic, which threatens sea life. Sea levels are rising, posing risks to coastal communities. Many areas are experiencing more droughts, while others suffer from flooding.

Scientists are exploring alternatives to fossil fuels. They are trying to produce renewable biofuels to power cars and trucks. They are looking to produce electricity using the sun, wind, water, and geothermal energy-the Earth's natural heat.

Everyone can help conserve fossil fuels by using them carefully. Turn off lights and other electronics when you are not using them. Purchase energy- efficient appliances and weatherproof your home. Walk, ride a bike, carpool, and use public transportation whenever possible.

Minerals

Earth's supply of raw mineral resources is in danger. Many mineral deposits that have been located and mapped have been depleted. As the ores for minerals like aluminum and iron become harder to find and extract, their prices skyrocket. This makes tools and machinery more expensive to purchase and operate.

Many mining methods, such as mountaintop removal mining (MTR), devastate the environment. They destroy soil, plants, and animal habitats. Many mining methods also pollute water and air, as toxic chemicals leak into the surrounding ecosystem. Conservation efforts in areas like Chile and the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States often promote more sustainable mining methods.

Less wasteful mining methods and the recycling of materials will help conserve mineral resources. In Japan, for example, car manufacturers recycle many raw materials used in making automobiles. In the United States, nearly one-third of the iron produced comes from recycled automobiles.

Electronic devices present a big problem for conservation because technology changes so quickly. For example, consumers typically replace their cell phones every 18 months. Computers, televisions, and mp3 players are other products contributing to " e-waste." The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that Americans generated more than 3 million tons of e-waste in 2007.

Electronic products contain minerals as well as petroleum-based plastics. Many of them also contain hazardous materials that can leach out of landfills into the soil and water supply.

Many governments are passing laws requiring manufacturers to recycle used electronics. Recycling not only keeps materials out of landfills, but it also reduces the energy used to produce new products. For instance, recycling aluminum saves 90 percent of the energy that would be required to mine new aluminum.

Water

Water is a renewable resource. We will not run out of water the way we might run out of fossil fuels. The amount of water on Earth always remains the same. However, most of the planet's water is unavailable for human use. While more than 70 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by water, only 2.5 percent of it is freshwater. Out of that freshwater, almost 70 percent is permanently frozen in the ice caps covering Antarctica and Greenland. Only about 1 percent of the freshwater on Earth is available for people to use for drinking, bathing, and irrigating crops.

People in many regions of the world suffer water shortages. These are caused by depletion of underground water sources known as aquifers, a lack of rainfall due to drought, or pollution of water supplies. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 2.6 billion people lack adequate water sanitation. More than 5 million people die each year from diseases caused by using polluted water for drinking, cooking, or washing.

About one-third of Earth's population lives in areas that are experiencing water stress. Most of these areas are in developing countries.

Polluted water hurts the environment as well as people. For instance, agricultural runoff-the water that runs off of farmland-can contain fertilizers and pesticides. When this water gets into streams, rivers, and oceans, it can harm the organisms that live in or drink from those water sources.

People can conserve and protect water supplies in many ways. Individuals can limit water use by fixing leaky faucets, taking shorter showers, planting drought-resistant plants, and buying low-water-use appliances. Governments, businesses, and nonprofit organizations can help developing countries build sanitation facilities.

Farmers can change some of their practices to reduce polluted runoff. This includes limiting overgrazing, avoiding over-irrigation, and using alternatives to chemical pesticides whenever possible.

Conservation Groups

Businesses, international organizations, and some governments are involved in conservation efforts. The United Nations (UN) encourages the creation of national parks around the world. The UN also established World Water Day, an event to raise awareness and promote water conservation.

Governments enact laws defining how land should be used and which areas should be set aside as parks and wildlife preserves. Governments also enforce laws designed to protect the environment from pollution, such as requiring factories to install pollution-control devices. Finally, governments often provide incentives for conserving resources, using clean technologies, and recycling used goods.

Many international organizations are dedicated to conservation. Members support causes such as saving rain forests, protecting threatened animals, and cleaning up the air. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an alliance of governments and private groups founded in 1948. The IUCN works to protect wildlife and habitats. In 1980, the group proposed a world conservation strategy. Many governments have used the IUCN model to develop their own conservation plans. In addition, the IUCN monitors the status of endangered wildlife, threatened national parks and preserves, and other environments around the world.

Zoos and botanical gardens also work to protect wildlife. Many zoos raise and breed endangered animals to increase their populations. They conduct research and help educate the public about endangered species. For instance, the San Diego Zoo in the U.S. state of California runs a variety of research programs on topics ranging from disease control in amphibians to heart-healthy diets for gorillas.

Scientists at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in London, England, work to protect plant life around the world. Kew's Millennium Seed Bank, for example, works with partners in 54 countries to protect biodiversity through seed collection. Kew researchers are also exploring how DNA technology can help restore damaged habitats.

Individuals can do many things to help conserve resources. Turning off lights, repairing leaky faucets, and recycling paper, aluminum cans, glass, and plastic are just a few examples. Riding bikes, walking, carpooling, and using public transportation all help conserve fuel and reduce the amount of pollutants released into the environment. Individuals can plant trees to create homes for birds and squirrels. At grocery stores, people can bring their own reusable bags. And people can carry reusable water bottles and coffee mugs rather than using disposable containers. If each of us would conserve in small ways, the result would be a major conservation effort.

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Friday, August 26, 2011 The Earth's natural resources include air, water, soil, minerals, fuels, plants, and animals. Conservation is the practice of caring for these resources so all living things can benefit from them now and in the future. All the things we need to survive, such as food, water, air, and shelter, come from natural resources.

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A hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a planet. The hydrosphere includes water that is on the surface of the planet, underground, and in the air. A planet's hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice.

On Earth, liquid water exists on the surface in the form of oceans, lakes and rivers. It also exists below ground-as groundwater, in wells and aquifers. Water vapor is most visible as clouds and fog.

The frozen part of Earth's hydrosphere is made of ice: glaciers, ice caps and icebergs. The frozen part of the hydrosphere has its own name, the cryosphere.

Water moves through the hydrosphere in a cycle. Water collects in clouds, then falls to Earth in the form of rain or snow. This water collects in rivers, lakes and oceans. Then it evaporates into the atmosphere to start the cycle all over again. This is called the water cycle.

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A hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a planet. The hydrosphere includes water that is on the surface of the planet, underground, and in the air. A planet's hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice. On Earth, liquid water exists on the surface in the form of oceans, lakes and rivers.

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hydrosphere | National Geographic Society

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Biosphere reserves promote solutions reconciling the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. They are learning areas for sustainable development under diverse ecological, social and economic contexts, touching the lives of more than 250 million people.

There are currently 727 biosphere reserves in 131 countries, including 22 transboundary sites, that belong to the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

What are Biosphere Reserves?

Biosphere reserves are 'learning places for sustainable development'. They are sites for testing interdisciplinary approaches to understanding and managing changes and interactions between social and ecological systems, including conflict prevention and management of biodiversity.
Read more

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Biosphere reserves promote solutions reconciling the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. They are learning areas for sustainable development under diverse ecological, social and economic contexts, touching the lives of more than 250 million people. There are currently 727 biosphere reserves in 131 countries, including 22 transboundary sites, that belong to the World Network of Biosphere Reserves .

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Ma, Zhijun, et al. “Conflicts between Biodiversity Conservation and Development in a Biosphere Reserve.” Besjournals, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 12 Aug. 2008, besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01528.x. Accessed August 6, 2021.

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Challenges & Achievements | Western Port Biosphere

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Human pressures on the biosphere reserve include: Pollution and waste management Water quality in rivers and streams that flow into the marine environment Impacts of climate change (storm surge, coastal inundation and erosion; inland flooding; increased fire risk; threats to human health, water supplies and infrastructure; and pressure on biodiversity) Rapid urban expansion, loss of productive farmland, coastal landscapes and vegetation Proposed Port expansion Impacts from industrial and tourism activities Our Report Card provides a snapshot of how we are doing against environmental, social and economic indicators.

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ATMOSPHERE | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary

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ATMOSPHERE | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary

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Nace, Trevor. “Layers Of The Earth: What Lies Beneath Earth's Crust.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 18 June 2017, www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2016/01/16/layers-of-the-earth-lies-beneath-earths-crust/?sh=1bf816c8441d.

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The layers of Earth provide geologists and geophysicists clues to how Earth formed, the layers that make up other planetary bodies, the source of Earth's resources, and much more. Modern advances have allowed scientists to study what lies beneath our feet in more detail than ever before and yet there still remains significant gaps in our understanding.

I hope this guide will walk you through the layers of the Earth, provide a general sense of our understanding and our current gaps. Keep in mind that this is an area of ongoing research and is likely to become more refined in the coming years and decades.

During my second year at Edinburgh [1826-27] I attended Jameson's lectures on Geology and Zoology, but they were incredible dull. The sole effect they produced on me was the determination never as long as I lived to read a book on Geology. - Charles Darwin
The Layers Of Earth
The Earth has layers not unlike an onion and can be dissected to understand the physical and chemical properties of each layer and its influence on the rest of the Earth. Generally speaking, Earth has 4 layers:

When differentiating the layers, geologists lump subdivisions into two categories, either rheologically or chemically. Rheological differentiation speaks to the liquid state of rocks under tremendous pressure and temperature. For instance, rock will respond very differently to strain under normal atmospheric temperatures and pressures as compared to fewer than thousands of kilometers of rock. If we subdivide the Earth based on rheology, we see the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and inner core. However, if we differentiate the layers based on chemical variations, we lump the layers into crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.

To understand the difference in various portions of the mantle or outer versus inner core you must understand phase diagrams, which I will speak on below.
Earth's Crust
The crust is what you and I live on and is by far the thinnest of the layers of earth. The thickness varies depending on where you are on earth, with oceanic crust being 5-10 km and continental mountain ranges being up to 30-45 km thick. Thin oceanic crust is denser than the thicker continental crust and therefore 'floats' lower in the mantle as compared to continental crust. You will find some of the thinnest oceanic crust along mid ocean ridges where new crust is actively being formed. In comparison, when two continents collide as in the case of the India Plate and Eurasia Plate, you get some of the thickest sections of crust as it is crumpled together.

The temperatures within Earth's crust will vary from air temperatures at the surface to approximately 870 degrees Celsius in deeper sections. At this temperature, you begin to melt rock and form the below-lying mantle. Geologists subdivide Earth's crust into different plates that move about in relation to one another.

Given that Earth's surface is mostly constant in area, you cannot make crust without destroying a comparable amount of crust. With convection of the underlying mantle, we see insertion of mantle magma along mid ocean ridges, constantly forming new oceanic crust. However, to make room for this, oceanic crust must subduct (sink below) continental crust. Geologists have studied extensively the history of this plate movement, but we are sorely lacking in determining why and how these plates move the way they do.

Earth's crust "floats" on top of the soft plastic-like mantle below. In some instances mantle clearly drives changes in the crust, as in the Hawaiian Islands. However, there is ongoing debate whether oceanic crust subduction and mid ocean ridge spreading is driven by a push or pull mechanism.

In very broad terms, oceanic crust is made up of basalt and continental crust is made up of rocks similar to granite. Below the crust is a solid relatively cooler portion of the upper mantle that is combined with the crust to make the lithosphere layer. The lithosphere is physically distinct from the below-lying layers due to its cool temperatures and typically extends 70-100 km in depth.

Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere layer, a much hotter and malleable portion of the upper mantle. The asthenosphere begins at the bottom of the lithosphere and extends approximately 700 km into the Earth. The asthenosphere acts as the lubricating layer below the lithosphere that allows the lithosphere to move over the Earth's surface.
Earth's Mantle
The mantle is the layer of the earth that lies below the crust and is by far the largest layer making up 84% of Earth's volume. The mantle starts at the Mohorovicic Discontinuity, also known as the Moho. The Moho is defined as the density contrast from less dense crust to denser mantle and where seismic wave velocities increase. The mantle acts similar to plastic and at very high temperatures and pressures the rock is deformable at geologic timescales. This deformation causes a convection like process in the mantle where you have larige-scale upwelling and downwelling zones.

The mantle extends down to 2,890 km into the Earth's surface Temperatures that range from 500 to 900 degrees Celsius in the upper portion to over 4,000 degrees Celsius near the core boundary. Earth's mantle is believed to be composed of bulk mineralogy similar to peridotite. Gem quality peridotite is called peridot, so next time you're in a jewelry shop take a look at the peridot and you'll be looking at something similar to 84% of Earth!

The video above provides a glimpse into the global circulation of mantle magma around the Earth. Of course, this is greatly simplified but provides a schematic of the process creating mid ocean ridges, volcanoes, and mountains.
Earth's Outer Core
The outer core is the liquid largely iron layer of the earth that lies below the mantle. Geologists have confirmed that the outer core is liquid due to seismic surveys of Earth's interior. The outer core is 2,300 km thick and goes down to approximately 3,400 km into the earth. No one has ever seen the outer core but based on a number of indicators, geologists believe the outer core is 80% iron, some nickel and a number of different lighter elements. When Earth was just beginning to cool billions of years ago, heavier elements sunk down into the center of the Earth, while less dense elements rose to the surface. Therefore, we see a general increase in density, as you get closer to the center of the Earth.

The outer core is hot enough to be melted but not under quite enough pressure to make the iron solid again, as seen in the inner core. The temperature of the outer core ranges from about 4,030 to 5,730 degrees Celsius. Amazingly, the outer core is fluid enough and low enough in viscosity that it may spins faster than the entire Earth. This differential velocity of spinning, along with convection and turbulent flow of the iron outer core, creates Earth's magnetic field.
Earth's Inner Core
The inner core is the centermost layer of Earth and is in many ways similar to the outer core. It is also primarily iron and nickel and has a radius of about 1,220 km. The differentiation between the outer core and inner core is density driven. The pressures become high enough that despite very high temperatures, the inner core is solid. It is also enriched in unusual heavy elements including gold, silver, platinum, palladium, and tungsten.

Temperatures reach up to 5,400 degrees Celsius and pressures up to 360 gigapascal. The inner core is about 70% of the Moon's radius and is approximately the same temperature as the surface of the Sun! Now, let's answer some commonly asked questions in case you're looking for quick answers.
Frequently Asked Questions About Earth's Layers

What is the outer layer of the Earth?
The outer layer of the Earth is the crust, a hard thin layer that is composed of continental and oceanic crust.

What are the different parts of the Earth?
The different parts of the Earth are the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.

How many layers are there in the Earth?
There are 4 layers in Earth generally speaking. However, it depends how you measure each layer, based on physical or chemical properties.

What is the depth of the inner core of the Earth?
The inner core of the earth starts at 5,150 km from the Earth's surface and extends to the center of the Earth.

What materials make up the inner core?
The inner core is made up of primarily iron at 80% and nickel, along with trace amounts of heavy metals.

How deep is the Earth's crust?
Earth's crust ranges from 5 to 60 kilometers depending on oceanic versus continental crust

What are the two types of Earth's crust?
The two types of crust are the dense and thin oceanic crust and less dense and thicker continental crust.

I hope you enjoyed this guide to the layers of the Earth and it sparked a newfound interest in what lies beneath our feet!

... Read More

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Layers Of The Earth: What Lies Beneath Earth's Crust

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The layers of Earth provide geologists and geophysicists clues to how Earth formed, the layers that make up other planetary bodies, the source of Earth's resources, and much more. Modern advances have allowed scientists to study what lies beneath our feet in more detail than ever before and yet there still remains significant gaps in our understanding.

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Agudo, Kenneth C. “Environmental Issues Caused by Human Activities in the Biosphere.” Owlcation, Owlcation, 10 June 2013, owlcation.com/stem/Drastic-Changes-in-the-Biosphere. Accessed on August 6, 2021

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US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/ocean/earthday.html Accessed 6/8/21

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"What Are the 3 Parts of the Biosphere?," Sciencing. https://sciencing.com/3-parts-biosphere-8312194.html Accessed on 8/6/2021

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Generally defined, the portion of the universe where all life is found is called the biosphere. Since scientists have not found organisms beyond planet Earth, the biosphere is defined as the parts of Earth where life exists. The biosphere is made of three parts, called the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. Some portions of each may not support life, however; for example, the upper regions of the atmosphere do not support life, while the lower regions do. This general definition of the biosphere is commonly accepted, although geologists sometimes define the biosphere more narrowly to include only the life itself - the bacteria, algae, plants and animals, including humans, that inhabit the earth, instead of their environments. Under these more narrow definitions, the biosphere forms a fourth part of the Earth system and interacts with the other three.

TL;DR (Too Long; Didn't Read)

The biosphere is the portion of Earth where life occurs -- the portions of the land, water and air that hold life. These parts are known, respectively, as the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The lithosphere is the land mass, excluding Earth's mantle and core, which do not support life. The hydrosphere is the aquatic portion of the planet, all of which supports life. The atmosphere is the air that living organisms use for respiration, and which supports life up to 2,000 meters above the planet's surface.

The lithosphere is the terrestrial part of the biosphere. It consists of the solid land masses, such as continents and islands. The deeper parts of the lithosphere, known as the lower mantle and the core, do not support life. The rest of the lithosphere supports a variety of life from bacteria to large mammals and trees hundreds of feet tall. The weathering of the lithosphere crust forms soil, which provides minerals and organic waste to support life. In addition, the land provides shelter and protection for animals from weather and predators, and an anchor for plants.

The hydrosphere is the aquatic part of the biosphere. This includes oceans, rivers, lakes and other bodies of water. Unlike the lithosphere and the atmosphere, every portion of the hydrosphere supports life. Specially-adapted bacteria grow in hot springs, tube worms form the basis of sulfur-based communities around deep-sea, hydrothermal vents, and in more hospitable regions, life abounds. Water-dwelling individuals of virtually every taxonomic group of plants and animals have been identified as important parts of the biosphere. Water is essential to life, and the hydrosphere also plays an important part in atmosphere formation.

The atmosphere is the gaseous envelope surrounding a planet. On Earth, it is also called air. The lower regions of the atmosphere contain gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide that are essential for plant and animal respiration. Birds, insects and other life can be found up to approximately 2,000 meters above the earth's surface. The atmosphere also plays critical roles in shaping the biosphere by deflecting harmful radiation from the sun and determining weather patterns

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Generally defined, the portion of the universe where all life is found is called the biosphere. Since scientists have not found organisms beyond planet Earth, the biosphere is defined as the parts of Earth where life exists. The biosphere is made of three parts, called the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere.

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“Geosphere.” GeoScienceWorld, pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geosphere. Accessed August 6, 2021

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Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "hydrosphere". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Mar. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/science/hydrosphere. Accessed 6 August 2021.

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“Geosphere-Biosphere Interactions and Climate.” http://www.casinapioiv.va/content/accademia/en/events/1998/climate.html Accessed 6/8/21

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"Structure and Composition of Biosphere – Geography Study Material & Notes," Exam Pariksha. https://exampariksha.com/structure-composition-biosphere-geography-study-material-notes/#:~:text=Biosphere%20%2DAll%20living%20components%20of,Abiotic%2C%20Biotic%20and%20energy%20components. Accessed on 8/6/2021

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Biosphere -All living components of the Earth. All plants animals and microbes and their surroundings are known as biosphere.

Environment has two components- Abiotic(physical and inorganic) and Biotic(organic).

The structure of Biosphere has three components: Abiotic, Biotic and energy components.

I. Abiotic Components: It consists of all non-living elements which are essential for the survival of all living organisms. It has lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. Mineral nutrients, gases and water are three basic requirements of organic life.

II. Biotic Components: It includes Plants, animals and human beings to make biotic components of environment. there are three sub-system:

Plants:They are very important part of biotic components. They are primary producers of food through process of photosynthesis. They are called autotrophs.

Animals: They are main consumers of plant produce, hence known as Heterotrophs. They use organic matter produced by plants and transform the food into energy (used in growth and development).

Micro-organism: They act as decomposers of dead plants and animals.

III. Energy : It is vital component of biosphere which is essential for reproduction and generation of all biological life on Earth.

Structure and composition of Biosphere

Ecological System: Interactions of a particular group of organisms with abiotic factors within a particular habitat resulting in particular habitat resulting in clearly defined energy flows and material cycles on land, water & air.

Ecology: Derived from Greek word 'oikos' meaning house and 'logy' means science. Ernst Haeckel used the term in 1869 for the first time. The study of interactions between life forms and physical environment is known as science of ecology. So, it is the study of abiotic and biotic interactions.

Habitat: It is the totality of physical and chemical factors that constitute the general environment.

Ecosystem: System of biotic and abiotic components inter-related and interact with each. Therefore, an ecosystem involves interactions among different components and flow of energy among these components.

Ecological adaptation: Plants and animals species have got adapted through evolution to different types of environmental conditions.

1. Flow of Energy in the Ecosystem: It involves transfer of energy from one trophic level to another. Trophic level is the stage at which food energy passes from one group to another. It occurs through the food chain.

Food chain is basically the sequence of transfer of energy from the organisms in one trophic level to another trophic level. It is a fact that the Sun is the major source of energy. The number of organisms at a trophic level depends upon the availability of food at its lower level.

There are two types of organism in food chains: Autotrophs and heterotrophs. Autotrophs have three broad categories of herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.

There are two types of Food chains- grazing and detritus food chain.

1. Grazing Food Chain- It has plants at the first level and last level is occupied by carnivores. Here loss of energy at each level occurs through respiration, excretion or decomposition.

2. Detritus Food Chain- It is based on autotrophs energy capture initiated by grazing animals. Decomposition of organic waste that is derived from grazing food chain.

Biogeochemical cycle:

The cyclic movement of chemical elements of biosphere between organism and the environment is known as Biogeochemical cycle. It involves movement and circulation of soluble inorganic substances (known as nutrients) that are derived from soil, and atmospheric forms of inorganic substances through organic form of various biotic components.

There are two types of Biogeochemical cycles in the description of biosphere:

Gaseous cycle- main reservoir of nutrient is atmosphere and the ocean.

Sedimentary cycle- Main reservoir of nutrient is soil and sedimentary and other rocks of the crust.

The Water / Hydrological Cycle:

It helps in exchange of water between air, land, sea and living plants and animals. Solar energy drives the hydrological cycle. It causes massive evaporation, from oceans and other water bodies leading to cloud formation and precipitation. On surface, it acts as freshwater in form of snow, groundwater.

The Nitrogen Cycle:

In the structure and composition of biosphere, the Nitrogen cycle plays a very important role. Since Nitrogen is essential for life processes, its continuous supply is maintained by nitrogen cycle in the biosphere. The protein produced by animals and plants during their metabolic processes leads to formation of organic compounds of nitrogen. A major amount of nitrogenous organic residue in soil has its origins in dead and decayed plants and excreta of animals. These organic residues in the soil are then taken up by soil micro-organisms which break down the soil nitrates into nitrogen by the process of denitrification while others transform nitrogen in form of soluble nitrogen compounds.

The Carbon Cycle

The atmosphere acts as a minor reservoir of carbon while the hydrosphere is major reservoir. It contains approximately 50 times more carbon than atmosphere in the form of bicarbonate mineral deposit on the ocean floor. The cycle operates by exchanging carbon between hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

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Structure and Composition of Biosphere - Geography Study Material & Notes

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Biosphere -All living components of the Earth. All plants animals and microbes and their surroundings are known as biosphere. Environment has two components- Abiotic(physical and inorganic) and Biotic(organic). The structure of Biosphere has three components: Abiotic, Biotic and energy components. I.

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(Image credit: Terry Virts/NASA)

Earth's atmosphere is a thin band of air made up of numerous layers based on temperature.

Without this protective blanket, life on Earth would not exist as it protects us from heat and radiation emitted from the sun and contains the air we breathe.

Though oxygen is crucial for life on Earth, it is not the primary component of our atmosphere. According to education site Vision Learning Earth's atmosphere is composed of approximately 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.93 percent Argon, 0.04 percent carbon dioxide as well as trace amounts of neon, helium, methane, krypton, ozone and hydrogen, as well as water vapor.

But just how high does Earth's atmosphere extend? Well, that depends on who you ask! According to NASA the upper layer of Earth's atmosphere - the exosphere - extends up to 6,200 miles (10,000 km), above which the atmosphere and space blend. Though not everyone agrees where space actually begins, most scientists agree that the Kármán line, situated 62 miles (100 km) above sea level, marks the transition point between Earth and space. Since 99.99997 percent of Earth's atmosphere is located below this point, it's considered a reasonable height to draw the boundary between Earth and space.
Related: Earth's layers: Exploring our planet inside and out
Earth atmosphere layers

(Image credit: Future)

Earth's atmosphere consists of five main layers from lowest to highest: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.

The layers are separated based on temperature according to the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA).The atmosphere thins out in each higher layer until the gases dissipate in space. Air pressure decreases with altitude. At sea level, air pressure is about 14.7 pounds per square inch (1 kilogram per square centimeter), and the atmosphere is relatively dense. At 10,000 feet (3 km), the air pressure is 10 pounds per square inch (0.7 kg per square cm), which means molecules of gas that make up the atmosphere are less dense. That makes it harder for a person to breathe and get enough oxygen to live, although there is evidence for microbial life high up in the clouds.

Troposphere

The troposphere is the lowest and densest layer of the atmosphere and according to NIWA, approximately 75% of all the air in the atmosphere is found in this layer. The troposphere extends from Earth's surface to approximately 5 to 9 miles (8 to 14.5 km) high.

According to NASA, "Tropos" means change, and this atmospheric layer lives up to its name. Gases are constantly mixing in the troposphere and most of Earth's weather is found here. According to educational website CK-12, turbulence in the troposphere is created when the sun warms the Earth's surface, warming the air above. The warm air rises and then expands (due to the lower air pressure) and cools. The cool air sinks forming high pressure systems. According to WorldAtlas most helicopters and light airplanes fly in the troposphere.

Stratosphere

The stratosphere is the second layer of Earth's atmosphere. The stratosphere begins above the troposphere and extends approximately 31 miles (50 km) high. According to NIWA, most of the ozone found in Earth's atmosphere is in the stratosphere. Ozone protects us by absorbing harmful UV rays from the sun. The absorption of UV radiation heats up the stratosphere and temperatures in this layer actually increase with height. According to Weather.gov temperatures in the stratosphere range from approximately -60 degrees Fahrenheit (-51 degrees Celsius) at the bottom to 5 degrees F (-15 degrees C) at the top. Commercial airplanes tend to fly in the lower stratosphere so as to avoid the weather systems in the troposphere, according to aviation education site Aero Corner.

Mesosphere

The mesosphere is the third layer of Earth's atmosphere. According to NASA the mesosphere begins just above the stratosphere and extends to approximately 53 miles (85 km) high.

The top of the mesosphere, called the mesopause, is the coldest part of Earth's atmosphere, with temperatures averaging about minus 130 degrees F (minus 90 degrees C) according to the National Center for Atmospheric Research. The mesosphere is tricky to analyze as jets and balloons don't go high enough but satellites fly too high to directly study the layer. We do however know that most meteors burn up in this layer, and high-clouds known as noctilucent clouds (also known as polar mesospheric clouds) occasionally form in the mesosphere.

Thermosphere

The fourth layer of Earth's atmosphere is the thermosphere. It begins just above the mesosphere and extends to approximately 372 miles (600 km) high, according to NASA. The thermosphere is another atmospheric layer where temperatures rise with altitude, according to NIWA. The warming is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet light and X-rays emitted from the sun.

The thermosphere is considered part of Earth's atmosphere, but air density is so low that most of this layer is what is normally thought of as outer space. In fact, this is where the space shuttles flew and where the International Space Station orbits Earth.

Exosphere

The exosphere is the highest layer of Earth's atmosphere and extends from the top of the thermosphere approximately 6,200 miles (10,000 km) above Earth's surface according to NASA. The exosphere is composed of particles of hydrogen and helium, that are so widely dispersed they rarely collide.

Ionosphere

The ionosphere is a very active layer of Earth's atmosphere that spans the mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere, according to NASA. It is not a distinct layer and actually grows and shrinks depending on how much energy it is absorbing from the sun.

We have the ionosphere to thank for the beautiful aurora displays that dance across the night sky. Here, the ions from solar wind collide with atmospheric oxygen and hydrogen molecules, exciting them into higher states of energy. The atoms shed this excess energy by emitting photons of light, which we see as the colorful aurora borealis and aurora australis.

(Image credit: NASA's MODIS instrument (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer).)

What's the difference between weather and climate?

Broadly speaking weather refers to short-term changes in atmospheric conditions whereas climate refers to the average weather conditions of a specific location over an extended period of time according to the United States Geological Survey. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) further describes the difference simply as "climate is what you expect, weather is what you get".

Regional climate is defined by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research as the average weather in a place over more than 30 years. A region's climate is often described, for example, as sunny, windy, dry, or humid. These can also describe the weather in a certain place, but while the weather can change in just a few hours, climate changes over a longer span of time.
Related: 7 solar system worlds where the weather is crazy
Earth's global climate is an average of regional climates. The global climate has cooled and warmed throughout history. Today, we are seeing unusually rapid warming. The scientific consensus, as stated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), is that greenhouse gases, which are increasing because of human activities, are trapping heat in the atmosphere.

Earth's atmosphere FAQs answered by an expert

What is Earth's atmosphere made of?

How high does Earth's atmosphere go?

(Image credit: NASA)

Are there different layers in Earth's atmosphere?

What would happen if Earth's atmosphere disappeared?

We asked Fangqun Yu a few frequently asked questions about Earth's atmosphere.

Atmospheric difference: Earth, Venus and Mars

To better understand the formation and composition of Earth, scientists sometimes compare our planet with Venus and Mars. All three of these planets are rocky in nature and are part of the inner solar system, meaning that they are in between the sun and the asteroid belt.

Venus' atmosphere is almost entirely composed of carbon dioxide. The entire planet is shrouded in thick toxic sulfuric acid clouds that trap heat, resulting in what is known as a runaway greenhouse effect. As such, Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system despite being the second closest planet to the sun.e. Spacecraft have to be heavily reinforced to survive the crushing pressure (90 times heavier than Earth), and the oven-like surface temperatures (900 Fahrenheit or 475 Celsius) hot enough to melt lead, according to NASA . s that Venus has no significant seasonal temperature changes.

Mars' atmosphere is also mostly composed of carbon dioxide, with traces of nitrogen, argon, oxygen, carbon monoxide and some other gases. The Red Planet's atmosphere is about 100 times thinner than Earth's - a very different situation from the ancient past, when geological evidence shows that Mars used to be much wetter and warmer billions of years ago, according to NASA. S. If you were to stand on Mars and look to the sky, you'd be greeted with a red hue caused by dust particles suspended in the air, rather than the blue skies we see here on Earth. Due to Mars' thin atmosphere, heat from the sun quickly escapes the planet. According to NASA, if you stood on the Martian equator at noon, your feet would experience a toasty 75 degrees Fahrenheit (24 degrees Celsius) though temperatures at your head would be rather chilly at around 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius).

Scientists routinely compare small, rocky exoplanets to Earth, Venus and Mars to get a better sense of their habitability. The routinely accepted definition of "habitability" is that a planet is close enough to the star for liquid water to exist on its surface. Too far, and the water turns icy; too close, and the water evaporates. However, habitability not only depends on the star-planet distance, but also the planet's atmosphere, the star's variability, and other factors.

Additional resources

You can explore the ionosphere in more detail with the National Weather Service and learn more about the historic increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide from Climate.gov. If you fancy reading about the fascinating world of the atmospheric microbiome then check out this interesting article in Scientific American.

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Earth's atmosphere: Facts about our planet's protective blanket

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Earth's atmosphere protects the planet in more ways than one. This thin band of air is unique to Earth, and we wouldn't exist without it.

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Sharp, Tim. “Earth's Atmosphere.” Space.com, Space, 20 July 2021, www.space.com/17683-earth-atmosphere.html.
accessed on aug 16 2021

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“Understanding Water Cooperation and Conflict.” Global Water Forum, globalwaterforum.org/2013/12/02/understanding-water-cooperation-and-conflict/. Accessed 6 August, 2021

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"Hydrosphere - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics." https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/hydrosphere. Accessed 6 Aug. 2021.

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National Geographic Society. “Hydrosphere.” National Geographic Society, 9 Oct. 2012, www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrosphere/#:~:text=Powered%20by-,A%20hydrosphere%20is%20the%20total%20amount%20of%20water%20on%20a,underground%2C%20and%20in%20the%20air.&text=On%20Earth%2C%20liquid%20water%20exists,groundwater%2C%20in%20wells%20and%20aquifers.  Accessed August 6, 2021

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Structure of the earth

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The structure of the earth is divided into four major components: the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. Each layer has a unique chemical composition, physical state, and can impact life on Earth's surface. Movement in the mantle caused by variations in heat from the core, cause the plates to shift, which can cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. These natural hazards then change our landscape, and in some cases, threaten lives and property. Learn more about how the earth is constructed with these classroom resources.

Subjects

Earth Science, Geology, Geography, Physical Geography

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The structure of the earth is divided into four major components: the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. Each layer has a unique chemical composition, physical state, and can impact life on Earth's surface. Movement in the mantle caused by variations in heat from the core, cause the plates to shift, which can cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

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The geosphere includes the rocks and minerals on Earth - from the molten rock and heavy metals in the deep interior of the planet to the sand on beaches and peaks of mountains. The geosphere also includes the abiotic (non-living) parts of soils and the skeletons of animals that may become fossilized over geologic time.

Beyond these parts, the geosphere is about processes. The processes of the rock cycle such as metamorphism, melting and solidification, weathering, erosion, deposition, and burial are responsible for the constant recycling of rocks on Earth between sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic states.

Sedimentary rocks are formed via weathering and transport of existing rocks, and then deposition, cementation, and compaction into sedimentary rock.

Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and crystallization of molten rock.

Metamorphic rocks are formed when heat or pressure is applied to other rocks.

The primary agent driving these processes is the movement of Earth's tectonic plates, which creates mountains, volcanoes, and ocean basins. Changes in the rate that rocks are made and destroyed can have a profound effect on the planet. As the rate of plate tectonic movements has changed over geologic time scales, the rock cycle has changed as well, and these changes have been able to affected climate. For example, at times when the rate of plate movements has been high, there is more volcanic activity, which releases more particles into the atmosphere. Faster plate tectonic movements also mean more mountains are built in areas where plates converge. As rocks are uplifted into mountains, they start to erode and dissolve, sending sediments and nutrients into waterways and impacting the ecosystems for living things.

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The geosphere includes the rocks and minerals on Earth - from the molten rock and heavy metals in the deep interior of the planet to the sand on beaches and peaks of mountains. Beyond these parts, the geosphere is about the processes responsible for the constant recycling of rocks on Earth.

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"The biosphere: Problems and solutions; Proceedings of the Miami ...." https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984iahe...25.....V/abstract. Accessed 6 Aug. 2021.

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Trying to understand how this planet we call home works can seem confusing - there are so many things going on at once! Scientists break down the way the Earth system works to a number of subsystems - the atmosphere, biosphere, geosphere (or lithosphere) and hydrosphere

Before we look at what all these subsystems do, it is important to remember that the subsystems do not work in isolation - each one depends on and interacts with the other three.

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surround the Earth. In comparison to the size of the Earth, it is a thin layer, composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen with small amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases. The atmosphere is important for a number of reasons - it protects the Earth from incoming solar rays, it circulates the gases that plants and animals need to survive and it is responsible for our weather.

Biosphere

The biosphere consists of all the living organisms on Earth. Their habitats extend from the upper areas of the atmosphere, to deep in the ground, to the bottom of the ocean - any place that life can exist.

Geosphere

The geosphere is the physical Earth - the rock, magma and soil. The geosphere extends from the centre of the Earth (the core, mantle and crust) to the dust in the atmosphere and even includes the sediments found in the oceans.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is all the water held on the Earth - water molecules in the air, icebergs and glaciers, groundwater, lakes, rivers and oceans.

How do the subsystems interact?

This is a big question, and it would take many books to explain, but think about this example. We know weather happens in the atmosphere, but without the hydrosphere, there would be no water to evaporate and so no cloud or rain could form. Without oceans and land (hydrosphere and geosphere), there would be no wind (as winds are produced by differences of air temperature between the land and oceans).

Without the atmosphere (giving us air to breathe and protection from incoming solar rays), there would be no life on Earth. It would be as barren as the moon. Without water, life as we know it would cease to exist. Last of all, without the geosphere, there would be no world to live on!

Look at the changing landscape of Earth. Rivers erode the geosphere, changing the physical environment so that plants and animals have to adapt or die. Bad weather might increase the weathering of rocks (the way rocks are broken down) changing both the physical and chemical makeup of the rocks.

These are a few examples to show how the systems are interlinked. Upsetting one system can lead to serious consequences in the sustainability of another system.

Nature of science

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Trying to understand how this planet we call home works can seem confusing - there are so many things going on at once! Scientists break down the way the Earth system works to a number of subsystems - the atmosphere, biosphere, geosphere (or lithosphere) and hydrosphere

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National Geographic Society. “Atmosphere.” National Geographic Society, 9 Sept. 2019, www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/atmosphere/#:~:text=Earth's atmosphere is composed of,up the remaining 0.1 percent. Accessed on 6 aug 2021

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Water in the Geosphere | Precipitation Education

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This lesson helps students learn about the geosphere by making observations and collecting data. This website, presented by NASA's Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission, provides students and educators with resources to learn about Earth's water cycle, weather and climate, and the technology and societal applications of studying them.

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Foundation, CK-12. “12 Foundation.” CK, flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-life-science-2.0/section/12.15/primary/lesson/the-biosphere-ms-ls. Accessed on August 6, 2021

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Layers of the Earth, https://www.edu.xunta.gal/espazoAbalar/sites/espazoAbalar/files/datos/1605879478/contido/layers_of_the_earth.html#:~:text=The%20Geosphere%20is%20the%20solid,outer%20core%20and%20inner%20core Accessed 6/8/21.

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“Atmosphere.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 2 Aug. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere. acssed aug 2021

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"How Can You Help Protect Source Water? | US EPA." 1 Feb. 2021, https://www.epa.gov/sourcewaterprotection/how-can-you-help-protect-source-water. Accessed 6 Aug. 2021.

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What is the Geosphere?

The geosphere is the earth itself: the rocks, minerals, and landforms of the surface and interior. Below the crust - which varies in depth from about 5 km beneath the ocean floor to up to 70 km below the land surface, temperatures are high enough for deformation and a paste-like flow of elements. At one time, roughly 200 million years ago, the continents were joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea, but since then tectonic plates have slowly separated, creating the arrangement of the continents we are accustomed to today.

Plate tectonic movement is ongoing, and humans can witness its sometimes violent activity in the form of earthquakes and volcanoes. More regularly, however, human interaction with the dynamic geosphere comes in the form of surface erosion, our use of arable land for farming, and excavations for the construction of buildings, roads, and mines.

How does the geosphere interact in the earth system?

Evolution of the continents. Fast-forward 200 million years from the time of Pangaea to the creation of the modern-day continents. (Credit: ARC Science Simulations)

While seemingly static, the geosphere is in fact a very active player in the earth's systems, affecting the atmosphere and the oceans, as well as critical processes such as the water cycle and biogeochemical cycles. For instance, the types of minerals contained in soils - the results of geologic processes - help to determine the vegetative cover and ecosystems on the soil surface. Carbon - an essential element of life - is bound in organic matter and is carried to the ocean via wind and water erosion where eventually it becomes part of the ocean floor. Tectonic movement carries ocean deposits into the earth's interior. On geologic timescales, volcanic activity can vent the stored carbon to the Earth's atmosphere as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle is one of the key cycles linking the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.

The inner core of the earth contains liquid iron. Its motion is thought to drive the earth's magnetic field - the magnetosphere - which extends far beyond the atmosphere, protecting Earth and its biosphere from solar wind and cosmic radiation. This layer is extremely hot and advances in geothermal technology could some day enable us to harness greater amounts of heat energy from within the crust and convert it to electricity at the surface.

Soy Plantation, Amazon Brazil. With the aid of fossil fuel-powered machinery, man can make sweeping changes to the natural landscape.

How do humans interact with the geosphere?

Aside from surface disturbances such as excavations and agriculture, humans have a fairly minor impact on the workings and scale of the geosphere. Humans still live largely at the mercy of powerful geologic forces. The 2010 Haiti earthquake is just one of many examples of the impact of these forces. While we may never be able to stop earthquakes or volcanoes, studying their mechanics can enable us to better understand their dynamics so that we may continue to develop means for reducing risk to homes and people when they occur.

Journal Activity

Materials: Notebook, paper and pencil or dedicated computer file where you can keep your work.

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The Geosphere | Aspen Global Change Institute

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The geosphere is the earth itself: the rocks, minerals, and landforms of the surface and interior. Below the crust - which varies in depth from about 5 km beneath the ocean floor to up to 70 km below the land surface, temperatures are high enough for deformation and a paste-like flow of elements.

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"Conservation of the Biosphere - MrGeogWagg - WordPress.com." 28 Oct. 2014, https://mrgeogwagg.wordpress.com/2014/10/28/conservation-of-the-biosphere/. Accessed 6 Aug. 2021.

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“3 Main Components of Biosphere.” Biology Discussion, 16 Sept. 2016, www.biologydiscussion.com/ecosystem/3-main-components-of-biosphere/52947. Accessed on Aug 6, 2021.

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https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/biosphere/#:~:text=of%20the%20biosphere.-,The%20biosphere%20is%20made%20up%20of%20the%20parts%20of%20Earth,ocean%20and%20terrestrial%20ecosystems%20meet.

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Encyclopedic Entry Vocabulary

The biosphere is made up of the parts of Earth where life exists. The biosphere extends from the deepest root systems of trees, to the dark environment of ocean trenches, to lush rain forests and high mountaintops.

Scientists describe the Earth in terms of spheres. The solid surface layer of the Earth is the lithosphere. The atmosphere is the layer of air that stretches above the lithosphere. The Earth's water-on the surface, in the ground, and in the air-makes up the hydrosphere.

Since life exists on the ground, in the air, and in the water, the biosphere overlaps all these spheres. Although the biosphere measures about 20 kilometers (12 miles) from top to bottom, almost all life exists between about 500 meters (1,640 feet) below the ocean's surface to about 6 kilometers (3.75 miles) above sea level.

Origin of the Biosphere

The biosphere has existed for about 3.5 billion years. The biosphere's earliest life-forms, called prokaryotes, survived without oxygen. Ancient prokaryotes included single-celled organisms such as bacteria and archaea.

Some prokaryotes developed a unique chemical process. They were able to use sunlight to make simple sugars and oxygen out of water and carbon dioxide, a process called photosynthesis. These photosynthetic organisms were so plentiful that they changed the biosphere. Over a long period of time, the atmosphere developed a mix of oxygen and other gases that could sustain new forms of life.

The addition of oxygen to the biosphere allowed more complex life-forms to evolve. Millions of different plants and other photosynthetic species developed. Animals, which consume plants (and other animals) evolved. Bacteria and other organisms evolved to decompose, or break down, dead animals and plants.

The biosphere benefits from this food web. The remains of dead plants and animals release nutrients into the soil and ocean. These nutrients are re- absorbed by growing plants. This exchange of food and energy makes the biosphere a self-supporting and self-regulating system.

The biosphere is sometimes thought of as one large ecosystem-a complex community of living and nonliving things functioning as a single unit. More often, however, the biosphere is described as having many ecosystems.

Biosphere Reserves

People play an important part in maintaining the flow of energy in the biosphere. Sometimes, however, people disrupt the flow. For example, in the atmosphere, oxygen levels decrease and carbon dioxide levels increase when people clear forests or burn fossil fuels such as coal and oil. Oil spills and industrial wastes threaten life in the hydrosphere. The future of the biosphere will depend on how people interact with other living things within the zone of life.

In the early 1970s, the United Nations established a project called Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB), which promotes sustainable development. A network of biosphere reserves exists to establish a working, balanced relationship between people and the natural world.

Currently, there are 563 biosphere reserves all over the world. The first biosphere reserve was established in Yangambi, Democratic Republic of Congo. Yangambi, in the fertile Congo River Basin, has 32,000 species of trees and such endemic species as forest elephants and red river hogs. The biosphere reserve at Yangambi supports activities such as sustainable agriculture, hunting, and mining.

One of the newest biosphere reserves is in Yayu, Ethiopia. The area is developed for agriculture. Crops such as honey, timber, and fruit are regularly cultivated. However, Yayu's most profitable and valuable resource is an indigenous species of plant, Coffea arabica. This shrub is the source of coffee. Yayu has the largest source of wild Coffea arabica in the world.

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Writers

Kim Rutledge
Tara Ramroop
Diane Boudreau
Melissa McDaniel
Santani Teng
Erin Sprout
Hilary Costa
Hilary Hall
Jeff Hunt

Illustrators

Mary Crooks, National Geographic Society
Tim Gunther

Editors

Jeannie Evers, Emdash Editing
Kara West

Educator Reviewer

Nancy Wynne

Producer

Caryl-Sue, National Geographic Society

Sources

Dunn, Margery G. (Editor). (1989, 1993). "Exploring Your World: The Adventure of Geography." Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society.

Last Updated

June 24, 2011

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Writers

Kim Rutledge
Tara Ramroop
Diane Boudreau
Melissa McDaniel
Santani Teng
Erin Sprout
Hilary Costa
Hilary Hall
Jeff Hunt

Illustrators

Mary Crooks, National Geographic Society
Tim Gunther

Editors

Jeannie Evers, Emdash Editing
Kara West

Educator Reviewer

Nancy Wynne

Producer

Caryl-Sue, National Geographic Society

Sources

Dunn, Margery G. (Editor). (1989, 1993). "Exploring Your World: The Adventure of Geography." Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society.

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This lists the logos of programs or partners of NG Education which have provided or contributed the content on this page. Powered by Encyclopedic Entry Vocabulary The biosphere is made up of the parts of Earth where life exists.

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“Impact of Human Activities on the Hydrosphere.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/science/hydrosphere/Impact-of-human-activities-on-the-hydrosphere . Accessed Aug 6. 2021

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"Challenges & Achievements | Western Port Biosphere." https://www.biosphere.org.au/our-biosphere/challenges-achievements/. Accessed 6 Aug. 2021.

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https://www.nationalgeographic.org/standards/national-geography-standards/13/

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1. There are multiple types of territorial divisions used to manage and control Earth's surface
Therefore, the student is able to:
A. Explain different types of territorial divisions (e.g., township, city, county, state, and country) and how they are used to manage and control Earth's surface, as exemplified by being able to

Construct maps based on interviews with local school officials, firefighters, and police officers to show the spatial boundaries of their responsibilities (e.g., school district boundaries, local fire districts, police precinct districts, county jurisdiction for sheriff).

Describe the responsibilities of the set of governmental units within which the student lives (e.g., town or city, county, state, and country).

Describe how all continents, with the exception of Antarctica, are divided into nation states.

Cooperation

2. The role cooperation has in managing Earth's surface
Therefore, the student is able to:
A. Explain how people cooperate in managing and using Earth's surface, as exemplified by being able to

Explain how international water boundaries are examples of people cooperating in dividing and using Earth's surface (e.g., 200-mile territorial limit, Great Lakes are divided between Canada and the United States, for river boundaries it is sometimes the center of the water in the river).

Analyze activities in the local community to describe ways in which people solve problems by cooperating (e.g., working in groups to pick up trash along a road, participating in a neighborhood crime-watch group, participating in community house-building projects).

Describe how communities and states cooperate in providing relief efforts during and after natural disasters (e.g., donations of money and food aid, sending medical teams and supplies, construction workers and equipment).

Conflict

3. Conflicts arise when there is disagreement over the division, control, and management of Earth's surface
Therefore, the student is able to:
A. Analyze examples of disagreements over land uses in their community, as exemplified by being able to

Identify and describe the reasons for disputes over play space on the playground or lunchroom, analyzing the situation from the perspectives of the key stakeholders.

Identify local land-use issues in which there are disagreements and analyze the perspectives of the key stakeholders (e.g., protection of environmentally sensitive areas, land use for commercial purposes, locating waste disposal sites).

Describe the means by which communities resolve disputes over land-use issues (e.g., decisions by planning commissions, by elected officials, by judges, by community voting).

The student knows and understands:

Territorial Divisions

1. The types of boundaries used to define territorial division
Therefore, the student is able to:
A. Explain the types of boundaries based on physical and human characteristics, as exemplified by being able to

Describe and explain the use of physical and human characteristics to establish political boundaries (e.g., streets as political boundaries between local units of government, water features as boundaries between countries, watershed divides as boundaries between countries, boundaries delimited by political agreement such as the 49th parallel between the United States and Canada).

Identify and describe examples of disputed borders and explain the reasons for the dispute (e.g., Kashmir border between India and Pakistan, border between Algeria and Morocco, border between El Salvador and Honduras).

Identify and explain the use of defense lines and frontier outposts to control Earth's surface (e.g., China's Great Wall, Hadrian's Wall, Berlin Wall, Maginot Line, Korean Peninsula Demilitarized Zone).

Explain why states in regions of the United States typically have different kinds of boundaries (e.g., the eastern state lines reflect metes and bounds, the Midwest has baselines of latitude and longitude and water boundaries, the use of township and range system in the West).

Cooperation

2. Countries and organizations cooperate through treaties, laws, and agreements to manage resources, maintain the environment, and mediate disputes
Therefore, the student is able to:
A. Describe and explain examples of cooperation that focus on solving human and environmental issues, as exemplified by being able to

Describe and analyze the positive and negative effects of cooperation in controlling territories (e.g., Great Lakes environmental issues are cooperatively managed by the United States and Canada, United Nations [UN] Heritage sites are cooperatively maintained by the UN and host countries, regional planning agencies coordinate local land use policies).

Analyze the places where international monitors have maintained borders, keeping conflicting groups apart and maintaining peace (e.g., Cyprus Green Line, Golan Heights, Lebanon-Israel border, North Atlantic Treaty Organization [NATO] in the Balkans in the 1990s).

Describe and analyze the effectiveness of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in responding to human issues (e.g., Heifer International providing expertise on hunger mitigation, Doctors Without Borders providing medical assistance to countries, Oxfam providing food relief).

Conflict

3. There are multiple sources of conflict resulting from the division of Earth's surface
Therefore, the student is able to:
A. Explain how conflicting territorial claims can erupt over resources, land use, and ethnic and national identities, as exemplified by being able to

Explain why countries have overlapping claims for island territories (e.g., the Spratly [claimed by six countries] and Kurile [claimed by two countries] island groups for their resources).

Describe and explain examples of the different types of land-control conflicts that may erupt between and among countries (e.g., conflicts due to natural resources, water sources or access, economic sanctions or embargoes, religious or sacred sites).

Analyze the types of conflicts that can occur over the use of rivers (e.g., US states competing for water from the Colorado River, ongoing conflicts over the Amur River between China and Russia, Jordan and Israel competing for water from the River Jordan).

The student knows and understands:

Territorial Divisions

1. The functions and consequences of territorial divisions
Therefore, the student is able to:
A. Explain how territorial divisions are used to manage Earth's surface, as exemplified by being able to

Analyze and explain the impacts of regional alliances intended for political, military, cultural, or economic control (e.g., the political integration of the European Union [EU] countries, United Nations [UN] oversight of the military division of the Korean Peninsula, the economic and cultural impacts of North American Free Trade Agreement [NAFTA]).

Explain where and how nations (i.e., ethnic groups) seek territorial and national identity (e.g., the Kurds in Turkey, Iraq, and Iran; Palestinians in Israel, Lebanon, and Jordan; Tamils in Sri Lanka and India).

Explain how the "Law of the Sea" defines the extent and rights of the territorial jurisdiction of a nation state (e.g., control of passage of warships, rights to minerals on the ocean floor).

B. Compare the reasons for and consequences of different systems for dividing and controlling space, as exemplified by being able to

Compare the spatial expansion and extent of different empires and describe the reasons for and effects of the resulting boundaries (e.g., Chinese dynasties, Roman Empire, British Empire).

Analyze the patterns of territorial divisions that arose during the European colonialism era and compare the different responses to this expansion (e.g., the 1823 Monroe Doctrine against European expansion in the Western hemisphere, Berlin Conference 1884-1885, Battle of Adwa in Ethiopia, Sino-French War 1884).

Describe and compare the different forms of governmental structures for administering nation states (e.g., federations such as Canada versus unitary states such as France).

Cooperation

2. Cooperation between countries and organizations may have lasting influences on past, present, and future global issues
Therefore, the student is able to:
A. Evaluate how countries and organizations cooperate to address global issues, as exemplified by being able to

Evaluate the success of United Nations (UN) agencies in dealing with global issues (e.g., peacekeeping and prevention of terrorist activities, disease prevention, emergency aid, climate change, education).

Analyze how globalization has contributed to the development of regional organizations and describe how those organizations have changed over time (e.g., European Union [EU], North Atlantic Treaty Organization [NATO], North American Free Trade Agreement [NAFTA], African Union, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries [OPEC]).

Identify and describe the potential results of recommendations generated by international efforts to address global climate change (e.g., the series of agreements at Montreal, Kyoto, and Copenhagen).

Conflict

3. Changes within, between, and among countries regarding division and control of Earth's surface may result in conflicts
Therefore, the student is able to:
A. Explain the ways conflict affects the cohesiveness and fragmentation of countries, as exemplified by being able to

Describe and explain the effects of interventionist policies by developed countries on lesser-developed countries (e.g., United States in Iraq, China in Tibet, Soviets in Afghanistan).

Describe and explain the formation of alliances during World Wars I and II and explain how those alliances influenced the territorial divisions and occupations following the wars.

Compare the positive and negative effects conflict has on the cohesiveness of countries (e.g., response to outside threat can lead to unifying effect of protecting a nation state, ultranationalism can lead to discrimination against immigrant groups).

B. Explain the causes and consequences of political and social revolutions resulting from issues of control of land and resources, as exemplified by being able to

Explain the geographical reasons for and consequences of wars and revolutions (e.g., Eritrean war of independence, Vietnamese wars with France and the United States, Iraqi invasion of Kuwait).

Analyze examples of how political and social unrest stem from competition for control of space and resources (e.g., Greeks and Turks in Cyprus; Taliban in Afghanistan, Hutu and Tutsi in Rwanda, actions of certain terrorist groups [Irish Republican Army or Hamas]).

Analyze the effect that extracting and trading of resources has on conflicts in developing nations (e.g., lithium, conflict diamonds, petroleum, uranium).

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national geographic standard human systems

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1. There are multiple types of territorial divisions used to manage and control Earth's surface Therefore, the student is able to: A.

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“Geosphere.” GeoScienceWorld, https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geosphere Accessed 6/8/21

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"What is Biosphere and its 3 components ? | Definition of ... - Toppr." https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/environmental-chemistry/what-is-biosphere-and-its-3-components. Accessed 6 Aug. 2021.

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“Structure and Composition of Biosphere - Geography Study Material & Notes.” Exam Pariksha, 29 Oct. 2016, exampariksha.com/structure-composition-biosphere-geography-study-material-notes/.

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“The Diversity of Life.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/science/biosphere/The-diversity-of-life. Accessed on August 6, 2021

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"Understanding water cooperation and conflict | Global Water Forum." 2 Dec. 2013, https://globalwaterforum.org/2013/12/02/understanding-water-cooperation-and-conflict/. Accessed 6 Aug. 2021.

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Paula Hanasz, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia This article is one of the ten finalists of the Global Water Forum 2013 Emerging Scholars Award.
Water cooperation is a seemingly self-explanatory notion, but its obviousness is deceptive. What, then, should we understand water cooperation to mean? One starting point is to first define water conflict. After all, the study of war is the study of peace. ¹ The literature on conflict and natural resources can be traced back to Malthus, who argued that conflict over natural resources would arise as a consequence of population growth and environmental degradation. ² In regards to water, increasing populations impose increasing demands for water supplies, often leading to unsustainable withdrawals and thus conflict over the increasingly scarce resources. ³

Water conflicts occur in three spheres: hydrosphere, economic, and political. Problems in one may lead to conflict in another. ³ In a large river basin, water may be managed for multiple uses such as power generation, food production, industrial development, municipal water supply, recreation, or a combination of these. Different user groups with different objectives often have difficulty in arriving at a common schedule of quantity and time of water distribution, thus leading to conflict. ³ Within the hydrosphere, water conflict can be further divided into problems of water quality, water quantity, and ecosystem problems. For example, human consumption, industry and agricultural uses compete for water while generating wastes that are usually discharged into water bodies, which in turn competes with ecosystem requirements for clean and abundant water supply. ³

Now that we have understood water conflicts, the natural conclusion is to define water cooperation as the absence of conflict. This, however, is an erroneous assumption. Cooperation, for a start, is not the opposite of conflict. Indeed, various forms of cooperation over water occur almost without exception alongside various forms of conflict. Moreover, tensions over shared waters are too sophisticated and complex to be adequately categorised as either conflict or cooperation. More insight and understanding will be gained if we think of them as water-related interactions. ⁴

The nuance and the complex motives of water interactions cannot be adequately represented on a continuum of cooperation to conflict, although that is precisely what is most often used. The use of continua to analyse the interaction between riparians narrows the scope of assessment and over-simplifies complex situations. Continua make it difficult to represent the variations of relations over time and through changed political contexts, and obscure the multiple political dimensions of interaction. ⁴ The simplistic convention of plotting cooperation versus conflict in a linear dichotomy has reinforced the paradigmatic view that all conflict is 'bad' and that cooperation is inherently 'good'. This binary understanding of conflict and cooperation assumes that relations over transboundary waters may be improved simply by promoting movement along one direction or on one element of the interaction, rather than addressing the broader context. ⁴

Leaving these assumptions unchallenged may in fact undermine the resolution of water-related tensions and even perpetuate conflict. ⁴ The problem with the automatic pursuit of 'cooperation' is that it may result in policy where cooperation of any sort becomes itself the goal. This, in turn, may be misunderstood as evidence of actual cooperation, and the focus on the mechanisms through which it is being applied - for example, treaties, river basin organisations, riparian meetings, annual conference, joint publications, etc. - potentially de-emphasises the root tensions. ⁴ Conversely, tensions may bring riparians to the negotiation table and lead to resolution of conflict and thus be considered in a positive light. ⁴

Both conflict and cooperation have aspects or 'faces' which are not habitually recognised, and are more complex than is generally understood. ⁴ For example, in light of the power asymmetry that drives water interactions, it can be seen that an arrangement understood as 'cooperative' from the hydro-hegemon's perspective may conceal its more destructive effects such as cementing an inequitable status quo. Seeds of grievance are thus planted. The weaker party to such an arrangement may have consented for strategic reasons, unrelated to the immediate water issues at hand, and therefore the degree to which this arrangement is truly 'cooperative' should be questioned. ⁵ Apparently stable situations of shared control could mask unjust outcomes for disenfranchised stakeholders. ⁶ The blind pursuit of 'cooperation' can therefore be as detrimental to the equitable resolution of transboundary water issues as outright conflict (or, indeed, the avoidance of conflict).

Not all actors, however, pursue cooperation as a goal in itself. Cooperation between states regarding transboundary water management has been traditionally seen and interpreted as infringing the sovereignty of riparian states. ⁷ This approach has been strengthened by the rise of democratisation in the post-Cold War era which has empowered an increasing number of people in different states across the globe to understand sovereignty as the exclusive right to exercise supreme political authority over a geographical region, a group of people or oneself, and that this sovereignty is held directly by the people. ⁷ With this narrow understanding of sovereignty it is perhaps not surprising that the mere suggestion of another national or trans-national coalition making decisions affecting one nation's territory or social welfare, even positively, can create emotional backlash and a securitisation of the issue.

However, the post-Cold War era of democratisation and globalisation has also seen a proliferation of influence of non-state domestic actors in national decision-making on traditionally foreign policy debates. The definitions of the concepts of sovereignty and security have also begun to evolve, and while these changes entail new threats to collective action problems such as international water security, they also present new opportunities. ⁸

Understanding that water conflicts are myriad, and that cooperation is not merely the opposite of conflict is a start to developing effective policy, meaningful collaboration, and bringing about equitable outcomes. Understanding also that the prospect of transboundary cooperation may seem a threat to certain states is a challenge to be overcome.
This article is one of the ten finalists of the Global Water Forum 2013 Emerging Scholars Award.
References:

1. Dinar, S. (2002), 'Water, Security, Conflict and Cooperation', SAIS Review XXII(2) (Summer-Fall 2002).
2. Reuveny, R., and Maxwell, J.W., (2001), 'Conflict and Renewable Resources', The Journal of Conflict Resolution 45(6), Dec. 2001.
3. Cosgrove, W. J. (2003), Water Security and Peace: A Synthesis of Studies Prepared under the PCCP-Water for Peace Process, UNESCO, Technical Documents in Hydrology, PC à CP series, No. 29, SC-2003/WS/51.
4. Zeitoun, M., and Mirumachi, N. (2008), 'Transboundary water interaction 1: reconsidering conflict and cooperation', International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics 8(4).
5. Zeitoun, M., Mirumachi, N., and Warner, J., 2011, 'Transbounday water interaction II: the influence of 'soft' power", International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, 11(2).
6. Zeitoun, M., and Warner, J., 2006, 'Hydro-hegemony - a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts', Water Policy, Vol. 8 (2006).
7. Pachova, N., Nakayama, M., and Jansky, L., 2008, 'National sovereignty and human security: Changing realities and concepts in international water management', in Pachova, N.I., Nakayama, M., & Jansky, L. (eds.), 2008, International Water Security: Domestic Threats and Opportunities, United Nations University Press, United States of America.
8. Jansky, L., Nakayama, M., and Pachova, N.I., 2008, 'Introduction: From domestic to international water security', in Pachova, N.I., Nakayama, M., & Jansky, L. (eds.), 2008, International Water Security: Domestic Threats and Opportunities, United Nations University Press, United States of America.
Paula Hanasz is a PhD candidate at the Crawford School of Public Policy at the Australian National University. Her thesis explores the water interactions between India, Nepal and Bhutan. This paper is based on an article Paula wrote for the Global Dialogue journal special issue on water conflicts. Paula can be contacted at paula.hanasz@anu.edu.au.
The views expressed in this article belong to the individual authors and do not represent the views of the Global Water Forum, the UNESCO Chair in Water Economics and Transboundary Water Governance, UNESCO, the Australian National University, or any of the institutions to which the authors are associated. Please see the Global Water Forum terms and conditions here.

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Understanding water cooperation and conflict

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Paula Hanasz, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia This article is one of the ten finalists of the Global Water Forum 2013 Emerging Scholars Award. Water cooperation is a seemingly self-explanatory notion, but its obviousness is deceptive. What, then, should we understand water cooperation to mean? One starting point is to first define water conflict.

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“Hydrosphere.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/science/hydrosphere . Accessed Aug 6 2021

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"What Are the 3 Parts of the Biosphere? - Sciencing." 16 Apr. 2018, https://sciencing.com/3-parts-biosphere-8312194.html. Accessed 6 Aug. 2021.

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"Structure and Composition of Biosphere - Geography Study Material ...." https://exampariksha.com/structure-composition-biosphere-geography-study-material-notes/. Accessed 6 Aug. 2021.

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"Structure and composition of the Earth - The Australian Museum." https://australian.museum/learn/minerals/shaping-earth/structure-and-composition-of-the-earth/. Accessed 6 Aug. 2021.

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"hydrosphere | Definition, Layers, Examples, & Facts | Britannica." https://www.britannica.com/science/hydrosphere. Accessed 6 Aug. 2021.

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hydrosphere, discontinuous layer of water at or near Earth's surface. It includes all liquid and frozen surface waters, groundwater held in soil and rock, and atmospheric water vapour.

Water is the most abundant substance at the surface of Earth. About 1.4 billion cubic km (326 million cubic miles) of water in liquid and frozen form make up the oceans, lakes, streams, glaciers, and groundwaters found there. It is this enormous volume of water, in its various manifestations, that forms the discontinuous layer, enclosing much of the terrestrial surface, known as the hydrosphere.

Central to any discussion of the hydrosphere is the concept of the water cycle (or hydrologic cycle). This cycle consists of a group of reservoirs containing water, the processes by which water is transferred from one reservoir to another (or transformed from one state to another), and the rates of transfer associated with such processes. These transfer paths penetrate the entire hydrosphere, extending upward to about 15 km (9 miles) in Earth's atmosphere and downward to depths on the order of 5 km (3 miles) in its crust.

This article examines the processes of the water cycle and discusses the way in which the various reservoirs of the hydrosphere are related through the water cycle. It also describes the biogeochemical properties of Earth's waters at some length and considers the distribution of global water resources and their use and pollution by human society. Details concerning the major water environments that make up the hydrosphere are provided in the articles ocean, lake, river, and ice. See also climate for specific information about the impact of climatic factors on the water cycle. The principal concerns and methods of hydrology and its various allied disciplines are summarized in Earth sciences.

Distribution and quantity of Earth's waters

Ocean waters and waters trapped in the pore spaces of sediments make up most of the present-day hydrosphere. The total mass of water in the oceans equals about 50 percent of the mass of sedimentary rocks now in existence and about 5 percent of the mass of Earth's crust as a whole. Deep and shallow groundwaters constitute a small percentage of the total water locked in the pores of sedimentary rocks-on the order of 3 to 15 percent. The amount of water in the atmosphere at any one time is trivial, equivalent to roughly 13,000 cubic km (about 3,100 cubic miles) of liquid water, or about 0.001 percent of the total at Earth's surface. This water, however, plays an important role in the water cycle.

reservoir

volume (in cubic kilometres)

percent of total

*As liquid equivalent of water vapour.

**Total surpasses 100 percent because of upward rounding of individual reservoir volumes.

Source: Adapted from Igor Shiklomanov's chapter "World Fresh Water Resources" in Peter H. Gleick (ed.), Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh Water Resources, copyright 1993, Oxford University Press, New York, N.Y. Table made available by the United States Geological Survey.

At present, ice locks up a little more than 2 percent of Earth's water and may have accounted for as much as 3 percent or more during the height of the glaciations of the Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 million to 11,700 years ago). Although water storage in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere is small, the rate of water circulation through the rain-river-ocean-atmosphere system is relatively rapid. The amount of water discharged each year into the oceans from the land is approximately equal to the total mass of water stored at any instant in rivers and lakes.

Soil moisture accounts for only 0.005 percent of the water at Earth's surface. It is this small amount of water, however, that exerts the most direct influence on evaporation from soils. The biosphere, though primarily H ₂O in composition, contains very little of the total water at the terrestrial surface, only about 0.00004 percent, yet the biosphere plays a major role in the transport of water vapour back into the atmosphere by the process of transpiration.

As will be seen in the next section, Earth's waters are not pure H ₂O but contain dissolved and particulate materials. Thus, the masses of water at Earth's surface are major receptacles of inorganic and organic substances, and water movement plays a dominant role in the transportation of these substances about the planet's surface.

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Hydrosphere | Definition, Layers, Examples, & Facts

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Hydrosphere, region of water at or near Earth's surface containing all surface waters, ice, groundwater, and water vapor.

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"Structure and Composition of Biosphere - Geography Study Material ...." https://exampariksha.com/structure-composition-biosphere-geography-study-material-notes/. Accessed 6 Aug. 2021.

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“Hydrosphere.” National Geographic Society, www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrosphere/print/#:~:text= Powered by-,A hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a,of oceans, lakes and rivers. Accessed Aug 6. 2021

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https://www.gsi.ie/en-ie/education/our-planet-earth/Pages/The-Earth-structure.aspx

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​​The earth is made up of three different layers: the crust, the mantle and the core.

Source: Geological Survey Ireland

The crust

This is the outside layer of the earth and is made of solid rock, mostly basalt and granite. There are two types of crust; oceanic and continental. Oceanic crust is denser and thinner and mainly com​posed of basalt. Continental crust is less dense, thicker, and mainly composed of granite.

The mantle

The mantle lies below the crust and is up to 2900 km thick. It consists of hot, dense, iron and magnesium-rich solid rock. The crust and the upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere, which is broken into plates, both large and small. To learn more about these plates see the Plate Tectonics page​.

The core

The core is the centre of the earth and is made up of two parts: the liquid outer core and solid inner core. The outer core is made of nickel, iron and molten rock. Temperatures here can reach up to 50,000 C.

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​​The earth is made up of three different layers: the crust, the mantle and the core. Source: Geological Survey Ireland The crust This is the outside layer of the earth and is made of solid rock, mostly basalt and granite. There are two types of crust; oceanic and continental.

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