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Throughout the ages, the information and understanding of botanical medicine and its usage garnered from the ancient world was made accessible to the literate via Greek and translated documents that could be found mainly in monasteries, especially those on the Holy Peninsula of Mount Athos. The uneducated, however, spread knowledge verbally, with villagers across Greece developing and transferring further learning and expertise to their communities by combining proven theories and techniques and hands-on experimentation. Making the best of nature’s bounty developed from the profoundly pragmatic need to survive, as throughout the centuries villagers were left to their own devices when it came to individual and community’s healthcare. The main priority in using herbs and plants throughout rural Greece was, and remains, the need to systematically and effectively treat physical and spiritual ailments, from the common headache, melancholy and respiratory disorders to broken bones, madness and heart disease. Meanwhile on the dark side, herbs have also played a significant role in magic and superstitious rituals for breaking spells, clearing the cloying effects of the evil eye and other psychic ‘disorders’.

(source: http://www.greece-is.com/plants-greeces-medical-blessing/ )

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Characteristic Plant habitats of Greece (3)

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Characteristic Plant habitats of Greece (3)

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2.Platanus orientalis and Liquidambar orientalis woods (Platanion orientalis) 

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2.Platanus orientalis and Liquidambar orientalis woods (Platanion orientalis) 

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Forests and woods, for the most part riparian, dominated by Platanus orientalis (oriental plane) or Liquidambar orientalis (sweet gum), belonging to the Platanion orientalisalliance. Platanus orientalis gallery forests of Greek and southern Balkanic watercourses, temporary rivers and gorges; they are distributed throughout the mainland and archipelagos, colonising poorly stabilised alluvions of large rivers, gravel or boulder deposits of permanent or temporary torrents, spring basins, and particularly, the bottom of steep, shady gorges, where they constitute species-rich communities.
(sourse:https://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-annex1-browser.jsp, http://e-ecodb.bas.bg/rdb/en/vol3/07G1.html)

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3.Southern riparian galleries and thickets (Nerio-Tamaricetea and Securinegion tinctoriae)

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3.Southern riparian galleries and thickets (Nerio-Tamaricetea and Securinegion tinctoriae)

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Tamarisk, oleander, chaste tree galleries and thickets and similar low ligneous formations of permanent or temporary streams and wetlands of the thermo-Mediterranean zone and south-western Iberia, and of the most hygromorphic locations within the Saharo-Mediterranean and Saharo-Sindian zones.

(source:http://e-ecodb.bas.bg/rdb/en/vol3/07G1.html)

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Vascular Plants Checklist of Greece | Flora of Greece - An annotated checklist

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The Annotated Checklist of the Flora of Greece is a checklist of the Vascular Plants of Greece. Vascular plants of Greece: An annotated checklist (Dimopoulos & al. 2013), constitutes the first comprehensive inventory of the flora of Greece more than a century after Eugen von Halacsy, a Hungarian-born physician of Vienna, had finalized the most recent complete Flora of the country (Halacsy 1900 - 1904, with supplements in 1908 and 1912).

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1.Mediterranean pine forests with endemic Mesogean pines

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1.Mediterranean pine forests with endemic Mesogean pines

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Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic woods of thermophilous pines, mostly appearing as substitution or paraclimactic stages of forests of the Quercetalia ilicis or Ceratonio-Rhamnetalia. Long-established plantations of these pines, within their natural area of occurrence, and with an undergrowth basically similar to that of paraclimactic formations, are included.
(source:http://e-ecodb.bas.bg/rdb/en/vol3/07G1.html)

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Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests

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Urtica dioica from Thomé, Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz 1885
(source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urtica_dioica)

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Urtica is a genus of flowering plants in the family Urticaceae. Many species have stinging hairs and may be called nettles or stinging nettles, although the latter name applies particularly to Urtica dioica.
Urtica is derived from a Latin word meaning 'sting'.

Urtica species grow as annuals or perennial herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs. They can reach, depending on the type, location and nutrient status, a height of 10–300 centimetres (3.9–118.1 in). The perennial species have underground rhizomes. The green parts have stinging hairs. Their often quadrangular stems are unbranched or branched, erect, ascending or spreading.
Most leaves and stalks are arranged across opposite sides of the stem. The leaf blades are elliptic, lanceolate, ovate or circular. The leaf blades usually have three to five, rarely up to seven veins. The leaf margin is usually serrate to more or less coarsely toothed. The often-lasting bracts are free or fused to each other. The cystoliths are extended to more or less rounded.
In 1874, while in Collioure (south of France), French botanist Charles Naudin discovered that strong winds during 24 hours made the stinging hairs of Urtica harmless for a whole week.

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Urticaceae
Tribe: Urticeae
Genus: Urtica

Species of Urtica in Greece:
Κνίδη η δίοικος (Urtica dioica)
Κνίδη η καυστηρά (Urtica urens)
Κνίδη η μεμβρανώδης (Urtica membranacea)
Κνίδη η σφαιριδιοφόρος (Urtica pilulifera)

Urtica dioica, often known as common nettle, stinging nettle (although not all plants of this species sting) or nettle leaf, or just a nettle or stinger, is a herbaceous perennial flowering plant in the family Urticaceae. Dioica is derived from Greek, meaning 'of two houses' (having separate staminate and pistillate plants; dioecious).
(sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urtica_dioica, https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Τσουκνίδα)

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Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Diversity in Greece and Their Future Prospects: A Review

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Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Diversity in Greece and Their Future Prospects: A Review

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Stinging nettle root is used for urination problems related to an enlarged prostate (benign prostatic hyperplasia [BPH]). These problems include nighttime urination, too frequent urination, painful urination, inability to urinate, and irritable bladder.

Stinging nettle root is also used for joint ailments, as a diuretic, and as an astringent.

Stinging nettle above ground parts are used along with large amounts of fluids in so-called “irrigation therapy” for urinary tract infections (UTI), urinary tract inflammation, and kidney stones (nephrolithiasis). The above-ground parts are also used for allergies, hayfever, and osteoarthritis.

Some people use the above ground parts of stinging nettle for internal bleeding, including uterine bleeding, nosebleeds, and bowel bleeding. The above ground parts are also used for anemia, poor circulation, an enlarged spleen, diabetes and other endocrine disorders, stomach acid, diarrhea and dysentery, asthma, lung congestion, rash and eczema, cancer, preventing the signs of aging, “blood purification,” wound healing, and as a general tonic.

Stinging nettle above ground parts are applied to the skin for muscle aches and pains, oily scalp, oily hair, and hair loss (alopecia).

The species U.dioica is widely used in the kitchen as well. Thanks to the nutrients it contains, the high percentage of vitamin C, nettles are consumed as salad, soup and often replace spinach. The causticity of the hair is neutralized by squeezing or boiling water. For consumption, the young tender shoots are considered to be better.

In manufacturing, stinging nettle extract is used as an ingredient in hair and skin products.

Also, can be used in gardening to combat mange. For this purpose, 500-700 g of fresh  or 200 g dried nettle are mixed with 5 liters of cold water for a 24-hour period. Then the infected plants are sprayed.

Stinging nettle leaf has a long history of use. It was used primarily as a diuretic and laxative in ancient Greek times.
(source:https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BA%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B1#%CE%A7%CF%81%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%82, https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-664/stinging-nettle)

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Hyssopus officinalis (Ύσσωπος ο φαρμακευτικός)

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Hyssopus officinalis (Ύσσωπος ο φαρμακευτικός)

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Hyssopus officinalis or hyssop is a herbaceous plant of the genus Hyssopus (belonging to the family Lamiaceae - which furnishes many culinary herbs) native to Southern Europe, the Middle East, and the region surrounding the Caspian Sea. Due to its properties as an antiseptic, cough reliever, and expectorant, it is commonly used as a medicinal plant.

Hyssop is a brightly coloured shrub or subshrub that ranges from 30 to 60 cm (12 to 24 in) in height. The stem is woody at the base, from which grow a number of straight branches. Its leaves are lanceolate, dark green in colour, and from 2 to 2.5 cm (0.79 to 0.98 in) long.

During the summer, the plant produces bunches of pink, blue, or, more rarely, white fragrant flowers. These give rise to small oblong achenes.

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Subfamily: Nepetoideae
Tribe: Mentheae
Genus: Hyssopus
Species: H. officials

Binomial name
Hyssopus officinalis
L.

Synonyms
Hyssopus alopecuroides Fisch. ex Benth.
Hyssopus altissimus Mill.
Hyssopus angustifolius M.Bieb.
Hyssopus aristatus Godr.
Hyssopus beugesiacus Jord. & Fourr.
Hyssopus canescens (DC.) Nyman nom. inval.
Hyssopus caucasicus Spreng. ex Steud.
Hyssopus cinerascens Jord. & Fourr.
Hyssopus cinereus Pau
Hyssopus cretaceus Dubj.
Hyssopus decumbens Jord. & Fourr.
Hyssopus fischeri Steud.
Hyssopus hirsutus Hill
Hyssopus judaeorum Sennen
Hyssopus montanus Jord. & Fourr.
Hyssopus myrtifolius Desf.
Hyssopus orientalis Adam ex Willd.
Hyssopus passionis Sennen & Elias
Hyssopus polycladus Jord. & Fourr.
Hyssopus pubescens Jord. & Fourr.
Hyssopus recticaulis Jord. & Fourr.
Hyssopus ruber Mill.
Hyssopus schleicheri G.Don ex Loudon
Hyssopus torresii Sennen
Hyssopus vulgaris Bubani
Thymus hyssopus E.H.L.Krause

(source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyssopus_officinalis, https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ύσσωπος_ο_φαρμακευτικός)

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(source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyssopus_officinalis

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Medicinal traits and uses of Hyssopus officinalis

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Medicinal traits and uses of Hyssopus officinalis

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Hyssop has been noted for centuries in herbal medicine. In addition, there are a number of references in the Bible to plants called "hyssop," although there is considerable controversy regarding the actual identity of these plants. There is little evidence that the plant mentioned in Bible was actually "H. officinalis."

The ancient use of this plant was an insecticide, insect repellent, and pediculicide (lice eradicator). Extracts of plant have been used as a fragrance in soaps and perfumes, and to flavor liqueurs, sauces, puddings, and candies.

The plant has been used in herbal medicine for the treatment of sore throats, colds, hoarseness, and as an expectorant. Some herbalists also believe that hyssop has beneficial effects for asthma, urinary tract inflammation, and appetite stimulation. Its effectiveness in relieving gas and colic also are listed under its medicinal uses. None of these uses have been studied clinically.

Although an extract of the leaves has been suggested for the treatment of wounds, there does not appear to be strong evidence for its effectiveness as an antibacterial.

Still used today by herbalists for its beneficial effects, hyssop's volatile oil represents the most important fraction of this plant. It may have some small beneficial effect in the treatment of sore throats and as an expectorant. However, clinical studies are lacking for any medicinal use of hyssop.

Τhe plant contains the chemicals thujone and phenol, to which antiseptic properties are attributed.  High concentrations of thujone and chemicals that stimulate the central nervous system can cause epileptic reactions when taken at quite high doses.

The decoction of flesh also helps women with menstrual problems. Tea can help a woman with an irregular cycle return to her normal cycle. Also, hypos may help to reduce some symptoms of menstruation.

(source:https://www.drugs.com/npc/hyssop.html, https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CF%89%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BF_%CF%86%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82#%CE%A6%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CF%87%CF%81%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%82)

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Hyssopus officinalis Hyssop PFAF Plant Database

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Hyssopus officinalis is an evergreen Shrub growing to 0.6 m (2ft) by 0.6 m (2ft in) at a medium rate. It is hardy to zone (UK) 7. It is in leaf all year, in flower from July to September, and the seeds ripen from August to October.

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My PlantArea is Greece and therefore belongs to the Mediterranean  region.

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Mediterranean-Climate Ecosystems: Drought Fire and Flood

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Mediterranean-Climate Ecosystems: Drought Fire and Flood

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Specific Mediterranean drought processes

At least during the warmer months, evapotranspiration is limited by the availability of water, as solar radiation is abundant and water scarce. A good knowledge of soil moisture is thus very important because it determines the availability of water for evapotranspiration. At the same time, vegetation is well adapted to this situation, with strategies to obtain water from deeper soil layers (long roots) along with strategies to better tolerate water stress.
With climate change, an increase in temperature, in the length of the summer dry period and in its extension is expected. This will exacerbate the impacts of drought, as a very dry soil stimulates the sensible heat flux, which can interact with the atmosphere, intensifying heat waves. The vegetation will be water stressed for longer periods too.
(source:https://books.openedition.org/irdeditions/23157)

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University of California Television (UCTV)

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Mediterranean-Climate Ecosystems: Drought Fire and Flood

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The climate is characterised by hot dry summers and humid, cool winters. It is also very capricious with sudden heavy rain or bouts of high winds such as the Sirocco and Mistral. This climate has a profound influence on the vegetation and wildlife of the region.

For a region that takes its name from the sea it surrounds, the Mediterranean is surprisingly hilly. It includes high mountains and rocky shores, thick scrub and semi-arid steppes, coastal wetlands and sandy beaches as well as a myriad of islands dotted across the sea.

Man has left its mark across much of the landscape. The Mediterranean scrub, with its many flowers and aromatic plants, is a direct result of centuries of human activities (livestock grazing, cultivation forest fires and clearances). This scrub has evolved into a complex and intricate mobile patchwork of habitats, home to an exceptionally rich biodiversity.

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Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt was a Prussian polymath, geographer, naturalist, explorer, and influential proponent of Romantic philosophy and science. Humboldt's quantitative work on botanical geography laid the foundation for the field of biogeography. Humboldt's advocacy of long-term systematic geophysical measurement laid the foundation for modern geomagnetic and meteorological monitoring.

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Who is Alexander von Humboldt? - George Mehler

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The soils of the Mediterranean region, as we see them today, are the product of interactions that have taken place for millennia between the natural processes of pedogenesis and the activities of human societies that have developed in this region. There are scant soils that have evolved without being more or less deeply marked by direct or indirect human action. On the contrary, at one time or another in their past, much of the soils have been cleared, cultivated, planted, turned into pasture or been built on.
The various occurrences of degradation, particularly erosion, are as old as the region itself and were already talked about in antiquity. Moreover in modern times new threats have appeared, which are linked to the social and economic upheavals of recent years, i.e. strong demographic growth in poor rural areas, leading to the over-exploitation of natural resources (e.g. tilling marginal areas with erosion-sensitive slopes, over-grazing, over-exploitation of fire wood); poorly done modern farming intensification in certain sectors (e.g. salinisation of the soil by poorly controlled irrigation, exaggerated use of fertilisers and pesticides); encroachment on space by urbanisation and infrastructures; urban and industrial waste pollution.
Mediterranean soils are in general fragile, and this for several reasons, i.e. irregular and often violent precipitations promote erosion; the steepness of the slope in numerous hilly and mountainous sectors worsens this phenomenon; high temperatures accelerate the mineralisation of organic matter; the plant cover is often reduced because of the climate's severity and man-made activities and thus protect soil poorly; wind erosion is often considerable in arid or semi-arid regions; on some coastal or alluvial plains, saline watertables can lead to the salinisation of the soil.

(source: http://www.prosodol.gr/sites/prosodol.gr/files/Threats%20of%20soils%20Med.pdf)

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In the Andes, the longest continental mountain range in the world, located in south America, tree species are ‘on the run’, trying to move to ground of higher altitude. They are shifting roughly 2.5 to 3.5 vertical meters a year on average, but in fact they need to migrate more than 20 vertical feet a year!

2. Tropical Andean trees migrate to higher altitudes where the air is cool enough to support their existence. Due to the fast climatic change they have to move faster in order to remain in equilibrium with their preferred temperatures.

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Recent records showing sign of climatic change

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Recent records showing sign of climatic change

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This paper presents the results of 30 years dry bulb temperature data analysis for the two major cities of Greece, namely Athens and Thessaloniki. The raw hourly data were obtained from the meteorological stations of the National Observatory of Athens and of the Institute of Meteorology and Climatology of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Monthly average dry bulb temperatures as well as frequencies of occurrence in hours of 2ºC wide temperature intervals (bins), are presented for the decades 1983-1992, 1993-2002 and 2003-2012, and compared. The results show that the monthly average temperatures are continuously increased in every decade, as compared to the values of the previous decades. The cumulative results for the frequency of temperature bins in heating and cooling period separately, show also a continuous reduction of the low and an increase of the high temperature bins, for both cities. By estimating the energy demands for heating and cooling of a multistorey office building, with the use of the modified bin energy method and temperature bin data, it is concluded that the heating energy requirements in every decade are decreased while the cooling energy requirements are increased. All the results indicate a warming trend, at least for the two regions examined.

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Climate change impacts in Greece in the near future

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Climate change impacts in Greece in the near future

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From model calculations and a medium low greenhouse gas emissions scenario (B2 IPCC) a general future tendency for 2070-2100 compared with 1960-1990 was found towards drier Eastern Mediterranean, with reduced rainfall intensity. Longer dry spells are expected in all seasons, except autumn, with the largest increase in the southern part of the area. Extreme wet spells will shorten everywhere during all seasons, except autumn.
It is estimated that the changes in Greece's climate will be the following:

1. The temperature is expected to rise by 2.5 degrees Celsius on average in relation to the period 1961-1990. Regionally, the increase may reach up to 3.8 degrees during the summer months. The increase will be higher in northern Greece and smaller in the southern Peloponnese, the south Aegean islands and Crete. This increase is expected to have dramatic consequences mainly in the urban areas, but also at wooded areas (which we will describe below).

2. Heat wave days (with temperatures above 35 degrees Celsius) are expected to increase by 15-20 annually by 2050. By the end of the century, "tropic days" (days with temperatures of more than 35 degrees Celsius during the day and more than 20 degrees Celsius during the night) are expected to number more than 50 annually in most areas of the country.

3. By contrast, the days with night frost will decrease significantly, especially in Northern Greece (by up to 40 days annually).

4. At the same time, it is estimated that rainfall will decrease by 12% on average (20-30% decrease during the summer months, especially in the south, and 10% decrease during the winter months).

5. Additionally, it is estimated that sea levels will rise by 20 to 59 centimeters,according to alternative scenarios.

6. Extreme weather events will be much more frequent.

7.  Most regions of the country will be impacted negatively, but not to the same degree. Central Macedonia, Thessaly, Western Peloponnese and Attica will face the greatest problems.

(source:https://www.climatechangepost.com/greece/climate-change/,https://www.dianeosis.org/en/2017/08/impact-climate-change-greek-economy/)

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Average annual temprature change during the period of 1901-2100 for Grecce.

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Average annual temprature change during the period of 1901-2100 for Grecce.

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Using your everyday knowledge, which of the following sentences do you think is true?

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Using your everyday knowledge, which of the following sentences do you think is true?

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We are still strongly depended on fossil fuels and only the developed countries of the world have the technology and therefore the luxury of using green energy.

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is a Greek amber spirit created by Spyros Metaxa in 1888. Its taste comes from the marriage of Muscat wines from the island of Samos, aged wine distillates, and Mediterranean botanicals.

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METAXA, the smoothest amber spirit under the Sun. Made with aged distillates and aromatic Muscat wines from the Aegean islands.

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Abies alba, the European silver fir or silver fir, is a fir native to the mountains of Europe, from the Pyrenees north to Normandy, east to the Alps and the Carpathians, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and south to Italy, Bulgaria, Albania and northern Greece; it is also commonly grown on Christmas tree plantations in the North East region of North America spanning New England in the USA to the Maritime provinces of Canada.

(source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abies_alba)

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Ouzo (Greek: ούζο, IPA: [ˈuzo]) is a dry anise-flavoured aperitif that is widely consumed in Greece, Cyprus, Lebanon and Israel. Its taste is similar to other anise liquors like rakı, pastis and sambuca.

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Zea is probably the oldest cereal of this world and stood for a key component in the diet of Ancient Greeks. It features an undeniable nutritional value and it is no coincidence that the etymology of the ancient Greek word “ζείδωρος” (zeidoros) meaning “life giving” comes from this particular cereal.
Zea’s scientific name is “Triticum dicoccum” and although it externally looks similar to wheat, it has a different nutritional composition. It is largely referred to as Zeia, Spelt and Emmer, but it shouldn’t however be confused with the German Dinkel or rye.
The principal difference between the wild and the domestic is that the ripened seed head of the wild plant shatters and scatters the seed onto the ground, while in the domesticated emmer the seed head remains intact, thus making it easier for humans to harvest the grain.
Zea is highly nutritious and contains important nutrients, which make it superior to other cereals. Zea is two times richer in dietary fiber, in comparison with other wheat, a fact that makes it a good choice for people suffering from diabetes.

In addition, Zea is two times richer in protein and features a high content of the amino acid lysine and vitamins A, B, C and E. Lysine is that particular component of proteins that increases their digestibility, boosts the immune system and it’s a key element for the brain’s biochemical functioning.

Another key advantage of Zea is its high content in magnesium, up to 40% higher in comparison with other cereals. Zea is also very low in gluten, a fact that makes it highly digestible.

(source:http://www.mylittlegreekfoodbook.com/zea-the-emmer-wheat/, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmer)

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Vicia faba also known in the culinary sense as the broad bean, fava bean, or faba bean is a species of flowering plant in the pea and bean family Fabaceae. It is of uncertain origin and widely cultivated as a crop for human consumption. It is also used as a cover crop, the bell bean, which has smaller beans. Varieties with smaller, harder seeds that are fed to horses or other animals are called field bean, tic bean or tick bean. Horse bean, Vicia faba var. equina Pers., is a variety recognized as an accepted name.

The Greek word fáva (φάβα) does not refer to broad beans, but to the yellow split pea and also to another legume, known as Lathyrus sativus. Broad beans are known instead as koukiá (Greek: κουκιά), and are eaten in a stew combined with artichokes, while they are still fresh in their pods. Dried broad beans are eaten boiled, sometimes combined with garlic sauce (skordalia). In Crete, fresh broad beans are shelled and eaten as a companion to tsikoudia, the local alcoholic drink. Favism is quite common in Greece because of malaria endemicity in previous centuries, and people afflicted by it do not eat broad beans.

(source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicia_faba,https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%AC)

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The interests of Theophrastus were wide ranging, extending from biology and physics to ethics and metaphysics. His two surviving botanical works, Enquiry into Plants (Historia Plantarum) and On the Causes of Plants, were an important influence on Renaissance science.
Theophrastus's Enquiry into Plants or Historia Plantarum (Greek: Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία, Peri phyton historia) was, along with his mentor Aristotle's History of Animals, Pliny the Elder's Natural History and Dioscorides's De Materia Medica, one of the most important books of natural history written in ancient times, and like them it was influential in the Renaissance. Theophrastus looks at plant structure, reproduction and growth; the varieties of plant around the world; wood; wild and cultivated plants; and their uses. Book 9 in particular, on the medicinal uses of plants, is one of the first herbals, describing juices, gums and resins extracted from plants, and how to gather them.
The other significant book of Theophrastus, On the Causes of Plants (Περὶ φυτῶν αἰτιῶν), it concerns the growth of plants; the influences on their fecundity; the proper times they should be sown and reaped; the methods of preparing the soil, manuring it, and the use of tools; and of the smells, tastes, and properties of many types of plants. The work deals mainly with the economical uses of plants rather than their medicinal uses, although the latter is sometimes mentioned. A book on wines and a book on plant smells may have once been part of the complete work.

(source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus),https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastus)

The frontispiece to an illustrated 1644 edition, Amsterdam

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Saffron (pronounced /ˈsæfrən/ or /ˈsæfrɒn/) is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson stigmas and styles, called threads, are collected and dried to be used mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent in food. Saffron was long among the world's most costly spices by weight.Although some doubts remain on its origin,it is believed that saffron originated in Iran. However, Greece and Mesopotamia have also been suggested as the possible region of origin of this plant. C. sativus is possibly a triploid form of Crocus cartwrightianus. Saffron crocus slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
The Greeks recognized the medicinal value of the saffron back to before the Middle Ages. The plant, known as zafora or safrani (zah-for-AH or sah-FRAH-nee), is still cultivated today, and the spice is commonly used in rice-based recipes and dishes. It's an expensive spice, but a little goes a long way for both flavor and that telltale yellow-orange hue.

(source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saffron)

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Cardamon is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera Elettaria and Amomum in the family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to the Indian subcontinent and Indonesia. They are recognized by their small seed pods: triangular in cross-section and spindle-shaped, with a thin, papery outer shell and small, black seeds; Elettaria pods are light green and smaller, while Amomum pods are larger and dark brown.
Species used for cardamom are native throughout tropical and subtropical Asia. The first references to cardamom are found in Sumer, and in the Ayurvedic literatures of India. Nowadays, it is also cultivated in some other countries, such as Guatemala, Malaysia and Tanzania. The German coffee planter Oscar Majus Kloeffer introduced Indian cardamom (kerala) to cultivation in Guatemala before World War I; by 2000, that country had become the biggest producer and exporter of cardamom in the world, followed by India.

Cardamom is the world's third-most expensive spice, surpassed in price per weight only by vanilla and saffron. Cardamom has a strong, sweet, pungent flavor and aroma, with hints of lemon and mint. Black cardamom has a smoky note and a cooling menthol one as well.
(source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardamom, https://www.thespruceeats.com/all-about-cardamom-995599)

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 Impacts of climate change on agriculture

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 Impacts of climate change on agriculture

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The need to identify the impacts of climate change on agriculture (higher CO2 levels, warmer temperatures, variations in precipitation, increase in weather extreme intensity and frequency, changes in the spatial distribution of crop pests and diseases; Tubiello et al., 2007) is heightened by the fact that these changes are expected to impact global food reserves, thereby leading to acute food shortages. Moreover, the increase in weather extremes can lead to a dramatic increase in food prices and to changes in the trade balance between countries (Lobell et al., 2008). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007a) reports that a moderate temperature rise in the first half of this century is likely to increase crop yields in the temperate zone, but to reduce them in the subtropical and tropical zones. In the EU, as reported by the PESETA research project, crop production may, depending on the scenario, drop by 0-27% in Southern Europe, while increasing by as much as 40% in Central and Northern Europe. Using the HadCM3 model (Giannakopoulos et al., 2009) for Scenarios Α2 and Β2 (temperature rise of 2ºC, period 2031-2060) for the Northern Mediterranean, including Greece, bulb crop production is projected to decrease by 9.33% (Scenario Α2), while cereal production is projected to increase by as much as 12.49% (Scenario Β2). Kapetanaki and Rosenzweig (1997) have forecast a drop in maize yields in Thessaly by as much as 20%, while a study by  the Greek Ministry of the Environment (1997) for the period 2071-2100 forecasts decreases in maize production by as much as 55% and variations in durum wheat production from -67% to +15%, depending on the scenario. According to the same study, the cotton production is expected to decrease by as much as 29% in Macedonia and Thessaly, but to increase in Thrace by as much as 21%, while viticultural crops will vary from -59% to +55% depending on the scenario and region. The impact on tree crops is expected to be negative, particularly in Southern Greece and Crete. All studies point to an increased vulnerability of crop production in the years ahead in Southern Europe and the Mediterranean region in particular, a projection of great importance to Greece.

https://www.bankofgreece.gr/bogekdoseis/climatechange_fullreport_bm.pdf

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Impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems 

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Impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems 

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Knowledge of the impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems is essential, given the economic and environmental contribution of these ecosystems to the quality of human life. Forest ecosystems occupy 65% of Greece’s land surface (forests 25%, rangelands 40%). Having undergone considerable degradation as a result of centuries of disregard and improper use, their present contribution to human welfare is well below potential. Forest ecosystems provide a wide range of wood and non-wood products, including wood biomass, forage, fruits, mushrooms, honey, botanical herbs; affect water quantity and quality; enhance air quality and the sequestration of CO2; play a valuable role in soil protection and biodiversity conservation by providing habitats and food for a host of living creatures. They also have considerable cultural and aesthetic value and provide opportunities for numerous recreational activities (hiking, camping, hunting, etc.), all essential to human wellbeing. The ability of forest ecosystems to yield products and quality services depends primarily on their stability, a function of their biodiversity, vigorousness and growth dynamic. Forest production depends primarily on environmental factors, such as temperature, solar radiation, soil water and nutrients, but is also affected by synecological factors, such as interand intra- competition, interactions with animals and microorganisms, as well as wildfires (Johnsen et al., 2001). A small rise in temperature and decrease in precipitation was recorded in the course of the 20th century, a trend expected to continue in the 21st century as well (Zerefos, 2009), with precipitation projected to decrease in Greece : Scenario Β2 (-35 mm), Scenario Α2 (-84 mm). It has been estimated that the overall decrease in precipitation by 2100 will not be uniform across Greece. Precipitation is expected to decrease in continental Greece (where the country’s productive forests are located), but to increase in the islands of the Aegean (except Crete). Forest ecosystems will suffer from the combined effect of reduced precipitation and increased temperatures during the hot and dry period, while facing a higher risk of devastation from wildfires (Giannakopoulos et al., 2009). The question that arises is to what extent forest species will be able to adapt to the rapidly changing environment. Otherwise, forest ecosystems will be at an increased risk of destabilisation and, in extreme cases, extinction. These impacts could be considerably mitigated with the timely implementation of appropriate management strategies – such as special silvicultural treatment (FAO, 2003). Thus, the urgent need to adapt innovative forest policy and strategic management geared towards mitigating and effectively addressing the negative impacts of oncoming climate change.

https://www.bankofgreece.gr/bogekdoseis/climatechange_fullreport_bm.pdf

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Every year, there are at least 50,000 fires in the  Mediterranean region. According to the FAO, 700,000 to 1 million ha of forest thus fall prey to the flames. This corresponds to the area of Crete or Corsica, or 1.3 % to 1.7 % of the entire forest cover of the Mediterranean region.  The EU countries Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece are particularly affected. In Greece for example, over 1.4 million ha of forests were destroyed by fire from 1985 to 2014, which is more than one tenth of the country’s territory.
Forest vegetation of Greece

Forest vegetation reflects the climate and topography of the country as well as the soil condition, which is generally quite poor. The influence of man, active in the area for more than three thousand years, is also reflected in the distribution and usually degraded condition of the forests. Drought-resistant evergreen broadleaved species (Quercus ilex, Laurus nobilis, Ceratonia siliqua, Olea europaea, Arbutus spp., Cistus spp., Erica spp., Pistacia spp. etc.), mostly forming shrublands, and pine trees (Pinus halepensis, Pinus brutia, Pinus pinea, etc.) occupy the lower elevations in the country (up to 300 m above sea level in northern Greece and 800 m in the south). Next, there is a zone of deciduous broadleaved species (Quercus spp., Fagus orientalis, Castanea vesca, etc.) and conifers (Pinus nigra, Pinus maritima, Cupressus sempervirens, Abies cephalonica, etc.) that reaches 900 m in the north and 1 200 m in the south. At higher elevations, up to 1 800 m, vegetation includes cold-tolerant broadleaved tree species (such as Fagus silvatica, Fagus moesiaca, Quercus sessiliflora, Quercus pedunculata, Populus tremula, Betula pendula, Fraxinus excelsior, Acer spp., etc.) and conifers (Pinus nigra, Pinus silvestris, Abies alba, etc.). Finally, at elevations up to 2 200 m, vegetation mostly includes cold tolerant conifers and a few broadleaved species (Picea excelsa, Abies alba, Pinus peuce, Pinus silvestris, Pinus heldreichii, Populus tremula, Sorbus aucuparia).

Forest flammability is generally high. The most flammable types are the pine forests (Pinus halepensis, Pinus brutia) and the shrublands at the lower elevations, by the sea, in the middle and southern part of the country. This vegetation is also adapted to fire either through cone serotiny (pines) or re-sprouting (shrubs).

Since the beginning of the new millennium, the Mediterranean region has been fighting a new phenomenon called megafires. Extreme weather conditions help create firestorms raging with such ferocity and spreading so quickly that they become uncontrollable. They only end with changing weather conditions or when they run out of fuel. Especially in the wildland-urban interface, which has significantly increased due to urban sprawl, these megafires cause serious damage and even loss of human lives. Megafires can also occur in an average forest fire year. In 2009 for example, the area affected by forest fires was not particularly large either in Greece or in Italy.
In Greece, forest fires in Athens’ surroundings during the secondhalf of August were responsible for aroundhalf of the country’s forest cover losses in 2009.
Climate change further exacerbates the risk of forest fires in the Mediterranean region. Expected effects include longer drought periods during the summer and also the occurrence of droughts at other times of the year. This will considerably extend the wildfire season on the Iberian Peninsula and in northern Italy. In the southern Mediterranean region, wildfire risk will remain high year-round. With a global warming of 2 °C by 2050, the wildfire season in Spain will extend by two to four weeks. Even today, climate conditions in the Mediterranean region – long summers with practically no rain and with average temperatures far above 30 °C – dry the litter layer to lower than 5 % humidity, making one spark sufficient to ignite a huge conflagration.  Climate change also increasingly triggers extreme weather conditions such as long hot spells with low humidity and strong winds, which permitted the fires in Greece in 2007 to assume devastating proportions. The incidence of sudden storms with strong rains reaching average annual rainfall levels within hours may also increase. Strong rains wash the unprotected soil off burned surfaces, and soil erosion further leads to desertification. Even today, 300,000km2 are affected by desertification, jeopardizing the livelihoods of 16.5 million people.

https://www.wwf.de/fileadmin/fm-wwf/Publikationen-PDF/WWF-Study-Forests-Ablaze.pdf

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GLOBAL FOREST FIRE ASSESSMENT 1990-2000 - FRA WP 55

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Grazing of sheep and goats, traditional in the country, in recent times has become one of the main causes of wildfires. Many areas are overgrazed. Shepherds react to the resulting reduction of feed for the animals by burning to stimulate new growth of shrubs and grasses.

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Reports about wildfires in Greece through the last years

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Reports about wildfires in Greece through the last years

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A report has been issued about one of the wildfires that recently burned into populated areas in Greece ( covered by Wildfire Today here). The National and Kapodistrian University of Athens distributed the document in their Newsletter of Environmental, Disaster, and Crisis Management Strategies.

The fire started July 23, 2018 near the community of Kallitehnoupolis on Penteli Mountain, approximately 20km (12 miles) northeast of Athens and 5.6 km (3.5 miles) west of the Aegean Sea. With the extreme weather conditions it spread quickly east to Kallitechnoulopis, Neos Voutzas, Rafina, and reached Mati where it finally stopped at the coast.

The Fire Service responded, sending 60 personnel in 24 vehicles, 2 ground forces teams, 3 Canadair scooping air tankers, and a helicopter.

Pushed by strong winds out of the west the fire ran 5.6 km (3.5 miles) in about 90 minutes, moving through a densely populated area frequented by tourists.

From the report:

The aftermath is tragic. The fire burned approximately 1,276 ha (3,153 acres), estimated from satellite data. Within the area, there are approximately 1,220 totally destroyed buildings (according to official inspections) and 305 burned vehicles. The days following the event, the authorities recovered at least 91 bodies from the scene (updated July 31, 2018 at 11.00am). Several missing persons were reported and tens of injured (approximately 200 at some point) were transferred to nearby hospitals.

The wind speeds recorded by a network of weather stations were the highest seen during the summer months in the last eight years, with gusts of 100 to 120 km/hour (62 to 74 mph).

The rapid spread of the fire and with little effective notification, the residents and tourists in the communities in its path and the densely populated city of Mati had little chance to escape. The report said, "The population had almost zero time between risk awareness and reaction decision".

Many got in their vehicles and drove away from the blaze toward the coast. They encountered urban planning, or the lack of it, that included narrow streets, numerous dead ends, elongated blocks without the possibility of lateral escape, and the absence of areas that could serve as safety zones. The visiting tourists who were often not very familiar with the layout of the streets were at a particular disadvantage. The low visibility due to the smoke was another challenge. Continue reading "Report issued on one of the devastating fires near Athens, Greece"

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A report has been issued about one of the wildfires that recently burned into populated areas in Greece ( covered by Wildfire Today here). The National and Kapodistrian University of Athens distributed the document in their Newsletter of Environmental, Disaster, and Crisis Management Strategies.

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Anthemis glaberrima is a species of flowering plant in the Asteraceae family. It is found only in Greece. Anthemis glaberrima is endemic to the islets of Agria Gramvousa and Imeri Gramvousa, which are located at the north-western tip of the island of Crete, where it grows on littoral rocks. Its natural habitats are Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation and rocky shores.

Conservation status: Critically Endangered (IUCN 3.1)

Threats: The main threats to this species include accidental or deliberate introduction of goats or invasive plant species to the islets as well as garbage and solid waste (threats 2.3.2: Small-holder grazing, ranching or farming, 8.1.1: Invasive non-native/alien species - Unspecified species and 9.4: Garbage & solid waste)

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Anthemis
Species: A. glaberrima
Binomial name
Anthemis glaberrima
(Rech.f.) Greuter
Synonyms
Ammanthus glaberrimus Rech.f.

(source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthemis_glaberrima, https://top50.iucn-mpsg.org/species/7)

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Polygala helenae- Critically Endangered in Greece

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Polygala helenae- Critically Endangered in Greece

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Polygala helenae is a species of plant in the Polygalaceae family. This species is endemic to the island of Kithira, which lies in the Ionian Sea between Cape Malea, the easternmost tip of the Peloponnese, and Crete.  Polygala helenae grows on sandy, stony and thin soils and is typical to patchy, low and open vegetation (habitat 3.8.3: Spiny Mediterranean heaths - phrygana, hedgehog-heats and related coastal cliff vegetation). The species is difficult to find not only because it is rare, but also because it is rather inconspicuous. It usually grows between or under co-occurring spiny cushion-like subshrubs such as Genista acanthoclada and Sarcopoterium spinosum and is easily overlooked. Only its slender branches can be seen protruding from these dwarf woody species that locally dominate the phrygana.

Threats: It is threatened by habitat loss, all its known subpopulations are located over a very small area and only occur within "phrygana" communities which have colonized abandoned fields. The species is also threatened with increasing tourism pressure because its habitat could be transformed due to the construction of touristic facilities.

Conservation status: Critically Endangered (IUCN 3.1)

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Polygalaceae
Genus: Polygala
Species: P. helenae
Binomial name
Polygala helenae
Greuter
(source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygala_helenae, https://top50.iucn-mpsg.org/species/44)

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What has been done to protect it?

Legally: The species is not included in any international convention nor protected by any national law and the subpopulations do not fall within any Natura 2000 site.

In situ: There are no current measures in place.

Ex situ: Cultivation from seeds and attempts to transplant this species from the wild into the Botanical Garden of the University of Patras (Greece) have both failed.

What conservation actions are needed?

Given that to date ex situ conservation efforts have been unsuccessful, the best option to conserve this species appears to be the enhancement of extensive and sustainable agricultural practices. Since the species seems to avoid either undisturbed or too disturbed habitats, maintaining a patchwork of old fields and moderately grazed surfaces could provide suitable habitats for the survival and spread of the remnant subpopulations.

(source:https://top50.iucn-mpsg.org/species/44)

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What has been done to protect it?

Legally : Internationally, this species is included in three legal documents: Appendix I of the Bern Convention, Annexes II and IV of the 92/43 EC Directive, where it is listed as a priority species and the Greek Presidential Decree 67/1981 “about the protection of the native flora and fauna…” (Greek Off.J. F.E.K.A’ 23/30.1.1981, corrected by F.E.K.A’ 43/18.2.1981). The islet populations enjoy indirect protection as they fall within the Natura 2000 site GR4340001 ‘Imeri kai Agria Gramvousa - Tigani kai Falasarna - Pontikonisi, Ormos Livadi - Viglia’.

In situ : A plant microreserve of 4.4 ha for a large part of one of the two subpopulations of the species (in the northern part of the islet of Agria Gramvousa) has already been established in the framework of the Cretaplant project (LIFE04NAT_GR_000104, 2004-2007). The area of the Microreserve is designated as a Wildlife Refuge and is protected by Greek Law. Moreover, the setting up of microreserves ensures long-term monitoring activities on the local plant population and the effective protection of its habitat. Furthermore, the project itself improves the awareness of local people, land-owners and users on the importance of nature conservation.

Ex situ: Seeds are stored in the seed bank of the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania in Crete and in the Seed Bank of the Faculty of Biology at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Few individuals are also cultivated in the botanical garden of the Institute of Chania.

What conservation actions are needed ?

Given the high number of endemic plants which occur on Agria Gramvousa, a management plan should be put in place to prevent the introduction of alien invasive plants. In fact, special attention should be given to the demographic trend of the local goat population, which might threaten the precious botanic heritage of the islet by disrupting the natural balance of local vegetation. Seeds of A. glaberrima should also be stored in other seed banks and plant cultivation should be carried out in several botanical gardens.

(source:https://top50.iucn-mpsg.org/species/7)