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Type II diabetes insulin resistance is caused by defective insulin-signaling cascades in skeletal muscles, liver and adipose tissues. Insulin binds to the plasma membrane receptor but the altered insulin depends on a diminished receptor level.

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They are especially good for triggering several pathways at once. It can do this because its an enzyme that transfers phosphates groups from ATP to the amino acid tyrosine on a protein.

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The signal a cell gets from another can be based off of what genes are turned on and off in the nucleus. If a gene is turned off it is not transcribed by the other and changes the signal received or gives no signal at all.

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These are protein pores that open and close in response to a chemical signal . This can allow or block ion flow. Binding to  a ligand to the extracellular  side changes to protein's shape and opens the channel. Ion flow changes concentration inside a cell. The channel will close when the ligand disassociates.

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A chain event where one enzyme phosphorylation to another leading to the phosphorylation of another and so on until thousand of proteins have been through phosphorylation.
Phosphorylation is where a phosphate is added from phosphate to a protein which activates it. Each protein phosphorylation leads to

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This is the introduction of foreign DNA into a cell.

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Local signaling are done by cells in direct contact with each other. The cytoplasm of the cells are attached to one another so that the signalling substance dissolves into the cytoplasm and passes through to the other cell. Long distance signalling is done by hormones that travel through the circulatory system.

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1. Reception- chemical signal binds to a cellular protein, typically at cell’s surface
2. Transduction- binding leads to a change in the receptor that triggers a series of changes along a single-transduction pathway
3. Response- transduced signal triggers a specific cellular activity