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In an ecosystem, energy moves in only one direction. It begins with the Sun and then flows to autotrophs, or producers. Then it flows from producers to consumers. The energy cannot flow backward. Energy, according to thermodynamics, cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be transformed. It enters an ecosystem as solar radiation, is conserved, and is lost from organisms as heat. Only 10% of a level's absorbed energy is absorbed by the next one.

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The evolution of a species occurs through the process of natural selection over several generations. The theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species are related and gradually change over time. Human evolution continues today. Evolution is simply the process of mutations (accidental changes to genes that occur naturally in the process of copying DNA) becoming more or less common over time. We witness evolution in our everyday lives, such as when we catch or combat the flu virus. Most of our global health problems are also connected to evolution

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In the body, leptin attaches to and activates a protein called the leptin receptor. Several tissues and organs of the body contain leptin receptor proteins, including the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls hunger, thirst, moods, and body temperature, as well as other functions.

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The main reason for compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells is efficiency. The creation of specific microenvironments within a cell is possible through the partitioning of the cell into different parts. As a result, each organelle will have all the advantages it requires to perform optimally. Organisms within the cell serve different functions, including the mitochondria which are responsible for generating energy from food molecules. Macromolecular building blocks are broken down by lysosomes into their constituent parts, which are then recycled. They are membrane-bound organelles that contain enzymes called hydrolases that digest proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and complex sugars. Lysosome lumens are more acidic than cytoplasms.

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Catalysts (such as enzymes) work by reducing the activation energy, thereby increasing the rate of reaction. Due to the same transition state in both directions, the increased rate is the same in the forward and reverse directions. The thermodynamics of a reaction cannot be altered by enzymes. The enzymes in a reaction help the reactants and products reach equilibrium much more quickly than they would otherwise, but enzyme concentrations do not change as a result of the enzyme. Enzyme kinetics investigates the effects of varying the reaction conditions on the reaction rate. The enzymes within biological systems act as catalysts and play a critical role in allowing reactions to proceed at a much faster rate than they would normally.

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A mutation is when one or more monomers in the DNA alter. Mutations can be silent, when a monomer in the DNA alters such that the mutated codon corresponds to the same amino changing nothing in translation, or where the different DNA does change the amino. Biological macromolecules consist of proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids, which are necessary for life. Monomers are single units of a macromolecule, which are combined into larger polymers by the action of covalent bonds. Organic macromolecules contain carbon. There are more than 10,000 atoms in macromolecules.

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Cell signaling is the process in which cells communicate with each other within the body by releasing and receiving hormones and other signaling molecules. Cell signals are a vast network of communication between each cell of the body. Cell signaling allows multicellular organisms to coordinate with each other.

Life as we know it is carried out by our cells due to cell signaling. Additionally, our body is able to maintain life thanks to the concerted efforts of our cells via their signaling molecules. A diverse set of receptor-mediated pathways is required to carry out their unique functions as a result of these complexities. Ligands bind to receptors and trigger specific responses. The molecules of receptors are usually proteins.

Three steps of cell signaling

In the first step, the signal molecule binds to the receptor. Then, there is signal transduction, in which a chemical signal results in the activation of enzymes. Finally, there is a response, which is the cellular response.

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All living organisms consist of the same components, involve the same kinds of energy transformations, and move using the same basic types of forces. There are several key characteristics or functions that all living organisms share, responses to their environment, reproduction, adaptation, growth, homeostasis, energy processing, and evolution. Collectively, these characteristics define life. Information is gathered by an organism based on its body structures in response to signals from the environment. As with humans, many animals have sense organs that gather information from the environment through a variety of senses, including sight, hearing, feeling, smelling, and tasting. To carry out cellular processes, living organisms must obtain energy from food, nutrients, or sunlight. Energy is required for the transportation, synthesis, and breakdown of nutrients and molecules in a cell.

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Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are the two classifications of living organisms. There are differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes based on their cellular characteristics. Prokaryotes include a variety of microorganisms, such as bacteria and cyanobacteria. The eukaryotic group includes organisms such as fungi and algae. Their DNA is copied from the living host's cells by infecting them. Viruses do not have metabolism or keep themselves in a stable state. A virus lacks the characteristics of living things, besides the ability to replicate, making it neither a prokaryote or a eukaryote. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have many similarities. DNA is used to store genetic information by both types of cells, which are enclosed by cell membranes (plasma membranes).

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Plasma Membrane: The fluid mosaic phospholipid bilayer of the cell. Fluid mosaic means it can move freely and can use some phospholipids to create membranes/vesicles around large structures that it wants to let in or out, then immediately fill in the hole. Consisting of 2 layers of phospholipids with tails facing in at each other and heads out of the cell and into the cell. The Head is hydrophilic, and the tail is hydrophobic. Phospholipids as a whole are amphipathic with the dual-polarity and attraction to water. With The protective layer functioning to keep everything in and everything else out. The plasma contains many proteins serving to channel polar and large nonpolar molecules through the membrane and proteins attached to a single side controlling the flow of molecules and proteins in and out of the middle of the phospholipid bilayer. There are signal receptors attached to the outside of the membrane and sticking out. See signal receptors.The membrane has signal proteins within the membrane responsible for acknowledging an update in the signal receptor once it catches a ligand and carry out specific functions accordingly Ex. Ligand is caught and signal protein attaches to src informing it the neighbor said for the c-src to give the cellular division signal to all the proteins responsible.