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Collier, V., & Thomas, W. (2004). The Astounding Effectiveness of Dual Language Education for All. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 2(1) 1-20.
Available at: http://www.berkeleyschools.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/TWIAstounding_Effectiveness_Dual_Language_Ed.pdf?864d7e
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students' long-term academic achievement. Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (2012). Dual language education for a transformed world. Dual Language Education of New Mexico/Fuente Press.

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Collier, V., & Thomas, W. (2004). The Astounding Effectiveness of Dual Language Education for All. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 2(1) 1-20. Available at: http://www.berkeleyschools.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/TWIAstounding_Effectiveness_Dual_Language_Ed.pdf?864d7e Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students' long-term academic achievement. Thomas, W.

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Boston Preschool Launches First Creole-Haitian Dual Language Program

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Boston Preschool Launches First Creole-Haitian Dual Language Program

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Boston Preschool Launches First Creole-Haitian Dual Language Program - Because of Them We Can

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Mattahunt Elementary School, a Pre-K through fifth grade school located in Boston, Mass., just launched the first Haitian Creole dual-language preschool program in the country, NBC News reports. The Toussaint L'Ouverture Dual Language Academy, the new program at Mattahunt Elementary named after the leader of the Haitian Revolution, is a preschool program that aims to [...]

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On De-essentializing Linguistic Blackness and Black Diasporic Possibilities: Critical Conversations

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Focus Article: In the comment section, please (as separate comments) post 2-3 items from the article that resonated with you. We will take turns facilitating the items we highlighted, considering personal/professional connections, questions for further investigation, and implications for our professional organization.

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Focus Article: In the comment section, please (as separate comments) post 2-3 items from the article that resonated with you. We will take turns facilitating the items we highlighted, considering personal/professional connections, questions for further investigation, and implications for our professional organization.

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Me llamo Josefina. Sí, it was a requirement to select an alter-ego of sorts for my high-school Spanish class. I chose the name from a list of other common Spanish names, like María and José.

Josefina had a good ring to it, and it followed me throughout my high school Spanish career, from freshman through junior year. I chose this name, but I was unconsciously confused and bothered. Jazmín, the direct Spanish equivalent of my true name, could have worked just fine. Instead, for every class assignment, dialogue and proyecto, I became Josefina.

Jasmine in Geometry, but Josefina in Spanish class. Jasmine in AP Biology, but Josefina in la clase de español. I could be myself in World History, but I was required to adopt my alternate, supposedly Latina personality when I crossed the threshold of Señora's classroom.

I figured this was just how things go in a foreign language (now world language) class. I accepted it, and Spanish was still my favorite subject in school. The teacher was upbeat and I had always wanted to learn another language, so I soaked everything all in. Ultimately, I responded to my teacher and other classmates of Juans, Carloses, and Isabelas with acceptance and conformity as Josefina.

Principal Jasmine Brann (then high school teacher) and student at Cinque Terre in Italy. Summer 2007 on an international student tour she led. Source: Jasmine Brann.

Fast forward to college, during which I studied abroad in Argentina and France. Years later, as a Spanish and French teacher myself, I vowed to avoid this practice of innocuous self-sabotage. It erased my identity and who I was. Me llamo Jasmine and I am Black, multilingual, and multidimensional.The friction I felt at navigating these multiple identities was just one example of how multilingual learning can be challenging for schools and students navigating complex intersections of racial, ethnic, and linguistic diversity. The United States' halting efforts to offer bilingual instruction in public schools have not often included-let alone welcomed-African-American communities. I continue to see more and more evidence that students like me are being left out of the city's bilingual and dual-language immersion (DLI) programs.

Naturally, as an educator, I care about the future of language learning access, especially for the Black community, which has been historically left out of enriching international linguistic and cultural experiences.

This is why I feel the need to tell my story. Exploring other languages and cultures has not only afforded me the opportunity to appreciate others and their mores, but my diverse experiences have also deepened my own sense of self-discovery and actualization. Naturally, as an educator, I care about the future of language learning access, especially for the Black community, which has been historically left out of enriching international linguistic and cultural experiences.

Access to Bilingual Learning Can Help Close Equity Gaps

This is a major challenge in Washington, D.C., a city I love and where I work, as well as in other communities across the country. I am the principal and lead learner of Shirley Chisholm Elementary, a Title I school which has hosted two primary instructional strands since 2005: Creative Arts in English and Dual Language Spanish Immersion.

Principal Brann with fifth Graders in her Spanish lunch book club. Source: Jasmine Brann.

Recently, after years of community feedback and engagement, we completed the vision of integrating these two programs for the 2023-2024 school year, ensuring that all of our students-including the 62 percent of our students who are Black-have access both to world-class arts and bilingual instruction. Our unified Bilingual Arts program begins with our pre-school and pre-kindergarten classrooms and will phase up to fifth grade each year moving forward. Our neurodiverse learners also enjoy bilingual exposure within our innovative learning environment. Shirley Chisholm Elementary is proud to be a part of the efforts in U.S. public education to close pervasive opportunity and achievement gaps. High-quality language learning programs must be part of this pursuit. DLI programming has been associated with reductions in the achievement gap between English learners (ELs) and their native English-speaking counterparts across the country. According to the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL), dual-language immersion programs offer an instructional model "in which the language goals are full bilingualism and biliteracy in English and a partner language, students study language arts and other academic content (math, science, social studies, arts) in both languages over the course of the program, the partner language is used for at least 50% of instruction at all grades, and the program lasts at least 5 years."

Research heralds bilingualism as a fortifying cognitive measure, bestowing advantages like improved working memory, attention control, and decision-making abilities. Further, studies reliably show that bilingual instruction uniquely helps English learners learn English, succeed academically, and develop their emerging bilingual skills. If historically marginalized students gain access to programs that help them become bilingual, it may help remediate academic gaps in subjects like Math and Reading.

While language learning can confer these sorts of cognitive "superpowers," the United States has not historically made multilingualism a priority. Fully 78 percent of the U.S. population speaks only English as of 2019, and only one in five K-12 U.S. students were studying a language other than English. Enrollment in world language college and university courses has also declined 29.3 percent from 2009 to 2021. Meanwhile, multilingualism is normalized all around the world: more than half of the global population is bilingual or even multilingual.

Now, thanks to advocates and the work that U.S. Secretary of Education Dr. Miguel Cardona's "Raise the Bar" initiative has done to champion the cause, there is a growing emphasis on the value and benefits of language learning. But a question remains: How do we ensure that all students-in particular, English-dominant Black students from all walks of life-also have equal access to this beneficial learning experience?

Washington, D.C.'s Dual Language Immersion Programs Are Not Equitably Accessible

My educational home base, Washington, D.C., is diverse in every sense. Unfortunately, its current school systems and services are equally riven with historical educational inequities and iniquities that compound socioeconomic inequality in the city. Frustratingly, these systemic resource gaps often align with racial identities.

Local leaders are trying to change this status quo. Washington, D.C. offers newly modernized schools across all wards of the city, all-expense-paid international student field trips, and many opportunities for families to exercise choice in determining their children's education experiences.

Nonetheless, the city still has wide gaps in student outcomes and experiences, gaps which are linked closely to race, demography, and socioeconomic status. In particular, White students outperformed Black students on Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College Careers (PARCC) 2023 (Level 4+) by 58.3 percent in English Language Arts and 63.3 percent in Math. Furthermore, ELs' proficiency rates are currently outpacing Black students by more than 5 percent in their Math performance, per Washington, D.C.'s 2023 summative assessment.

Figure 1

With only 4 percent of Washington, D.C.'s more than 58,000 Black students enrolled in some form of DLI programming, the Black student majority is severely misrepresented. In fact, Black students in D.C. are 6.3 times less likely to be enrolled in a dual-language immersion program than their peers from other backgrounds. Despite being the minority in Washington, D.C. schools, because of gentrification and other inequitable factors, White and Asian students are overrepresented as English-dominant students in DLI programs: they're 1.9 and 1.7 times more likely to be enrolled in these specialized programs, respectively.

These demographics mark an equity crisis.

Washington, D.C. is presented with both an obvious problem and an opportunity as it relates to language learning opportunities for Black students, who make up the predominant student demographic (66 percent) in the city's schools.

Despite being the minority in Washington, D.C. schools, because of gentrification and other inequitable factors, White and Asian students are overrepresented as English-dominant students in DLI programs.

Somehow, here, in a city as diverse and globally important as Washington, D.C., access to bilingualism has become uniquely scarce and disproportionately inaccessible for Black students, the District's largest student group. Black students also need these twenty-first-century competencies and experiences to be prepared in school, business, relationships, and the internationally competitive workforce. Given the gap-closing potential of these dual-language immersion programs, this must be a new and central priority for local education leaders.

The History (and Future) of Dual Language Programs in D.C.

In 1971, D.C. Public Schools created an experimental program for schools in the District's Spanish-speaking communities to support the growing number of Spanish-dominant students in accessing academic content successfully while validating their home language. Spanish-speaking families had immigrated to the United States and settled in Adams Morgan and Mt. Pleasant after the Civil War in El Salvador. By the 1980s, Escuela Oyster (now Oyster-Adams) was one of the few bilingual schools across the country funded with not only government support, but also parents and partners who believed in this holistic model. As research has validated their approach, these programs have only grown in number in Washington, D.C.-and across the nation as well. These programs provide a linguistically rich language immersion experience, and therefore they have proven a highly successful model in supporting ELs' linguistic and academic development, as well as in supporting all students in becoming balanced bilingual and biliterate individuals. Nowadays, dual language schools have become very attractive to parents who see the value of having their children learn a language other than English at an early age.

Hallway bulletin board outside of PK3 classroom. Every PK3 and PK4 student now learns in the new Bilingual Arts program at Shirley Chisholm Elementary. Source: Carolina Molina (teacher) and Shakia Walker (assistant teacher).

Of the more than 200 public and public charter schools in Washington, D.C., just twenty-five have dual-language immersion programming (in Spanish, French, Mandarin, and/or Hebrew). Simply put, the limited supply of DLI programs cannot yet meet the demand and provide easy access for interested families and students.

Students of all walks of life and backgrounds should be provided a holistic, rigorous curriculum to help them grow and flourish. We must continue to advocate, and legislate, for equitable language learning opportunities for all students. This can be accomplished through comprehensive efforts and strategies within our communities. First, we must continue to learn more about global education and its value for all students. We should remain curious about international pedagogies and dual-language immersion programs' potential for advancing equitable educational outcomes.

Kindergarten student, A.J., highlights his Spanish vocabulary and artistic skills. Source: Jasmine Brann

Second, we should increase our recruitment efforts to find more bilingual teachers-both internationally and by tapping our local talents. This will help us strengthen language learning programs so that we can focus on fortifying the structures that train and retain bilingual staff across multiple languages and cultures.

Because we can't afford to wait, we have to simultaneously strive to reach our students who are so close, yet so far from opportunities due to economic circumstances. The District's lottery preferences policy offering equitable access and designated seats for low-income students is a promising and transformative policy change. We are proud to have added this admissions preference for our school so that we can serve the beautiful, broad variety of learners in our neighborhood that much better.

Dual language immersion programming is a mode of high-quality language instruction intended to help students thrive in school and in life. Montessori, STEM, and other programmatic foundations can enrich students' lives as well. So while language learning may not be the end-all, be-all, it definitely deserves more shine and attention at both the national and local level. And, as we consider illuminating who has access to these dual-language immersion programs and its critical importance as an integrative learning approach, let's ensure Black students don't get left in the shadows.

Tags: dual language education, bilingual education

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The Bilingual Glow-Up: Why More Black Students Need Access to Language Programs in D.C.

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Me llamo Josefina. Sí, it was a requirement to select an alter-ego of sorts for my high-school Spanish class. I chose the name from a list of other common

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NJTESOL/NJBE Critical Conversations May 2021

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With recent attention being given to English learners (ELs) who are identified as Black and/or African American it's important to continue engaging in conversations around this particular subgroup of students. The unique history, needs, identification, and experiences of Black ELs is an important part of supporting them socially, emotionally, and academically. Ibrahim's ethnography "Becoming Black: Rap and Hip-Hop, Race, Gender, Identity, and the Politics of ESL Learning" showed that ESL is neither neutral nor without its politics and pedagogy of desire and investment (Ibrahim, 1999). The White House Initiative on Educational Excellence for African Americans (WHIEEAA) and the U.S. Department of Education Office of English Language Acquisition (OELA) recently partnered to find ways to best support Black ELs. Since October 2015, they have released resources as part of a tool kit geared toward helping educators of ELs, including Black ELs, and their families. The data collected and presented leave a number of thought-provoking questions and aid in further investigation from a nationwide, regional, and schoolhouse perspective.

The statistics shown are a necessary part of identifying and providing "voice" to students who are at a higher risk of falling through the demographic cracks-not intentionally, but because the picture of an English learner that most often appears in one's mind is not a child of African decent. In teacher education, in-service teacher professional development, professional learning communities, and other venues for learning about ELs, very rarely are examples of ELs shown where the students are neither Latino nor Asian. How might we continue to learn about and support a subgroup of ELs when many people don't know this population exists? Let's review the statistics that help to frame the U.S. population of Black ELs.

* The data collected from the American Community Survey defines individuals who are Black as those whose racial self-identification included "Black, African American, negro, or mulatto, regardless of what additional race(s) the person reported, if any." These individuals can be "Black alone or in combination" with other races, regardless of Hispanic origin.

* 11-20% of the EL student population in New York and Florida is Black. Washington D.C., Maryland, and Texas report 6-20% of their EL populations as Black.

* 40% of EL students who are Black speak Spanish and approximately 18% of EL students who are Black speak French Creole at home.

* In the U.S., Maine has the highest concentration of Black ELs, 48.6%.

* Black African immigrants represent one of the fastest-growing segments of the U.S. immigrant population, increasing by about 200% during the 1980s and 1990s and by 100% during the 2000s (Capps, McCabe, and Fix, 2012).

(Stats adapted from U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2013. Estimates generated by NCELA using Census DataFerrett.)

What do these statistics mean for Black ELs and their educators in these areas? How might this information impact educator training preservice, in service, and in community outreach initiatives? What else do we need to know about Black ELs and do in order to become more aware and action oriented? Why does it matter? The questions about nationwide data are posed to encourage dialog and further research about Black ELs.

African American Vernacular English Debate
Nearly 20 years after the Oakland Unified School District sparked a fierce debate by declaring Ebonics (African American Vernacular English, AAVE) a distinct language, native-born Black students remain the most misunderstood, misidentified, underserved population of English learners. They are positioned in the center of the native/non-native speaker dichotomy and at the margins with regards to eligibility for language services offered at school. African American students remain at the lower end of the achievement gap, and as suggested by the Oakland School Board, this is due, in part, to the lack of attention given to these students' linguistic needs, the lack of language services being offered to them, and the lack of legitimacy given to their native tongues. In many states, native-born Blacks are ineligible for language services simply because it is assumed that they are native speakers of English and would not benefit from these services. Are these students really native speakers of English? There is no simple answer. For the most part, by the time they enter preschool, African American children have receptive knowledge of Standard American English. The majority of these students also have productive knowledge of Standard American English as well as AAVE.

Figure 1. World Englishes from McArthur (1987) above

In some regions of the U.S., like coastal Louisiana and Coastal South Carolina (Gullah-speaking regions), nearly all Black children grow up speaking a more creolized variety of English and AAVE (see Figure 1 for a list of world Englishes). While the majority of English Creole and AAVE label their languages as English and self-identify as native speakers of English, their English is significantly different from the language used in America's classrooms.

Caribbean English and English Creole Speakers
While the Caribbean English-speaking population is significantly smaller than the AAVE-speaking population, Caribbean English- and English Creole-speaking families have been migrating to the U.S. in greater frequency over the past 40 years. Most settle in the larger cities such as New York, Miami, and Fort Lauderdale. Caribbean immigrants represent about 60% of the Black immigrants living in the U.S. and are a major source of growth in the total U.S. population. In 2008-2009, a reported 3.3 million Black immigrants were living in the U.S. Just over one million of these immigrants reported that they were born in one of the English-speaking Caribbean countries (Hernandez, 2012; McKinnon and Bennett, 2005; Thomas, 2012). Like African American students, anglophone Caribbean students are often marginalized, misidentified, and misplaced in (and out of) language education programs. Their language use often varies between Standard English varieties, African American Vernacular English, and English Creole. Such varieties reflect their identities in different contexts (Green, 2002; Nero, 2005; Pratt-Johnson, 2006). Indeed, this population of Black ELs has added a new and changing dynamic to the Black student population. Schools are often challenged by their presence, as either they are classified as native speakers of English with disregard to their actual level of English language proficiency or they are placed in traditional ESL programs where the assumption is that all of the students identify as non-native speakers of English.

While native-born Blacks are wholly ineligible for language services, the immigrant status of Caribbean English speakers often supports their eligibility. This eligibility, however, does not always equate to appropriate identification and/or programming. The linguistic identities of these students often leave school districts confused and this student population underserved. In her study of Jamaican Creole English-speaking students in New York City public schools, Pratt-Johnson (2006) found that upon entering school, these students were not provided the opportunity to linguistically self-identify, and when they did self-identify as native speakers of English, school personnel often challenged them. She noted that the Creole English-speaking students were usually faced with one of three situations:

1. Classified as English language learners when their language seemed decidedly creolized;

2. Identified as native English speakers when they were from dominantly English-speaking countries; or

3. Classified as disabled and assigned to special education classes in the hope that the smaller class size and slower pace would solve their obvious language differences.

Because these students fall outside of the native speaker/non-native speaker paradigm, they are often misidentified in terms of their native language and English language proficiency and abilities. In addition to their linguistic needs, several scholars have reported that Caribbean students often experience poor educational outcomes, including low academic achievement and high dropout rates (e.g., Roopnarine et al., 2004; Smith et al., 2004; Thomas-Hope, 1992). These poor outcomes are often attributed to diverse issues such as racial discrimination, and inappropriate assessment and placement in curriculum levels and programs (Mitchell and Bryan, 2007; Waters, 1999). Further, Caribbean immigrant students and other Black immigrants typically experience acculturative stress that manifests in poor psychological wellbeing, including feelings of isolation, anxiety, depression, identity confusion regarding race and ethnicity, difficulty making friends, and behavioral and family problems (Mahoney, 2002; Morrison and Bryan, 2014; Seaton et al., 2008; Winer, 2006).

Lack of Value, Lack of Affirmation
Country of birth and historical factors (e.g., colonization, slavery, etc.) make a huge difference in whether or not a language is valued as well as in expectations of proficiency for students. Anglophone Caribbean students are non-native to the U.S., so it is expected that their English may be different. Traditional ESL students have distinct native/first languages, so it is expected that they may need to be provided language services. In fact, all of the professional language organizations advocate for ESL and bilingual programs to be additive in nature. They endorse use of the first language as a bridge to support the acquisition of English. However, this is not the case with native varieties of English, as it is a deeply rooted sentiment that AAVE is slang, "ghetto," bastardly, and lazy and does not belong in the classroom, despite it being the first language of the majority of the country's Black students. Columnist Debra Saunders wrote, "Apparently the board hasn't noticed that many Black students speak English just fine, thank you. Their parents may not want their kids forced into a linguistic ghetto" (1996, p. A15).

The child who speaks in a vernacular dialect is not making language errors; instead, she or he is speaking correctly in the language of the home discourse community, which is often not a linguistic ghetto (Wheeler and Swords, 2004). In 1979, writer James Baldwin suggested that the argument concerning the use, the status, or the reality of Black English is rooted in American history and has absolutely nothing to do with language itself but with the role of language and the status of its speakers. If the speakers are devalued and marginalized, then so will their language be devalued and marginalized.

Professional Development
Because Black ELs are a population whose voices often go unheard, we must begin to consider their voices, their plight, and our role as educators. In 1979, Baldwin stated, "It is not the Black child's language that is in question, it is not his language that is despised: it is his experience. A child cannot be taught by anyone who despises him, and a child cannot afford to be fooled. A child cannot be taught by anyone whose demand, essentially, is that the child repudiate his experience, and all that gives him sustenance, and enter a limbo in which he will no longer be Black, and in which he knows that he can never become white."

Teacher-training and professional-development programs in this country have an enormous task, theoretically training teachers to work with all students so that they are socially, emotionally, and academically successful. While most teacher-training programs aim to address the sociocultural foundations of education and the results of racial discrimination and cultural bias, to what extent are teacher educators providing opportunities for preservice teachers to consider their attitudes and ideologies regarding language varieties and how these views position and possibly marginalize students? How often do methodology courses incorporate strategies for teaching Standard English as a second dialect? How often do texts depict successful Blacks speaking AAVE, code switching, or speaking a language other than English? It is only when these questions can be affirmatively answered that Black ELs, and Black students who do not identify as ELs, will see themselves in our curriculum.

Community Outreach
In addition to teacher training, current educators must tap into communities' funds of knowledge and resources. In order to show that we value our students' languages and cultures, we must welcome them into the classroom. We can do this by inviting the elders and leaders of the communities into our schools to establish relationships and partner with teachers, administrators, and staff. The most successful schools in African American and heavily populated immigrant communities are those that have an open door to the community and those that actively seek ways to show culturally and linguistically diverse members of the community as role models. Figure 2 illustrates our goal, which is to ensure that Black ELs don't repudiate their experiences or identities, but that their unique linguistic identities are viewed as assets, their social and emotional needs are considered and met, and their academic and career trajectories are monitored.
Figure 2. Implications of Race/Ethnicity and Language
As the population of Black ELs becomes more highly recognized, the students bring forth the opportunity for educators and community members to think more about U.S. race relations, academic and career trajectories including barriers and opportunities, socioemotional development, diverse socioeconomic statuses and language and literacy as capital. It also encourages educators to self-assess their own biases and ignorance as catalysts for change. Inevitably, by being action oriented, we'll be on the forefront of improving outcomes for all English learners so that no subgroup will be silenced, be ignored, or go unrecognized.

Ayanna Cooper, EdD, is an educator, author, and advocate for culturally and linguistically diverse learners. Cooper supports educators in becoming change agents and leaders within the field of English language teaching. She's a co-author of Evaluating ALL Teachers of English Learners and Students with Disabilities: Supporting Great Teaching, Corwin Press.

Kisha C. Bryan, PhD, is clinical assistant professor of ESL at Texas A&M University. She is an advocate for ELs and other linguistically diverse populations. Her research focuses on identity construction among Black immigrant adolescents, language acquisition in urban contexts, and ESL teacher preparation.

Babatunji Ifarinu, MEd, is a success facilitator for English learners in one of the largest and most diverse school districts in Georgia. Ifarinu delivers workshops that demonstrate "practical and tactical" strategies, while delivering paradigm-shifting information that can be immediately utilized in classrooms.
All three authors are members of BELPaF, Black English Language Professionals and Friends, of TESOL. BELPaF is a forum for educators with an interest in issues related to the professional growth and development of ESL professionals of color and their students.

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No Longer the Silent Subgroup - Language Magazine

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Ayanna Cooper, Kisha C. Bryan, and Babatunji Ifarinu explain how our teaching and attitudes need to adapt to the needs of Black English learners With recent attention being given to English learners (ELs) who are identified as Black and/or African American it's important to continue engaging in conversations around this particular subgroup of students.

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Jamila Lyiscott: 3 ways to speak English | TED

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Growing up as a first-generation Cuban American in Miami, Ismael Llano never thought twice about the way he spoke.

"It's one of those things where if everybody speaks the same way, then it's not odd," said Llano, who was born and raised in Miami toggling between Spanish and English as the son and grandson of Cuban immigrants.

That "same way" of speaking includes phrases that aren't usually used in English, such as "get down from the car" instead of "get out of the car" or "married with" instead of "married to" or "throw a photo" instead of "take a photo."

It wasn't until he was in high school or college, Llano said, "where I started to realize ... we're the ones who are doing something different down here with the language."

It turns out those Miami-specific English phrases evolved from direct translations of Spanish: "Bajarse del carro" directly translates to "get down from the car."

Llano, who co-hosts the podcast "Pero, Let Me Tell You," focused on news, politics and culture from a Cuban American perspective, interviewed a guest last month, Phillip Carter, whose study this year has made national headlines - and confirmed what residents like Llano have long felt: There is a distinct "Miami Dialect."

The way Spanish and English have intertwined in Miami after the arrival of many Cubans half a century ago has gone beyond what some may call "Spanglish" and evolved into a new English-language dialect entirely, said Carter, a professor of linguistics and English at Florida International University.

Carter studied groups of native Spanish speakers and native English speakers and found that what made the "Miami Dialect" was the use of "calques," or "borrowings." Calques occur when a Spanish phrase is directly translated into English - like "get down from the car."

While the phrases are more common among Spanish-dominant speakers, even second-, third- and fourth-generation native English speakers in Miami use them - which explains why the "dialect" is so prevalent.

"When you have a situation such as that which took place in Miami, where the immigrant group becomes the local majority, things can get passed down to first-language speakers of the language, namely the children of immigrants, and then their grandchildren," Carter said.

In the early 1960s, many Cubans left their country after Fidel Castro's communist takeover, many of them settling in Miami. Cuban Americans and other Latino immigrants have been instrumental to the city's economic and social growth. Spanish is everywhere, and some refer to Miami as Latin America's northernmost city.

'Very much our own thing'

Jose Urbino, a Miami native and fitness trainer, grew up speaking Spanish and English and switching between the languages frequently. He said he realized that everyday phrases in Miami weren't always commonplace in other places across the country.

"There are times when we go to other cities and I'll say some weird Miami phrase," he said.

For example, Urbino will say he's just "eating sh-t" to mean he's just "sitting around doing nothing of value," he said. Though it may sound like an odd thing to say, the phrase is a direct translation of a very common Spanish expression, "comiendo mierda," which is used among Cuban Americans to mean just "hanging out."

"There are tons of those types of phrases out here, that are those very literal Spanish-to-English translations," said Urbino, who said being bilingual has been crucial to his career. "They are very much our own thing."

Other words and phrases Urbino pointed out as commonly heard in Miami even though they may not be unique to the city include "irregardless" instead of "regardless," as well as "pero (but) like," and "super good."

English as a 'thermometer' of change

Ilan Stavans, the Lewis-Sebring professor of humanities and Latin American and Latino culture at Amherst College and the author of " Spanglish: The Making of a New American Language" and " The People's Tongue: Americans and the English Language," sees the evolution of language in Spanish- and English-speaking U.S. cities like Miami as an integral part of the country's identity.

"How American English changes is a thermometer measuring the transformations of who we are as a nation," said Stavans, who wasn't surprised by Carter's findings in Miami.

"The United States has a number of major cities with pronounced Latino presence. Aside from Miami, these include San Antonio, Los Angeles, Houston, Dallas, Chicago and New York," he said.

"After similar studies are done in most of them," he said, "it will be clear that each has a similar yet unique dialect, depending on where the Hispanic immigrants originated from."

English has influenced languages around the world, including Spanish in the U.S.: In Texas, researchers have found Spanish expressions that are direct translations from the English, like "háblame p'atrás," a direct translation of "call me back."

But in the case of Miami, where Spanish has changed English expressions, other linguists agree that the city's specific history has led to this moment.

"There is indeed a sociolect of Miami English that is commonly heard here in Miami, and that's especially so among U.S.-born Latinos who are English dominant," said the author of "Spanish in Miami: Sociolinguistic Dimensions of Postmodernity," Andrew Lynch, a professor of modern languages and literatures at the University of Miami who has studied Spanish for over 20 years. "So this is not about speaking Spanglish. This is about speaking a characteristic variety of English that would sound different than someone from New York or Colorado or California."

Embracing the changes

Urbino recalled that once he realized his Miami language was different, his younger self tried to assimilate a more "proper" way of speaking.

"We thought that there were all of these rules that we were supposed to follow to try to be like good citizens or good Americans. So we would hear this sort of stuff," he said, referring to the Miami phrases characteristic of Miami, "and just be like, 'Oh, no, that's not how that goes. That's not right.'"

Carter said he hopes his study opens people's eyes to the vast variability of language in general, arguing that for too long, people have been told the way they communicate is "incorrect" or "wrong."

"I think people are tired of being told that the way their mother speaks is bad or that the forms that they use in their home are stupid," Carter said. "Or they're tired of seeing their children go to school and be held back based on their dialect or their multilingualism."

What's encouraging about the "Miami dialect" is that it shows that in Miami, where Latinos are the majority, the use of Spanish and Spanglish has been widely accepted.

"You do need people to reflect on it positively for it to stick around. If it's totally negative, then it probably won't stick," Carter said about the city's distinct dialect. "So there's evidence that people use them. And there's evidence that they are positively evaluated, which leads us to believe that these are features of a dialogue that will likely be around for some time."

For Miami natives like Urbino and Llano, the new study offers a breath of fresh air.

"Now that somebody gave it a name and it's been studied - that makes it official, that means that I'm not a weirdo anymore," Llano said. "There is a beauty to feeling validation in that way."

Urbino said the influential convergence between Spanish and English is here to stay - both in his life and in Miami.

"I can't imagine that there will not be an even greater influence like that here in the city," he said. "Miami will be a Spanish-dominated city until the waters take us."

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Spanglish has become a new English dialect in this U.S. city

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Latinos have transformed the city in the last half-century - and the Hispanic influence extends to English phrases that a study has identified as the "Miami Dialect."

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Overview

During the past 25 years, the population of the Great Horn of Africa region has been drastically affected by conflict and natural disasters. For these reasons, the region has repeatedly seen large-scale refugee movements both within and from the Great Horn of Africa. It has also been the focal point of international humanitarian concern and aid efforts.

Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan and South Sudan have been the main origin countries of refugees from the Great Horn of Africa.

Djibouti, Kenya and Yemen are mainly host countries to refugees from the region.

What is the
great horn of Africa?

Since 2010, more refugees originate in the Great Horn of Africa than in the other African countries.

Between 1989 and 2013, Somalian and Sudanese refugees made up the largest fraction of regional refugee movements. The Ethiopian refugee population has sharply declined until 1995 and then remained stable. The Eritrean refugee population remained more or less on the same level.

Sudan and Ethiopia have been origin- as well as host and transit countries. Kenya and Yemen have hosted increasing numbers of Great Horn of Africa refugees. Djibouti has mainly been a transit country.

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During the past 25 years, the population of the Great Horn of Africa region has been drastically affected by conflict and natural disasters. For these reasons, the region has repeatedly seen large-scale refugee movements both within and from the Great Horn of Africa. It has also been the focal point of international humanitarian concern and aid efforts.

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Pass the mic - Check out more articles and work by Dr. Ayanna Cooper, 2024 Keynote Speaker

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Pass the mic - Check out more articles and work by Dr. Ayanna Cooper, 2024 Keynote Speaker

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Recommended by Dr. Ayanna Cooper, 2024 Keynote Speaker

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Recommended by Dr. Ayanna Cooper, 2024 Keynote Speaker

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Bringing together theory, research, and practice to dismantle Anti-Black Linguistic Racism and white linguistic supremacy, this book provides ethnographic snapshots of how Black students navigate and negotiate their linguistic and racial identities across multiple contexts. By highlighting the counterstories of Black students, Baker-Bell demonstrates how traditional approaches to language education do not account for the emotional harm, internalized linguistic racism, or consequences these approaches have on Black students' sense of self and identity. This book presents Anti-Black Linguistic Racism as a framework that explicitly names and richly captures the linguistic violence, persecution, dehumanization, and marginalization Black Language-speakers endure when using their language in schools and in everyday life. To move toward Black linguistic liberation, Baker-Bell introduces a new way forward through Antiracist Black Language Pedagogy, a pedagogical approach that intentionally and unapologetically centers the linguistic, cultural, racial, intellectual, and self-confidence needs of Black students. This volume captures what Antiracist Black Language Pedagogy looks like in classrooms while simultaneously illustrating how theory, research, and practice can operate in tandem in pursuit of linguistic and racial justice.

A crucial resource for educators, researchers, professors, and graduate students in language and literacy education, writing studies, sociology of education, sociolinguistics, and critical pedagogy, this book features a range of multimodal examples and practices through instructional maps, charts, artwork, and stories that reflect the urgent need for antiracist language pedagogies in our current social and political climate.

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Linguistic Justice (NCTE-Routledge Research Series) [Baker-Bell, April] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Linguistic Justice (NCTE-Routledge Research Series)

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Like, here's the episode on "like" | STUFF YOU SHOULD KNOW

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On March 13, 2024, CEEL had the privilege of welcoming Dr. Ayanna Cooper for an in-person keynote presentation titled, ' Young, Bilingual, and Black."

This workshop centered on asking and discussing the following questions: Who are California's English learners who are identified as Black? How are their stories included and shared as part of advocacy efforts for K-12 linguistically diverse students? What are their needs and the needs of educators who support them? In honor and celebration of the 70th anniversary of Brown V. Board of Education this session reviewed nationwide and select statewide demographic data in an effort to elevate and affirm Black multilingual students. Participants engaged in thought-provoking questions and discussions and were provided with options for action steps framed around empowering autonomous learners.

Ayanna Cooper, Ed.D., is an educator, bestselling author, and advocate whose work has centered around combating issues related to multilingual students' civil rights, racism, and anti-Blackness in K-12 English language teaching and learning. She is a U.S. Department of State English Language Specialist alumna, having served on projects in Kuwait and Brazil, and served a term on the Board of Directors for TESOL International Association (2020-2023). At Howard University's College of Education, she is a part-time faculty member in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction.

Dr. Cooper engages in "real talk" storytelling to bring linguistically diverse student populations to the center. She is the author of several publications that include And Justice for ELs: A Leader's Guide to Creating and Sustaining Equitable Schools, Black Immigrants in the United States (co-edited), multiple chapters including one in Teacher's College Press Justice for All: Realities and Possibilities of Black English Learners in K-12 Schools and as the founder of Language Magazine's Pass the Mic Series editor.

We invite you to view highlights from our previous Featured Speakers below.

The Center for Equity for English Learners regularly hosts events where scholars can present on a variety of topics to the larger educational community. These venues provide an opportunity for renowned researchers to share current findings in the field of language, literacy, learning, teacher preparation, and multicultural studies.

CEEL gratefully acknowledges our featured speakers' willingness to allow us to videotape the sessions and highlight them here.

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On March 13, 2024, CEEL had the privilege of welcoming Dr. Ayanna Cooper for an in-person keynote presentation titled, ' Young, Bilingual, and Black." This workshop centered on asking and discussing the following questions: Who are California's English learners who are identified as Black?

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Written by Dr. Ayanna Cooper, 2024 Keynote Speaker

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Written by Dr. Ayanna Cooper, 2024 Keynote Speaker

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Ayanna Cooper (Volume editor) Awad Ibrahim (Volume editor)

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Peter Lang Verlag - Black Immigrants in the United States

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In the United States, ‘immigrant’ is a complicated category. It is used interchangeably with ‘refugee’ and it is, most of the time, linked to South…

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Written by Dr. Ayanna Cooper, 2024 Keynote Speaker

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Written by Dr. Ayanna Cooper, 2024 Keynote Speaker

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Acknowledgments About the Author Introduction Chapter 1: English Learners in Your School and What You Need to Know and Do to Support Them Scenario: Awareness and Action for All ELs Knowing Your ELs Urgency in Action Assets-Based, Culturally Responsive Schools Supporting ELs: Eight Important Questions Bringing It All Together Follow-up Questions Further Guidance and Support Resources References Chapter 2: Program Models for English Learners: What's Happening in Your School? Scenario: Selecting Appropriate Service Models for English Learners Adhering to Federal Guidance Program Models Assessing Program Models for Efficacy Professional Learning Communicating With Parents When Parents Opt Out of Language Support Services Bringing It All Together Follow-up Questions Further Guidance and Support Resources References Chapter 3: Evaluating Teachers of English Learners-Conversations Beyond the Rubric Scenario: Needs improvement, Meets, Exceeds, or Not Applicable Conversations Beyond the Rubric Look Fors: Key Considerations Articulating Needs to Support ELs Supporting Preservice Teachers Bringing It All Together Follow-up Questions Further Guidance and Support Resources References Chapter 4: Action Steps for Job-Embedded Professional Learning With a Focus on English Learners Scenario: A Program by Any Other Name Is Not the Same A PL Cycle of Inquiry PL Action Steps Bringing It All Together Follow-up Questions Further Guidance and Support Resources References Chapter 5: Partnering With Parents of English Learners Scenario: Helping Parents Analyze Their Child's English Language Proficiency Report Connecting Families and Community Parent Communication Preferences Helping EL Families Understand the Academic Calendar Scenario: Early Release/Late Pick-Up Grade Level Placements of ELs and What Parents Need to Know Scenario: Bullying in Elementary School Supporting Your Staff to Build Positive Relationships With EL Families Bringing It All Together Follow-up Questions Further Guidance and Support Resources References Afterword Index

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And Justice for ELs is a resource every school leader must read right away-for that matter, keep within arm’s reach because you’re c...

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Recommended by Dr. Ayanna Cooper, 2024 Keynote Speaker

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Recommended by Dr. Ayanna Cooper, 2024 Keynote Speaker

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The words "Black," "immigrant," and "literacy" -when considered separately- can often carry negative or controversial associations in many people's minds worldwide. In her book, Black Immigrant Literacies: Intersections of Race, Language, and Culture in the Classroom, Dr. Patriann Smith weaves these three potentially fraught strands together, akin to braiding three strands into an unbreakable cord. When considered from a Biblical perspective, a three-strand cord cannot be easily broken. From the eye-catching title to the final page, this book serves as an antidote to the broken education systems that have often succeeded in adversely impacting individuals based on their race, immigrant background, and language.

According to Tove Skutnabb-Kangas (2003), "Formal education, which is subtractive, i.e. which teaches children something of a dominant language at the cost of their first language, is genocidal" (p. 42). Countering this damaging approach is the Black Immigrant Literacies framework put forward by Dr. Smith, which aligns with the principles of Antiracist Black Language Pedagogy. This pedagogy centers Black Language in order to dismantle Anti-Black Linguistic Racism and related internalized oppression. It aims to help Black students develop agency, take a critical stance, and make political choices (Carmen Kynard as cited in Baker-Bell, 2020) that enables them to leverage Black Language "for the purposes of various sorts of freedom" (Richardson as cited in April Baker-Bell, 2020, p. 28).

The Black Immigrant Literacies framework put forward in Dr. Smith's work provides a wealth of practical tools and resources, such as the five elements of the framework itself, along with practical classroom applications. Authentic narratives from Chloe, an Afro-Caribbean youth from Jamaica, and Ervin, an Afro-Caribbean youth from the Bahamas elevate students' voices as they share their experiences and needs in school. Additionally, the book offers transraciolinguistics as a basis for teaching all students in literacy and English Language Arts (ELA) classrooms, lesson plans and templates, and guidance for key constituents to enact this emancipatory vision of teaching and learning.

This book makes a vital contribution by illuminating pathways toward more just and inclusive educational environments that nurture, rather than harm, Black immigrant youth from around the world-particularly the Caribbean and Africa-as well as Black American youth. Touchingly, Dr. Smith refers to her book as "a love note to Black immigrant students, parents, and peoples everywhere..." (2023, p. 132) and a resource for transforming literacy instruction for all youth in schools, which underscores her approach of healing and restoration. Dr. Smith's extensive expertise as an associate professor of literacy students, an advocate of antiracist education, and her lived experiences as a Black immigrant woman and parent lends authenticity to her groundbreaking work.

(Pre-ordered book from Teachers College Press)

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Black Immigrant Literacies: Intersections of Race, Language, and Culture in the Classroom (Language and Literacy Series)

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Amazon.com: Black Immigrant Literacies: Intersections of Race, Language, and Culture in the Classroom (Language and Literacy Series): 9780807768969: Smith, Patriann, Warrican, S. Joel, Nero, Shondel: Books

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What does "civility" look like and who gets to define it? What about "respectable" behavior? This week, we're looking at how behavior gets policed in public.

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What are "White public spaces" and what does it mean to be "invisibly normal"? What is your interpretation, reflection, or connection to either or both of the quotes presented: "I didn't realize that I had a way of speaking" and "I'm so ashamed of my language; sometimes I hate myself for talking like this, you know."

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What are "White public spaces" and what does it mean to be "invisibly normal"? What is your interpretation, reflection, or connection to either or both of the quotes presented: "I didn't realize that I had a way of speaking" and "I'm so ashamed of my language; sometimes I hate myself for talking like this, you know."

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With Different Eyes Conference 2009 - H. Samy Alim Keynote Part 1

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What are the language ideologies of the "well-meaning teacher"? Please jot down some examples to support your thoughts. How do those language ideologies reflect the teacher's thoughts about the student and the family and community from which the student comes?

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What are the language ideologies of the "well-meaning teacher"? Please jot down some examples to support your thoughts. How do those language ideologies reflect the teacher's thoughts about the student and the family and community from which the student comes?

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With Different Eyes Conference 2009 - H. Samy Alim Keynote Part 2

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What is your language ideology? What do you think about your language and the language that your students speak? How are your ideas about language (yours and theirs) a reflection of what you think about yourself and your students?

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What is your language ideology? What do you think about your language and the language that your students speak? How are your ideas about language (yours and theirs) a reflection of what you think about yourself and your students?

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With Different Eyes Conference 2009 - H. Samy Alim Keynote Part 3

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Not part of our "to watch" list, but came up in conversation last night

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comedian talks about tikki tikki tembo - Google Search

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RACIAL INNOCENCE: Unmasking Latino Anti-Black Bias and the Struggle for Equality by Tanya Katerí Hernández

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RACIAL INNOCENCE: Unmasking Latino Anti-Black Bias and the Struggle for Equality by Tanya Katerí Hernández

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Tanya K. Hernandez, is the Archibald R. Murray Professor of Law at Fordham University School of Law, where she teaches Anti-Discrimination Law, Comparative Employment Discrimination, Critical Race Theory, The Science of Implicit Bias and the Law: New Pathways to Social Justice, and Trusts & Wills. She received her A.B. from Brown University, and her J.D. from Yale Law School, where she served as Note Topics Editor of the Yale Law Journal.

Professor Hernandez, is an internationally recognized comparative race law expert and Fulbright Scholar who has visited at the Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense, in Paris and the University of the West Indies Law School, in Trinidad. She has previously served as a Law and Public Policy Affairs Fellow at Princeton University, a Faculty Fellow at the Institute for Research on Women at Rutgers University; a Non-resident Faculty Fellowship at the Fred T. Korematsu Center for Law and Equality, and as an Independent Scholar in Residence at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. Professor Hernandez is a Fellow of the American Bar Foundation, and the American Law Institute. Hispanic Business Magazine selected her as one of the 100 Most Influential Hispanics of 2007. Professor Hernandez serves on the editorial boards of the Law and Social Inquiry Journal of the American Bar Foundation, the Revista Brasileira de Direito e Justiça/Brazilian Journal of Law and Justice, and the Latino Studies Journal published by Palgrave-Macmillian Press.

Professor Hernandez's scholarly interest is in the study of comparative race relations and anti-discrimination law, and her work in that area has been published in numerous university law reviews like Cornell, Harvard, N.Y.U., U.C. Berkeley, Yale and in news outlets like the New York Times, among other publications. Her most recent publication is the book "Multiracials and Civil Rights: Mixed-Race Stories of Discrimination" from NYU Press.

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Racial Innocence: Unmasking Latino Anti-Black Bias and the Struggle for Equality

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Racial Innocence: Unmasking Latino Anti-Black Bias and the Struggle for Equality [Hernández, Tanya Katerí] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Racial Innocence: Unmasking Latino Anti-Black Bias and the Struggle for Equality

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Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents  by Isabel Wilkerson

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Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents  by Isabel Wilkerson

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Isabel Wilkerson, winner of the Pulitzer Prize and the National Humanities Medal, is the author the critically acclaimed New York Times bestsellers The Warmth of Other Suns, and Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents.

Her first book, The Warmth of Other Suns, tells the story of the Great Migration, a watershed in American history. It won the National Book Critics Circle Award for Nonfiction, the Heartland Prize for Nonfiction, the Anisfield-Wolf Award for Nonfiction, the Lynton History Prize from Harvard and Columbia universities, the Stephen Ambrose Oral History Prize and was shortlisted for both the Pen-Galbraith Literary Award and the Dayton Literary Peace Prize.

WARMTH was named to more than 30 Best of the Year lists, including The New York Times' 10 Best Books of the Year, Amazon's 5 Best Books of the Year and Best of the Year lists in The New Yorker, Los Angeles Times, The Washington Post and The Economist, among others. In 2019, TIME Magazine named Warmth to its list of the10 best books of the decade.

Her second book, CASTE: The Origins of Our Discontents, explores the unrecognized hierarchy in America, its history and its consequences. Caste became a No. 1 New York Times bestseller, was the 2020 summer/fall selection for Oprah's Book Club and was longlisted for the National Book Award. It was named to more best of the year lists than any other work of nonfiction. TIME named it the No. 1 nonfiction book of 2020. Publishers Marketplace named it the book of the year across all genres. In 2021, it was the most borrowed nonfiction library book in the United States, according to Quartz Magazine.

Wilkerson won the Pulitzer Prize for her work as Chicago Bureau Chief of The New York Times in 1994, making her the first black woman in the history of American journalism to win a Pulitzer and the first African-American to win for individual reporting. In 2016, President Barack Obama awarded her the National Humanities Medal for "championing the stories of an unsung history."

She has appeared on national programs such as "Fresh Air with Terry Gross," CBS's "60 Minutes," NBC's "Nightly News," "The PBS News Hour," MSNBC's "The Last Word with Lawrence O'Donnell," "The Daily Show with Trevor Noah," NPR's "On Being with Krista Tippett," the BBC and others. She has taught at Princeton, Emory and Boston universities and has lectured at more than 200 other colleges and universities across the U.S. and in Europe and Asia.

Follow @isabelwilkerson on Instagram and Threads. Follow her on Facebook at http://www.facebook.com/IsabelWilkersonWriter/

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Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents [Wilkerson, Isabel] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents

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What is the "Standard American Accent"? Where is it from? And what does it mean if you don't have it? Code Switch goes on a trip to the Midwest to find out.