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In the southwestern part of the Indochinese peninsula of Southeast Asia lies the country of Cambodia. Modern Cambodia is a remnant of the powerful Khmer empire. At its height from the 11th to the 13th century, the Khmer empire ruled much of what is now Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. In more recent times Cambodia has endured great turmoil-French colonization, the brutal regime of the Khmer Rouge, and Vietnamese occupation. In the 1990s Cambodia finally regained a measure of political stability and began to recover from decades of conflict. The capital of Cambodia is Phnom Penh. Area 69,898.000000 square miles (181,035.000000 square kilometers). Population (2025 est.) 17,578,000.000000.

Cambodia is bordered to the west and northwest by Thailand and to the northeast by Laos. Vietnam borders Cambodia to the east and southeast. The southwestern part of Cambodia lies on the Gulf of Thailand, an inlet of the South China Sea.

Cambodia is largely a land of plains and great rivers. In the center of the country is a low-lying plain, which is surrounded by uplands and mountains. The central plain rises gently from the Gulf of Thailand in the south to the Dangrek Mountains in the north. In the Krâvanh (Cardamom) Mountains in the southwest rises the country's highest peak, Mount Aôral, at 5,949 feet (1,813 meters). To the west a low divide separates Cambodia from Thailand. The Mekong River flows southward from Laos through eastern Cambodia.

In the central lowland lies the Tonle Sap (Great Lake), which serves as a natural flood reservoir for the Mekong River. During the dry season the lake covers an area of about 1,200 square miles (3,100 square kilometers) and has a depth of only about 5 feet (1.5 meters). During the rainy season the Mekong floodwaters flow up the Tonle Sap River, expanding the lake's area to more than 3,000 square miles (7,800 square kilometers) and increasing its depth to as much as 45 feet (14 meters).

Cambodia has a tropical climate. It is always warm to hot in the lowlands, with temperatures seldom below 80 °F (27 °C). There are two major seasons. The rainy season, from mid-May through early October, comes with the southwest monsoon. Its strong winds bring heavy rain and high humidity. From early November to mid-March the lighter winds of the northeast monsoon bring infrequent rainfall and lower humidity. Annual rainfall varies by region, from about 50-55 inches (127-140 centimeters) in the central lowland to more than 200 inches (500 centimeters) in parts of the southwestern highlands.

Much of Cambodia is covered by forests. Tall evergreen trees, bamboo, vines, and palms grow in the northern mountains. The southwestern highlands contain pine forests in the higher regions and rainforests near the sea. Rice paddies, fields of crops, and grasslands cover the central plain. Along the many floodplains are narrow strips of good alluvial soil. The banks of the Tonle Sap and Mekong rivers have fertile soils that are renewed annually by the silt of the flood season.

The animals of Cambodia include monkeys, buffalo, panthers, leopards, civets, and crocodiles. Among the common birds are herons, pelicans, cormorants, pheasant, and ducks. A number of Cambodia's species, notably the Asian elephant and the Indochinese tiger, are endangered because of illegal hunting and habitat loss.

Cambodia has always been a country of villages. Only about a fifth of the population lives in urban areas. The only major city is the capital, Phnom Penh.

Ethnicity, Language, and Religion
Most of the people of Cambodia belong to the Khmer ethnic group. The Khmer have lived in what is now Cambodia for more than 2,000 years. Their language, also called Khmer, belongs to the Mon-Khmer group of Austroasiatic languages. The Khmer are primarily an agricultural people who are concentrated in the central lowland and along the coast.

The largest ethnic minorities in Cambodia are the Chinese and the Vietnamese. The Chinese once controlled the country's economic life. During the rise of the communist guerrilla movement called the Khmer Rouge in 1975, however, the Chinese were forced to become ordinary peasants. As a result, many Chinese people left Cambodia. Some Chinese returned after a Vietnamese invasion ousted the Khmer Rouge government in 1979. The Chinese regained some of their former influence as Cambodia's urban centers were revived. After the Vietnamese invasion, a pro-Vietnamese government ruled Cambodia until 1989. During that period, a large number of Vietnamese immigrants settled in Cambodia. Cambodia's other ethnic minorities include the Cham-Malay, known in Cambodia as the Khmer Islam or Western Cham, and various highland tribes of the northeast.

Most of the population follows Buddhism, which has a long tradition among the Khmer. The Cham-Malay are Muslim, and some of the Vietnamese are Roman Catholic. Thousands of Cambodians, especially Khmer who live in urban areas, have converted to Protestantism. A small portion of the population practices folk and traditional religions.

Education and Social Welfare
The Khmer Rouge government dismantled the educational system of Cambodia in the 1970s. Only elementary schools were allowed to operate, and the literacy rate dropped below 60 percent. After the Khmer Rouge regime was overthrown, the new government prioritized primary education and reopened secondary schools and institutions of higher education. The literacy rate improved, but the educational system continued to suffer from shortages of money, materials, and trained teachers.

Lack of funding and personnel has also created public-health problems. Such infectious diseases as malaria, tuberculosis, and pneumonia are common. In the early 21st century the HIV/AIDS prevalence was the highest among all Asian countries, though aggressive government programs significantly reduced the proportion of the population infected with the virus.

Cambodia still has millions of active land mines remaining from decades of warfare. These have killed or maimed tens of thousands of people. Considerable international effort has focused on removing the land mines and providing prosthetic limbs for land-mine victims.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing
Cambodia is one of the world's poorest countries, though its economy began to improve steadily in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy. Most of the labor force works in farming, fishing, or forestry. Rice is by far the most important crop. It is grown with the aid of irrigation or floodwaters during the rainy season. A number of farmers grow "floating rice" on the deep water next to the natural levees of the Mekong River. The country's other major crops include cassava, corn (maize), sugarcane, soybeans, coconuts, and rubber. Fruits, grown for local consumption, include bananas, oranges, and mangoes.

Livestock raising has a role in the economy, supplying draft animals for use in agriculture and local transportation and some meat. Fishing is important to both the local economy and the food supply. Fish serve as the main source of protein for Cambodians, who eat fish fresh, dried, salted, smoked, and in sauces and pastes.

Cambodia's forests were rapidly depleted in the late 20th century through extensive logging. International concern about deforestation and the accompanying ecological damage pressured the Cambodian government into imposing bans on logging. However, illegal logging continued.

Manufacturing
Cambodia's small industrial sector was devastated by the warfare of the 1970s and recovered only slowly in the 1980s. In the early 1990s the few industries in operation included rice milling, rubber and timber processing, and cigarette production. In the years that followed, however, significant growth took place in the manufacture of such products as clothing, textiles, and beverages. A serious impediment to industrial development in Cambodia has been a lack of modern equipment.

Tourism is the most important component of the service sector. It has attracted some foreign investment in hotel and resort construction.

Cambodia's exports traditionally consisted almost entirely of rice, rubber, timber, and other agricultural products. In the late 1990s, however, clothing surpassed these traditional exports in importance. Most of the clothing is sent to the United States and western Europe. Imports-including textiles, machinery, petroleum products, and vehicles-come mainly from China, the United States, Thailand, Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. In 1999 Cambodia joined the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which promotes trade among its members. Cambodia joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2004.

Transportation and Communications
Cambodia's road network was heavily damaged in the fighting of the 1970s and 1980s. It remains inadequate, with most of the roads unpaved. However, repair efforts begun in the 1990s made some progress. Major highways connect Phnom Penh with neighboring countries and with Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville), the country's only seaport for oceangoing vessels, on the Gulf of Thailand. A key bridge spanning the Tonle Sap River at Phnom Penh, destroyed in 1975, was rebuilt and reopened in the mid-1990s. The first bridge across the Mekong River was opened in 2001, easing travel between eastern and western Cambodia.

Cambodia's extensive system of inland waterways has long been used for transportation, especially during the rainy season. Phnom Penh is a Mekong River port accessible to small seagoing ships. Boats also operate on the Tonle Sap. A railroad line connects Phnom Penh to Paoy Pet on the Thai border. Another line runs between the capital and Kampong Saom.

Telecommunications have developed slowly in Cambodia. The country lags behind its neighbors in the availability of telephone service, but the number of telephone main lines has continued to increase. Cellular phones outnumber telephone main lines by a large margin. Internet usage has also increased, but the number of people with access remains small.

Cambodia is a multiparty democracy within the framework of a constitutional monarchy established by the constitution of 1993. The king, who serves as chief of state, is chosen from one of three royal lines by the Royal Throne Council. The king appoints the prime minister, who serves as head of the government, and a cabinet, the Council of Ministers. Cambodia's legislature consists of two houses, the National Assembly and the Senate. The Supreme Court heads the judiciary, which also includes a court of appeals and lower courts. The constitution provides for a Constitutional Council, which is meant to safeguard the constitution, and a Supreme Council of the Magistracy, which is intended to maintain the independence of the judiciary. In practice, however, these institutions have been dominated by the executive branch.

Early History
Historians do not know for certain how long people have lived in what is now Cambodia or where they came from. Evidence suggests that people able to make pottery inhabited the area as early as 4000 bc. The Khmer moved southward into the Mekong Delta from what is now Thailand before 200 bc.

During the first centuries ad, pilgrims and traders from China and India stopped along the coast of Cambodia to exchange silks and metals for spices, aromatic wood, ivory, and gold. Chinese records tell of a kingdom or group of kingdoms called Funan that flourished in southern Cambodia at this time. Its wealth was based on controlling trade between India and China. The influence of Indian cultural institutions in the kingdom was great, with Hinduism coexisting with Buddhism.

After Funan declined in the 6th century, a kingdom called Chenla became the dominant power in the region. Its rulers extended their power into what is now Laos and Thailand before losing power late in the 8th century.

The Khmer Empire
The founder of the Khmer empire, Jayavarman II, came to power in 802. Later in the 9th century one of his successors established a capital at Angkor near the Tonle Sap. Between the 11th and the 13th century the Khmer empire included much of the Indochinese peninsula and incorporated large parts of what is now southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. The Khmer kings ruled one of the largest, most prosperous, and most sophisticated kingdoms in the history of Southeast Asia.

As the capital of the Khmer empire until the 15th century, Angkor became a bustling and wealthy city. The city impressed the Chinese visitor Zhou Daguan, who arrived there with a diplomatic mission in 1296. Zhou's account is the longest and most-detailed description of the Khmer capital. He wrote of Angkor as a large, thriving metropolis and one of the most magnificent capitals in all Asia. One of Angkor's greatest monuments was Angkor Wat, a large temple complex built in the 12th century. Today, Angkor is one of the world's most-celebrated archaeological sites.

By the early 13th century new kingdoms in what is now Thailand rivaled the power of the Khmer empire. Thai attacks from the west accelerated in the mid-14th century, culminating with the capture of Angkor in 1431. Thereafter the Khmer state lost territory to both Thailand and Vietnam, which vied for supremacy in the region. The Khmer established a new capital on the site of present-day Phnom Penh. By the 18th century, however, their weak kings were forced to seek the protection of their stronger neighbors.

French Rule
Cambodia was almost divided between Thailand and Vietnam before France made the territory a protectorate in 1863. France, which already controlled neighboring land in Vietnam, viewed Cambodia as a possible future colony. The French gradually increased their role in Cambodia's affairs, and in 1884 they forced the Cambodian king to sign a treaty that virtually transformed Cambodia into a colony. In 1887 the French officially made Cambodia part of French Indochina. The Japanese occupied Cambodia during World War II, but the French returned after Japan's surrender in 1945.

Independence and Civil War
In the following years Cambodia's king, Norodom Sihanouk, led a campaign for independence from France. In 1953 independence was won. Two years later Sihanouk stepped down in favor of his father and became prime minister. In 1960, after his father died and no new king was named, he became chief of state. Sihanouk proclaimed a policy of neutrality in international affairs, but nevertheless Cambodia's borders became a scene of fighting in the Vietnam War. By the mid-1960s North Vietnamese communists were operating from bases in eastern Cambodia. At the same time a Cambodian communist group known as the Khmer Rouge was fighting Sihanouk's government.

Domestic opposition to Sihanouk culminated in March 1970 with a National Assembly vote to remove him from office. Lon Nol, an anticommunist general, led the new government. His administration abolished the monarchy and changed the name of the country to the Khmer Republic. Lon Nol ordered offensives aimed at driving out the North Vietnamese, but his inadequately trained and poorly equipped troops were soundly defeated.

Sihanouk went to China after his ouster and organized a government-in-exile. Backed by China and North Vietnam, Sihanouk allied his forces with the Khmer Rouge in opposition to Lon Nol's government, which was supported by the United States. Destructive U.S. bombing raids against communists in Cambodia helped the Khmer Rouge attract support in the countryside. As the Khmer Rouge gained strength, Sihanouk declined in importance.

The Khmer Rouge Regime
In April 1975 the Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, captured Phnom Penh and seized power. The new government renamed the country Democratic Kampuchea. The Khmer Rouge turned all cultivated land into cooperatives and sent city people to rural areas to clear cropland; Phnom Penh became a ghost town. At least 1.5 million people died from overwork, starvation, or disease or were killed during brutal purges of suspected political opponents. Thousands of people fled the country.

Vietnam Intervenes
Mutual distrust between the Khmer Rouge and Vietnam led to border fighting, and in December 1978 Vietnam invaded Cambodia. Within weeks the Vietnamese drove the Khmer Rouge government from Phnom Penh and installed a new government made up mostly of Cambodian communists who had deserted Pol Pot. The country's name was changed to the People's Republic of Kampuchea.

During the 1980s Cambodia began to recover from the disastrous Khmer Rouge years. Cities were repopulated, schools and Buddhist practices were reintroduced, and the economy improved. The country's recovery was hampered, however, by guerrilla warfare against the Vietnamese-backed regime. In 1982 the three resistance groups-Norodom Sihanouk and his followers, the Khmer Rouge, and the anticommunists-formed a government-in-exile headed by Sihanouk.

Constitutional Monarchy
Responding to international pressure, Vietnam withdrew its troops from Cambodia in 1989. Peace talks among the four warring factions then intensified. The country was renamed once again, this time as the State of Cambodia. In May 1991 the factions signed a peace accord, but the Khmer Rouge subsequently refused to disarm. The United Nations sponsored elections in Cambodia in 1993. The elections resulted in a coalition government in which Prince Ranariddh, Sihanouk's son, and Hun Sen, a former prime minister during the Vietnamese occupation, shared power as first prime minister and second prime minister. A new constitution restored Cambodia's monarchy and returned Sihanouk to the throne.

The Khmer Rouge opposed the elections and continued to fight against the government. By the mid-1990s, however, the Khmer Rouge was collapsing; it had suffered military defeats and lost thousands of defectors to the Cambodian government. Quarreling among the group's leaders also took a toll. In 1997 Pol Pot was arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment by his former colleagues. He died in custody in 1998.

Meanwhile, Hun Sen feared an alliance between his coalition partner, Ranariddh, and the Khmer Rouge. He deposed Ranariddh in a violent coup in July 1997. After taking over as prime minister, Hun Sen carried out a mass purge of political opponents and of people loyal to Ranariddh. After legislative elections in 1998, Hun Sen continued as prime minister. King Sihanouk served as head of state until he stepped down in October 2004. Norodom Sihamoni, Sihanouk's son and Ranariddh's younger half-brother, became Cambodia's new monarch. Sihanouk continued to be an influential national figure until his death in October 2012.

After a long delay, Cambodia began putting former leaders of the Khmer Rouge on trial for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. They were tried by the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (commonly called the Khmer Rouge Tribunal), which was established in 2006. The tribunal was a joint operation between the United Nations and the government of Cambodia. The first trial of a Khmer Rouge official resulted in a guilty verdict in 2010. Two top members of Pol Pot's regime were convicted in 2014, though another key leader died before his trial was completed.

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In the southwestern part of the Indochinese peninsula of Southeast Asia lies the country of Cambodia. Modern Cambodia is a remnant of the powerful Khmer empire. At its height...

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The Southeast Asian country of Cambodia is a land of great natural beauty. For much of its history, the country has served as a battleground between various countries and…

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People first came to Japan about 30,000 years ago. At the time, the main islands were connected to Siberia and Korea by bridges of dry land, so people crossed on foot. The first society, called the Jomon culture, arose about 12,000 years ago. Around the same time, the Ainu people arrived by boat from Siberia.

The Jomon and Ainu survived for thousands of years, hunting, fishing, and gathering plants. In 300 B.C., the Yayoi people came to Honshu Island from Korea and China. They were skilled weavers, tool makers, and farmers who began cultivating rice in flooded paddy fields.

In 660 B.C., Japan's first emperor, Jimmu Tenno, came to power. Emperors controlled Japan until the 12th century A.D., when military rulers, called shoguns, took control and ruled by might.

Europeans first arrived in Japan in 1543, bringing guns and Christianity. In 1635, the ruling shogun closed Japan to foreigners and forbade Japanese to travel abroad. This isolation lasted more than 200 years. In 1868, the shoguns were overthrown and emperors returned. This was a time of great change and modernization for Japan.

During World War I (1914-1917), Japan fought on the side of the U.S. But on December 7, 1941, Japan bombed the United States navy fleet at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii and the U.S. entered World War II. From 1941-1945, Japan's military leaders fought against the U.S. and the allied forces. In August 1945, the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing about 115,000 people. Japan surrendered a few days later.

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Japan is an archipelago, or string of islands, on the eastern edge of Asia.

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Ha Long Bay in northeast Vietnam consists of more than 1,600 islands and inlets.

OFFICIAL NAME: Socialist Republic of Vietnam

FORM OF GOVERNMENT: Socialist republic

CAPITAL: Hanoi

POPULATION: 97,040,334

OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Vietnamese

MONEY: Dong

AREA: 127,123 square miles (329,247 square kilometers)

MAJOR MOUNTAIN RANGE: Annam Cordiller

MAJOR RIVERS: Mekong, Red, Ma, Perfume

Vietnam is a long, narrow nation shaped like the letter s. It is in Southeast Asia on the eastern edge of the peninsula known as Indochina. Its neighbors include China to the north and Laos and Cambodia to the west. The South China Sea lies to the east and south. The mountains of the Annam Cordillera rise over most of the western side of Vietnam, while a thousand-mile (1,600-kilometer) coastline dominates the east.

At its narrowest point, Vietnam is only 30 miles (48 kilometers) wide. Two of Vietnam's largest rivers, the Mekong in the south and the Red in the north, end at the South China Sea in huge swampy plains called deltas. These regions are home to most of the country's people and provide fertile ground to grow rice and many other crops.
Map created by National Geographic Maps

PEOPLE & CULTURE

Most Vietnamese people live in the countryside, mainly in the river delta regions of the north and south. Recently though, people have begun to move to the main cities of Ho Chi Minh (formerly Saigon) and Hanoi.

The most popular sports in Vietnam include soccer, table tennis, volleyball, and martial arts.

Vietnamese food is a blend of Chinese and Thai styles and features seafood and homegrown fruits and vegetables.

As a communist country, Vietnam has no official religion. But people are free to worship if they want to, and many follow what's called the "Three Teachings" of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism.

Vietnam's mountainous terrain, forests, wetlands, and long coastline contain many different habitats that support a great variety of wildlife. Some 270 types of mammals, 180 reptiles, 80 amphibians, and 800 bird species reside in Vietnam.

Many rare and unusual animals live in Vietnam, including giant catfish, Indochinese tigers, Saola antelopes, and Sumatran rhinos. The government has set up 30 parks and reserves to protect its animals, but their survival is in doubt because much of their habitat has been cleared for lumber or to grow crops.

Tropical forests once covered most of Vietnam, but over the past few hundred years, logging has reduced the forest cover to only about 19 percent. The government has launched a replanting program in an attempt to restore these woodlands.

GOVERNMENT & ECONOMY

Vietnam is a socialist state governed by the Communist Party of Vietnam. A president, chosen by the National Assembly, is head of state and commander of the armed forces. An appointed prime minister runs the government.

Vietnam's main exports include crude oil, seafood, rice, shoes, wooden products, machinery, electronics, coffee, and clothing. Between 1975 and the late 1980s, Vietnam traded mainly with other communist countries, but since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990, it has expanded trade with other nations.

Vietnam's first civilizations arose in the Red River Valley some 5,000 years ago. These northern tribes flourished until 207 B.C., when their region was conquered by a Chinese lord, who established a kingdom called Nam Viet.

In 111 B.C., Nam Viet became part of the Chinese empire, which ruled the north until A.D. 939, when a Vietnamese commander named Ngo Quyen organized a revolt that drove the Chinese out. Later dynasties renamed the country Dai Viet and gradually extended their territory south. By the mid-1500s, Dai Viet was divided between rival kingdoms: the Trinh in the north and the Nguyen in the south.

In 1802, a Nguyen lord, with the help of the French, defeated the Trinh and renamed the country Vietnam. By 1890, however, France had taken over Vietnam.

Japan took control briefly during World War II, and when the war ended with Japan's defeat in 1945, Ho Chi Minh, the leader of the Vietnamese Communist Party, declared Vietnam an independent nation. French attempts to retake Vietnam led to war with the communist Vietnamese, called Viet Minh. Fighting ended in 1954 with the partition of the country into communist North and non-communist South Vietnam.In 1957, communist rebels in the south, called Viet Cong, rose up. War between the North and South ensued, and other countries, including the United States, Russia, and China, soon became involved. The fighting lasted until 1975, when the communists overran the south and took its capital, Saigon.

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Ha Long Bay in northeast Vietnam consists of more than 1,600 islands and inlets. OFFICIAL NAME: Socialist Republic of Vietnam FORM OF GOVERNMENT: Socialist republic CAPITAL: Hanoi POPULATION: 97,040,334 OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Vietnamese MONEY: Dong AREA: 127,123 square miles (329,247 square kilometers) MAJOR MOUNTAIN RANGE: Annam Cordiller MAJOR RIVERS: Mekong, Red, Ma, Perfume Vietnam is a long, narrow nation shaped like the letter s.

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One of the world's most populous countries, Vietnam occupies the easternmost part of mainland Southeast Asia. It has a long coastline, much of which fronts on the South China Sea to the east and south. The country is bordered by the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest, Cambodia and Laos to the west, and China to the north. Its capital is Hanoi. Area 127,891 square miles (331,236 square kilometers). Population (2022 est.) 99,818,000.

Vietnam was ruled by China in ancient times, and its culture has been deeply influenced by Chinese culture. Vietnam was later independent for centuries, but in modern times France controlled it, along with Cambodia and Laos, as French Indochina.

In the mid-20th century Vietnam experienced a long period of warfare. It fought first for its independence from France, which it won in 1954. Vietnam was then divided into two parts, commonly known as North Vietnam, which had a communist government, and South Vietnam, which was noncommunist. The two parts fought each other in a prolonged war, often called the Vietnam War, in which the United States assisted the south. The north won the war in 1975, and the country was reunified; the following year it became the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Although the country has a communist government, economic reforms begun in the late 1980s introduced some private enterprise. By the 2000s Vietnam had one of the world's fastest-growing market economies.

Northern Vietnam is quite mountainous, especially in the extreme north and northwest. In this region is the country's highest point, Fan Si Peak, with an elevation of 10,312 feet (3,143 meters). The Red (Hong) River, which originates in China's Yunnan Province, is the principal river of the north and is about 750 miles (1,200 kilometers) in length. The major lowland area of the north is a delta that has been created by deposits from the Red River as it enters the Gulf of Tonkin, an arm of the South China Sea. The river passes through Hanoi. For more than 2,000 years the Red River delta region, considered the cradle of Vietnamese civilization, has been the site of considerable water-control efforts in the form of canals and dikes.

The southernmost portion of the country is dominated by another lowland that is much more extensive than that in the north. This lowland has essentially been created by the Mekong (Cuu Long) River and its various tributaries. The Mekong empties into the sea south of Ho Chi Minh City. Just north of this city the landscape becomes more varied and rolling with forested hills.

The central portion of Vietnam varies in width but is only about 30 miles (50 kilometers) at its narrowest point. This region has only a narrow coastal strip, in contrast to the rest of the coastline, where wider lowlands exist. The westernmost portion of central Vietnam is dominated by the Annamese Cordillera, a major mountain chain that forms the spine of the country from north to south. Along with the two major river systems in the north and south, there are many shorter rivers that drain the highlands and flow eastward to the South China Sea.

The climate of Vietnam is largely tropical, with warm to hot temperatures, plenty of rainfall, and high humidity, though the north may be distinguished as subtropical. Differences in humidity, rainfall, and temperature are caused largely by changes in elevation. Vietnam's climate is dominated by monsoons-wind systems that change direction and bring rainfall seasonally. The north has a hot and humid wet season from about May through October. The remainder of the year is relatively warm and humid, with only light rains. A prolonged period of fog, cloudiness, and drizzle occurs from December through April in the central zone and coastal lowlands. The south is generally warmer than the north. Its temperatures vary little over the course of the year, but it has a distinct rainy season, from about June through November.

Rainfall averages about 66 inches (168 centimeters) per year at Hanoi (in the north) and 78 inches (198 centimeters) at Ho Chi Minh City (in the south). At the higher elevations of the Annamese mountains, annual rainfall can exceed 175 inches (445 centimeters). The average annual temperature is 74° F (23° C) in Hanoi, 81° F (27° C) in Ho Chi Minh City, and only 70° F (21° C) in the highland city of Da Lat. Central Vietnam is subject to typhoons ( tropical cyclones), which may occur from July through November.

Vietnam has a rich variety of vegetation. The more than 1,500 species of woody plants in the country range from commercially important hardwoods, such as ebony and teak, to palms, mangroves, and bamboos. They include both evergreens and broad-leaved trees that lose their leaves seasonally. There also are numerous species of woody vines (lianas) and herbaceous plants. Much of the central highlands is thickly forested. Huge areas of the country's forests have been cleared, however, by loggers and for agriculture and resettlement. During the Vietnam War the U.S. Army destroyed vast tracts of forest in the south. To combat deforestation, the government of Vietnam has begun programs to replant trees.

The forests are home to animals such as wild oxen, bears, tigers, leopards, monkeys, and gibbons. Such animals as deer, wild pigs, otters, porcupines, and squirrels are common. Reptiles include crocodiles, lizards, pythons, and cobras. There are also hundreds of species of birds.

Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz

Traditional Vietnamese culture reflects the strong influence of Chinese civilization. Nearly 100 years of French rule followed by American involvement instilled many Western cultural traits as well. The Vietnamese, however, continue to maintain their own culture through such customs as attaching great importance to the family and observing rites honoring their ancestors. The different cultures of Vietnam's numerous minority ethnic groups, on the other hand, generally show little Chinese influence, though the Cham and the Khmer (Cambodians) have cultural affinities with India, and many groups have adopted some Western traits. Since the late 20th century, the rise of tourism in Vietnam and the relaxing of economic and political controls has increasingly exposed the country's people to international cultural influences.

Ethnicity, Language, and Religion
Ethnic Vietnamese make up about 85 percent of the country's population. They live mainly in the lowlands, but 20th-century relocation programs also brought large numbers of them to the highlands. Vietnam's more than 50 different minority ethnic groups live primarily in the highlands. In general, the minority groups in the northern highlands, including the Tay, Thai, and Nung, speak Tai languages. These groups have ethnolinguistic affinities to peoples of Thailand, Laos, and southern China. Other major groups of the northern mountains include the Hmong, who speak a Sino-Tibetan language, and the Muong. The Muong speak a Mon-Khmer language and have affinities to peoples of Cambodia, as do some groups of the southern highlands, such as the Khmer. Other southern groups, such as the Cham, speak Austronesian languages and have ties to peoples of Indonesia. The many minority ethnic groups of the central highlands are known collectively as the Montagnards. These groups have affinities with other peoples of Southeast Asia and include speakers of Austronesian and Mon-Khmer languages.

Ethnic Chinese are another significant minority. Although large numbers of ethnic Chinese left Vietnam following reunification in the late 1970s, they remain one of the country's most populous minority groups and play an important role in business and trade. The Cho Lon section of Ho Chi Minh City has long been a major center for ethnic Chinese.

Vietnamese, the language of the ethnic Vietnamese, is the country's official language. It belongs to the Mon-Khmer family, but there has been considerable borrowing from Chinese in the vocabulary. Some people speak English or Chinese as a second language. French, which was once widely spoken in Vietnam, has declined in use.

About half of the country's people are Buddhists. Most of them practice a distinctive form of Buddhism that developed in Vietnam over hundreds of years. It combines elements of the Mahayana branch of Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism, and local beliefs. Confucianism has served as a means of forming social patterns in Vietnam. Rules for social interaction, the cult of ancestor worship, and the male-dominated family structure are by-products of this system of thought.

About a tenth of the population practices a new religion such as Cao Dai, a highly nationalistic combination of Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism, and Roman Catholicism that appeared in the 1920s. About another tenth follows local, traditional religions involving numerous spirits, and less than a tenth is Christian, mainly Roman Catholic. Roman Catholicism was introduced into Vietnam in the 16th century and flourished especially under the French. Atheists and nonreligious people account for about a fifth of the population.

The government generally tolerates religion but restricts conversion activities. Freedom of religion is now guaranteed in the constitution, which was effected in 1992; in practice, however, government controls on religion, which were formerly extensive, have been relaxed only gradually.

Population and Settlement Patterns
Vietnam has one of the largest populations in the world. In the decade following reunification in 1975, the country's population grew rapidly. Vietnam worked to check this growth, however, and birth rates subsequently dropped significantly, to below the world average.

Given the contrasting landforms of the country, the distribution of the population is very uneven. Major concentrations are found in the Red River delta, where the average population density exceeds 2,000 persons per square mile (775 per square kilometer), and in the Mekong River delta. The country's average density, however, is much lower-more than 650 persons per square mile (250 per square kilometer).

Although increasing numbers of people have been moving from the countryside to urban areas since the late 20th century, some 70 percent of the population lives in rural areas. The largest cities are Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi. Other major cities include Haiphong, which is Hanoi's main port, and Da Nang, the largest city in central Vietnam. Hue, another major city in the central region, was historically important as the seat of the rulers of central and southern Vietnam.

In the 20th century war-torn Vietnam experienced great movements of the population within the country. After Vietnam was partitioned in 1954, numerous refugees migrated from the north to the south and subsequently into urban areas. In addition, during several periods authorities forcibly relocated large numbers of ethnic Vietnamese and others into rural highland regions. In the 2000s the main patterns of migration were into Ho Chi Minh City and its surrounding areas as well as the central highlands.

Emigration was substantial in the late 20th century. After the reunification of the country under communist rule, hundreds of thousands of people fled Vietnam, both legally and illegally, between 1975 and 1990. Relations with China were strained during this period. As a result of this and the transformation of the economic system in the south, the refugees included many ethnic Chinese, who were the target of discrimination. Many of Vietnam's refugees fled the country in small fishing vessels and thus became known as "boat people." An unknown number of them died at sea. Others entered refugee camps in Thailand and elsewhere or emigrated to other countries, especially the United States. In the 1990s large numbers of boat people were returned to Vietnam from the refugee camps. The last such camp closed in 2000.

Education and Health
The vast majority of Vietnam's people are literate. Education is universal and compulsory for five years of primary school and four years of lower-secondary school. Students can continue their education for three years of upper-secondary school in either an academic or vocational program. The government restructured the higher-education system in the 1990s and increased the number of universities and faculty members. Vietnam National University, with campuses in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, is the country's largest university.

After the Vietnam War, health facilities were refurbished and expanded, but expenditures were grossly inadequate from the late 1970s. Though still limited, government health spending as a percentage of gross domestic product doubled between the mid-1990s and the early 2000s. The number of physicians increased, and the infant mortality rate dropped dramatically. It was estimated that prior to the late 20th century only 15 percent of the population had access to safe water; more than 90 percent did in 2006. The government brought malaria largely under control and eliminated such major diseases as smallpox, poliomyelitis, and leprosy. The prevalence of tuberculosis continued to be of concern, however, and the country experienced a major outbreak of avian influenza (bird flu) in the early 21st century.

Vietnam is a developing country that has made significant strides in improving its economy. In the mid-20th century decades of war devastated Vietnam. While the country was divided, the two Vietnams had different economic systems. In the communist north the state planned the economy, owned and ran the industries, took control of the farmland, and organized farmers into cooperative units known as collectives. In the south many manufacturing industries were owned and run by the government, but private enterprise characterized other economic sectors, such as agriculture and trade. The people of the south enjoyed a significantly higher standard of living than those of the north.

Following reunification in 1976, the northern system was extended to the country as a whole. The government's efforts to abolish private property and to take control of industry, commerce, and farming in the south, however, met with resistance. The state-run economic programs were poorly run, and Vietnam suffered from an economic crisis.

In 1986 the government introduced a major reform program called doi moi ("renovation"), which began modernizing the economy and transforming the country into what it calls a "socialist-oriented market economy." In other words, like China, Vietnam has a socialist system that has embraced some elements of capitalism. Vietnam has moved away from having a centrally planned and subsidized economy. The government continues to own industries in many sectors and maintains overall control of the economy, but private enterprise is now tolerated in some sectors and the economy incorporates some market forces and incentives. Vietnam has also worked to reintegrate its economy with the global economy, opening the country to foreign investment and establishing trade relations with many more countries than before.

As a result of the country's economic reforms, the quality and variety of food, consumer goods, and exports improved and the volume of trade increased. The economy had previously been dominated by agriculture; manufacturing and service industries now grew in importance. The economy expanded rapidly. Vietnam's gross domestic product (GDP) increased by about 6 to 8 percent per year in the 1990s and nearly the entire first decade of the 2000s. (Growth slowed somewhat in 2009 because of the global recession.) Although the country's gross national income per capita was still low, it nearly quadrupled in the 20 years following the introduction of doi moi. Millions of people were lifted out of poverty.

Agriculture, Fishing, and Forestry
Agriculture-once the mainstay of the economy-still employs roughly half the labor force. Although it accounts for only about a fifth of GDP, this sector is the basis for the country's food processing industries and an important contributor to exports. Rice is the staple crop. The deltas of the Red and Mekong rivers, as well as other lowland areas, are the prime rice-growing regions. In many areas farmers grow two or three crops of rice per year, accomplished through an extensive system of irrigation. High-yielding varieties of rice are commonly used. Elsewhere such crops as cassava, corn (maize), sweet potatoes, sugarcane, coconuts, bananas, oranges, and pineapples are grown. Vietnam is one of the world's leading suppliers of cashews, black pepper, and rice. Among the other major cash crops are coffee, tea, peanuts (groundnuts), and rubber.

Before 1980 chronic food shortages caused widespread malnutrition. Natural disasters as well as collectivist policies were responsible for the food deficits. From the late 20th century, however, farms were run by individual families, rather than by state collectives, and market-based incentives were used. Food production improved dramatically. While the country previously had to import food to feed its people, it began exporting large quantities of rice.

Fishing and forestry are also significant. The most important freshwater fisheries are located at the Mekong and Champasak (Bassac) rivers. Vietnam also has rich offshore fishing grounds, and shrimp are raised commercially. Shrimp, squid, crab, and lobster are major exports. Forest products such as charcoal, furniture, pulp, paper, plywood, lumber, and rattan are produced, mainly for domestic use.

Manufacturing and Mining
Manufacturing contributes about a fifth of GDP and employs about a seventh of the workforce. The largest industry is the processing of foods and beverages-especially seafood, coffee, and tea. The production of cement, fertilizer, and steel contributes greatly to the economy. Other major products include garments and cloth, shoes, electronics, tobacco products, transportation equipment, and paints, soaps, and pharmaceuticals.

Mineral resources, which are located mainly in the north, include coal, tin, chromium ore, and phosphates. Although mining only employs about 1 percent of Vietnam's workers, it supplies about a tenth of GDP. The production of coal, crude petroleum, and natural gas are the most important mining activities. Vietnam's oil and gas deposits are located offshore in the South China Sea, mainly off the southern coast.

The importance of the service sector has grown significantly since the late 20th century. More than a quarter of the labor force works in service industries, which account for roughly two fifths of GDP. Processing and assembly is a major component of this sector. Tourism, finance, marketing, scientific research, and telecommunications have become increasingly important.

Vietnam has greatly broadened its trade relations and liberalized its trade laws as part of its economic reform program. Prior to the late 1980s, the country's major trade partners were the Soviet Union and other communist countries. After the Soviet Union collapsed, Vietnam began trading more heavily with other Asian countries. After the Vietnam War, the United States imposed a trade embargo on Vietnam until 1994. The two countries ratified a major bilateral trade agreement in 2001, and the United States subsequently became the most important market for Vietnam's exports. Vietnam was granted membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2007.

Exports are a major component of the economy. The key exports include crude petroleum, clothing, shoes, furniture, electrical machinery, and agricultural products such as seafood, rice, coffee, and rubber. The major foreign markets for Vietnamese goods are the United States, Japan, Australia, mainland China, Singapore, and the European Union.

The value of Vietnam's imports has long exceeded that of its exports. The main imported products, including machinery, chemicals, refined petroleum, yarn, cloth, iron, and steel, are needed for the country's industries. Imports come mainly from Asian suppliers, including mainland China, Singapore, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, and Thailand.

Transportation and Communications
The mountainous terrain of the central highlands limits land transportation between the north and the south to a narrow strip of land along the coast. Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City are linked by rail and highway along this route. Two rail lines connect northern Vietnam to southern China. Vietnam has an extensive road network, though about half the roads are unpaved and many are in disrepair. In the two delta regions, vast networks of rivers and canals provide an important means of transport for smaller vessels. Larger ships visit the major seaports, including Haiphong, Ho Chi Minh City, and Da Nang. There are international airports serving Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. The state-owned carrier, Viet Nam Airlines, offers both domestic and international flights.

The telecommunications system expanded dramatically after the economic reforms of the late 20th century. By the early 21st century, the number of main line telephones per capita was among the highest in Southeast Asia. The use of cell phones and the Internet has grown rapidly.

Vietnam is a one-party socialist republic. The Vietnamese Communist party is responsible for overall policy decisions and, according to the constitution, is the sole source of leadership for the government and society. The main government body is the National Assembly, a one-house legislature that is directly elected by the country's citizens every five years. Most of the deputies have been members of the Vietnamese Communist party, but some have been nonparty representatives. The National Assembly elects the president, who serves as head of state. The president nominates the prime minister, who is head of government and who leads a cabinet of ministers and other heads of government agencies. The judicial system includes courts at various levels, the highest of which is the Supreme People's Court.

In ancient times the ancestors of the Vietnamese lived in the north, in the Red River delta. In 207 bc this area became part of the kingdom of Nam Viet, which included much of what is now southern China and the northern half of Vietnam. Nam Viet was conquered in 111 bc by the Han Dynasty of China. The Chinese introduced their advanced civilization into the area and forced the Vietnamese to adopt Chinese customs and institutions. Chinese rule lasted for more than 1,000 years, until ad 939, when the Vietnamese managed to throw off their conquerors. The Vietnamese kingdom expanded southward over the following 800 years, reaching as far as the Gulf of Thailand. Toward the end of this period, however, internal strife produced a struggle that lasted more than two centuries. Essentially, Vietnam was divided into two states, one in the north and one in the south. Following a civil war the country was reunited in 1802.

Political weakness permitted French intervention and expansion. France invaded Vietnam in 1858. In 1867 the south became a French colony known as Cochinchina, and in 1883 central and northern Vietnam became French protectorates known as Annam and Tonkin, respectively. Later all three were merged with Laos and Cambodia to form French Indochina. The French exploited the area as a source of raw materials for export, including rice, coal, and rubber.

Throughout the period of French rule, strong nationalist and revolutionary movements were present. During World War II the French yielded Indochina to Japan. After the Japanese surrender in 1945, a Vietnamese nationalist coalition known as the Viet Minh, led by communist leader Ho Chi Minh, proclaimed the country's independence. French resistance to the Viet Minh led to the First Indochina War, which lasted eight years. The United States, fearful of the spread of communism in Asia, sent aid to the French. After the French lost a crucial battle at Dien Bien Phu, a cease-fire agreement was signed in 1954.

The cease-fire provided for Vietnam to be temporarily partitioned into two military zones, with the area north of the 17th parallel of latitude under the leadership of the Viet Minh and that to the south under a U.S.-supported leader. Elections were intended to be held throughout Vietnam by mid-1956 in order to unify the country. It seemed certain that Viet Minh leaders would win the vote, however, and the United States and the leaders in the south would not agree to hold elections. Vietnam remained divided. The communists developed North Vietnam (officially the Democratic Republic of Vietnam), with its capital at Hanoi. South Vietnam (the Republic of Vietnam) was established under Ngo Dinh Diem with its capital at Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City). Diem's army overthrew him in 1963, and two years later another military coup established an anticommunist dictatorship in South Vietnam.

Meanwhile, a growing communist-led resistance movement that became known as the Viet Cong had begun fighting to gain control of South Vietnam and reunify the country. The Viet Cong were supported by North Vietnam, and North Vietnamese troops later joined the fighting. The Viet Cong insurgency set off the long war that became known in the United States as the Vietnam War; in Vietnam it was called the American War. It lasted from 1954 to 1975.

Initially, the United States limited its involvement to providing South Vietnam with funds, military equipment, and advisers. In 1965 the United States began bombing the north and sent ground troops to fight in the south. In 1968 the U.S. bombing campaign ended and peace negotiations began. A peace treaty was signed by all parties fighting in the war in January 1973, and the United States withdrew the last of its forces in March of that year.

Both the north and the south violated the terms of the peace agreements, however, and the fighting continued until 1975. In that year North Vietnam was victorious; its forces pushed southward and captured Saigon on April 30. The war left roughly 3 million Vietnamese dead, including civilians and combatants, and millions more wounded. More than half of the population was left homeless, and large areas of cultivated land and infrastructure were devastated.

The country was proclaimed the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on July 2, 1976. The communist government began to restructure the economy of the south. Large numbers of people fled the country. Hundreds of thousands more, mainly those who had been associated with the former government of South Vietnam or the Americans, were sent to jails or labor camps, and numerous others were forced to resettle in remote highland areas.

Vietnam was admitted to the United Nations in 1977. The country's main ally was the Soviet Union, and it sought to form close relationships with the communist governments of neighboring Laos and Cambodia. Cambodian resistance to Vietnamese demands led to full-scale warfare along the border, however, and Vietnam occupied the country in 1978. In response, China launched a brief invasion in 1979 across the Vietnamese border. Vietnam was almost entirely isolated from the international community. After the country withdrew its troops from Cambodia in 1989 and a peace settlement was achieved in 1991, Vietnam restored relations with Europe, China, Japan, and the countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

By 1992 Vietnam had altered its domestic and foreign policies significantly. Partly in response to the fall of communism in eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, it had begun to modify its economic policies ( see " Economy " above). The leaders of Vietnam sought foreign investment to help their economy. Diplomatic relations with the United States were formally restored in July 1995 after Vietnam agreed to pay compensation for confiscated U.S. property and the United States lifted a freeze on Vietnamese assets. That same month, Vietnam joined ASEAN. The country continued to liberalize its economy and enjoyed rapid economic growth and development. After more than a decade of negotiations, it became a member of the World Trade Organization in 2007.

Caputo, Philip. 10,000 Days of Thunder: A History of the Vietnam War (Atheneum Books for Young Readers, 2005).Green, Jen. Vietnam (National Geographic, 2008).McLeod, M.W., and Dieu, N.T. Culture and Customs of Vietnam (Greenwood, 2008).Nicolai, Gregory. Teens in Vietnam (Compass Point, 2008).Taus-Bolstad, Stacy. Vietnam in Pictures, rev. and expanded ed. (Lerner, 2004).Willbanks, J.H. Vietnam War Almanac (Facts on File, 2009).

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One of the world's most populous countries, Vietnam occupies the easternmost part of mainland Southeast Asia. It has a long coastline, much of which fronts on the South China Sea to the east and south. The country is bordered by the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest, Cambodia and Laos to the west, and China to the north.

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The country of Sri Lanka occupies a pear-shaped island in the Indian Ocean. It was once a British colony known as Ceylon. Sri Lanka has two capitals, Colombo and Sri…

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Located 18 miles (29 kilometers) off the southeastern tip of the Indian subcontinent, Sri Lanka is an island country in the Indian Ocean. It lies about 400 miles (645…

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Malaysia's tropical rainforests are home to several endangered species, including Malayan tigers such as this one.

OFFICIAL NAME: Malaysia

FORM OF GOVERNMENT: Federal constitutional monarchy

CAPITAL: Kuala Lumpur

POPULATION: 32,400,000

OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Malay

MONEY: Ringgit

AREA: 127,355 square miles (329,847 square kilometers)

MAJOR MOUNTAIN RANGES: Main, Crocker, Bintang, Hose, Iran

MAJOR RIVERS: Rajang, Sugut, Pahang, Klang

The country of Malaysia is two separate areas of land known as Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia. The two regions are separated by the South China Sea by about 400 miles. Combined, they'd be roughly the size of the state of New Mexico.

Peninsular Malaysia is on the tip of the Malay Peninsula, a long, thin landmass that snakes south from the country of Thailand toward the South China Sea. East Malaysia stretches across northern Borneo, an island Malaysia shares with the country of Indonesia.

Malaysia's capital, Kuala Lumpur, is located on the west side of Peninsular Malaysia, closer to the Indonesian island of Sumatra than to East Malaysia. East Malaysia is home to Mount Kinabalu, the country's highest point, which has an elevation of 13,455 feet (4,101 meters).

Malaysia shares borders with the Thailand to the north and Indonesia and the island of Singapore to the south. Singapore is separated from Malaysia by a bridge.

Malaysia is blanketed by tropical rainforests. Large rivers, fed by nearly 10 feet of rain (about three meters) a year, flow from the country's highlands and empty into warm tropical seas. Combined, these three ecosystems-forest, river, and marine -make Malaysia one of the world's 17 mega-diverse countries. (A mega-diverse country is one that's home to a majority of Earth's species and has a high number of endemic species, or species found only in one location on the planet.)

Malaysia's tropical rainforests are also home to several endangered species, including Sumatran rhinoceroses, pygmy elephants, and Bornean orangutans in East Malaysia. Malayan tigers and Indochinese leopards prowl the Malay Peninsula. In the South China Sea, several sea turtle species-including the olive ridley, hawksbill, green, and leatherback sea turtles -swim in the warm waters.

Malaysia has several vast nature reserves and national parks throughout the country. Taman Negara National Park, established in 1939, is the country's oldest national park. Located on the Malay Peninsula, Taman Negara protects one of the world's oldest rainforests, estimated to be more than 130 million years old-and was once home to dinosaurs.
Malayan tiger photograph by Mark Newman, FLPA / Minden Pictures

GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMY

Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy that consists of 13 states and three federal territories, which include the capital city region of Kuala Lumpur, the administrative capital of Putrajaya, and the island of Labuan off the coast of East Malaysia.

Malaysia's monarch is a ceremonial head of state referred to as Yang di-Pertuan Agong, or "paramount ruler." The federal government, which governs all of Malaysia, includes a Senate (the Dewan Negara), a House of Representatives (the Dewan Rakyat), and a prime minister appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong.

Before the late 20th century, rubber and tin exports drove Malaysia's economy. Natural resources still remain an important part of the economy-especially rubber and palm oil- but the country also has a strong manufacturing industry, as well as growing financial and banking services.

Little is known about Malaysia's prehistory, or the period of time before the invention of writing. The first known Malay kingdoms appeared around the year A.D. 200, when Indian traders introduced the South Asian concepts of religion, government, and art to Malay natives. These kingdoms remained relatively small, however, because the Malaysian terrain couldn't support widespread agriculture. Instead, Malays were known for their ocean navigation and shipping skills.

The modern Malay culture began to develop during the 15th century, when Islam arrived to the country. During this time, the port of Melaka grew to become one of the world's great port cities. When the Portuguese sailed into Melaka in the 16th century, they became the first Europeans to arrive in Malaysia.

In 1786, Great Britain bought Malaysia's Penang island in an attempt to increase trade with China. Over the next century, British influence in Malaysia grew, and by 1915, Great Britain had acquired several additional Malaysian states.

During World War II, Malaysia was occupied by the Japanese from 1941 to 1945. The end of the war brought a desire for independence throughout the country, with Malays wanting to create a Bangsa Melayu, or Malay nation. British officials promised independence to the nation and began working with Malay leaders to create an independent Malaysia. On August 31, 1957, the independent Federation of Malaya was formed, with Tunku Abdul Rahman as its first prime minister.

Malaysia was recognized as a country in 1963; at the time, it included Singapore. Singapore separated from Malaysia in 1965.

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This Southeast Asian country consists of two regions separated by the South China Sea.

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The country of Malaysia is a part of Southeast Asia. Malaysia consists of two areas of land that are about 400 miles (650 kilometers) apart. Kuala Lumpur is the capital and…

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A country of Southeast Asia, Malaysia consists of two components: Peninsular Malaysia, which is part of mainland Southeast Asia, and the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo. Although there are considerable areas of lowland and coastal plain, much of the country consists of mountainous terrain clothed in dense rainforest. With the exception of Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, elevations are modest-3,000 to 6,000 feet (1,000 to 2,000 meters). Since Malaysia lies entirely between one and seven degrees north of the Equator, it experiences a humid equatorial-tropical climate. The capital of Malaysia is Kuala Lumpur, and the administrative center is Putrajaya. Area 127,752.000000 square miles (330,877.000000 square kilometers). Population (2025 est.) 33,357,000.000000.

Kuala Lumpur occupies a small enclave in the west-central state of Selangor, designated in 1974 as a federal territory. About four-fifths of Malaysia's population resides in Peninsular Malaysia. The states of Sabah and Sarawak are separated from the peninsula by about 400 miles (640 kilometers) of the South China Sea.

Malaysia is a very significant country in Southeast Asia, even though it is the smallest in the region except for Singapore and Brunei. Malaysia is one of the world's leading producers of tin, natural rubber, palm oil, and tropical lumber.

Mountain ranges extend southward from Thailand into Peninsular Malaysia. The weathering of granites and other associated rocks has created extensive areas of deep and relatively well-drained soils. Tin-bearing minerals are concentrated in the gravel beds of several of the major river systems. Over the years these rivers have transported much sediment, building extensive areas of coastal alluvial plain-especially along the Strait of Malacca. These areas are either exploited for their swamp forest resources or are drained to become agricultural land, especially for growing rice.

Much of the center of Borneo consists of mountain systems. Sarawak, in the northwest, represents a slightly uplifted basin with its southern portion folded into a series of parallel ridges from southwest to northeast. Its northern portion is a still sedimenting coastal plain under which have been found considerable petroleum resources. The mountain ridges of Sarawak pass northeastward into Sabah, where they form a more compact coastal mountain chain. This culminates in Mount Kinabalu, which at 13,455 feet (4,101 meters) is the highest point between northeastern India and the island of New Guinea.

The Malaysian rainforests are among the world's most biodiverse. However, much of the original forest has been destroyed by weather and by clearing for livestock grazing and crop agriculture. Commercial cultivation of the oil palm tree to produce palm oil has badly impacted Malaysian forests. Deforestation, usually through slash-and-burn methods, has greatly fragmented and destroyed habitats, threatening native plant and animal life.

Malaysia is home to a wide variety of animal species, including elephants, tigers, crocodiles, and green sea turtles. Poaching (illegal hunting) as well as habitat loss have severely endangered some of the country's most unusual species, notably the orangutan, the Sumatran rhinoceros, and the proboscis monkey.

Malaysia's equatorial climate is characterized by temperatures and humidity that remain high throughout the year. In Kuala Lumpur the daily minimum and maximum temperatures are about 73 and 90 °F (23 and 32 °C). Annual rainfall averages about 100 inches (250 centimeters). The climate is affected by the northeast and southwest monsoons. From November to March a northeasterly airflow predominates, and portions of the country, especially those areas farther from the Equator, have a distinct dry season. From May to October a southwesterly flow predominates, and rainfall is widespread.

The population of Malaysia, once predominantly rural, is becoming more urban. The major cities-notably Kuala Lumpur, George Town, Ipoh, and Johor Baharu-are expanding rapidly as the Malays and the other native ethnic groups that were previously largely rural are migrating in increasing numbers to urban centers.

Malaysia has great ethnic diversity. In Peninsular Malaysia there remain members of groups referred to as the Orang Asli, or aboriginal peoples. Included are groups known as the Jakun, the Semang, and the Senoi. These peoples are believed to be remnants of groups who have lived in the peninsula for thousands of years but who were driven into remote parts of the mountains and forests by subsequent migrant groups.

The later groups began arriving in Southeast Asia from the north about 2000-1500 bc. They include the Malays in Peninsular Malaysia; the Iban, Kayan, Kelabit, Kenyah, Bidayuh, Bisaya (Bisayah), and Melanau in Sarawak; and the Bajau, Kadazan, and Murut in Sabah. These groups, along with the Orang Asli, are generally referred to collectively as the bumiputra groups, or the "sons of the soil."

Under colonial rule Chinese-especially from the southern provinces-were encouraged to come to Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak. Indian laborers from South India were also brought to work on the rubber plantations. The Chinese and Indians together make up a large share of the population of Peninsular Malaysia, though their proportions in Sarawak and Sabah are much lower.

The Malays of the peninsula form the largest ethnic group in Malaysia, accounting for about half the country's population. They were influenced by the Indianized kingdoms of Southeast Asia, though few cultural traces of this Hindu-Buddhist phase remain. During the 15th century Islam entered the region from India by way of northern Sumatra, and the Malay peoples quickly embraced this religion. The social and cultural life of the Malays revolves around their religious obligations and activities. Every village, or kampung, has its mosque. Malay children are often sent to religious as well as state schools. Many Malays make the hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca. The major festival of the year is Aidilfitri ( ʿId al-Fitr), the celebration marking the end of Ramadan, the Muslim month of fasting.

Chinese and Indian immigrant groups who arrived in the 19th and early 20th centuries brought with them their own languages and religions. Cantonese and Hokkien are the major Chinese dialects used, though several southern dialects are also spoken. Among the Indian community, Tamil is the most widespread language. Malay-formally called Bahasa Malaysia-is the official language and is also the language of instruction in the schools. English is often used as a lingua franca.

The production and export of raw materials are an important part of the Malaysian economy. However, the country made great strides in the late 20th century toward diversifying its economy and encouraging the growth of modern industries and services. Most of the labor force works in manufacturing and trade, and these sectors are the largest contributors to the gross domestic product. Finance has also become an important sector. Agriculture employs roughly one-tenth of the working population.

Natural rubber and palm oil are the dominant commercial crops. Rubber is produced mainly in Peninsular Malaysia, both from large-scale plantations and from smallholdings. Many of the smallholdings were created beginning in the 1960s in an extensive program of pioneer settlement-the establishing of impoverished families as farmers in government-planned settlement (FELDA) schemes. Palm oil, also from both plantations and smallholders, is the most important commercial crop-indeed, by the early 21st century, Malaysia had become one of the world's top producers of palm oil. Other important commercial crops include cocoa, pepper, coffee, tea, fruits, and coconuts.

Rice has been cultivated in the region for centuries and remains a staple food item. Most rice cultivators are Malay peasant farmers on smallholdings. Yields and output have increased as a result of irrigation projects such as the Muda Scheme in Kedah and Perlis-and the use of high-yielding rice strains. Annual production of rice contributes greatly to national self-sufficiency. Bananas, cacao, pineapples, and tobacco are also grown, and tropical timber is harvested for export. Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak, and Sabah share more or less equally in the latter enterprise.

Malaysia is one of the world's leading tin producers. Like most primary products, however, tin faces an uncertain future. Quotas are in force to restrict production. Today, iron ore, bauxite, and copper are mined in greater quantities.

Petroleum is a relatively recent industry; reserves are estimated at about 4 billion barrels. Production is almost entirely from offshore rigs that lie to the east of Peninsular Malaysia and to the north of Sarawak and Sabah. The petroleum fields also contain vast reserves of natural gas.

In its early days, industrialization in Malaysia was linked to the production and export of industrial materials. Rubber processing, tin smelting, and palm-oil extraction all made their appearance before 1960. In the 1960s a policy of import substitution was initiated, with favorable terms accorded companies that began local industries to serve the Malaysian market. Such major industries as iron and steel, sugar refining, cement production, and fertilizers were begun. In the 1970s there was a policy shift toward encouraging the establishment of export-oriented industries. This led to factories in major urban centers, especially of Peninsular Malaysia, that produced components for the international electronics industry. It also spurred the rapid growth of textiles and other manufactured items for sale in Europe and North America. A notable feature of economic policy planning in Malaysia is the attempt to raise the economic status of the country's Malay population, long situated below that of the country's immigrant peoples.

The motor vehicle industry, though dependent on imported parts, forms a substantial component of the industrial sector. In 1985 the government established Proton, a state-owned car manufacturing company. The company was so successful that a second national car company was established in 1992. The cars are marketed primarily to Asia, though there are considerable exports to the United Kingdom.

Malaysia's finance and trade sectors have grown considerably since the late 20th century, thanks to government policies promoting foreign investment and market competition. Banking is regulated by the state-run Bank Negara Malaysia. The financial crisis that struck Asia in 1997-98 effected an economic downturn, but Malaysia's economy subsequently recovered.

The trade sector received a boost from the establishment of several free-trade zones in the late 20th century. In 1967 Malaysia cofounded the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) with Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. An economic cooperative, ASEAN promotes regional economic growth, cultural development, and political stability. Since its founding, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia have also joined ASEAN.

Peninsular Malaysia has an excellent rail system, which links all of the major towns. The road network is also good and includes two major highways. There are international airports at Kuala Lumpur and Penang Island in Peninsular Malaysia, and at Kota Kinabalu and Kuching in Sabah and Sarawak, respectively. Ferry service and domestic flights connect the two East Malaysian states with the peninsula.

Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy. At the federal level there is a bicameral, or two-house, legislature, or parliament. The government is headed by a prime minister, who is chief of the majority party in the Dewan Rakyat, or lower house. The states of Melaka, Penang, Sarawak, and Sabah have appointed governors who function as constitutional rulers for the state. Each of the other states has a ruler, or sultan, who functions as a constitutional monarch but is also responsible for questions relating to the Muslim religion and the Malay language. The constitutional monarch for the whole federation is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, who serves as chief of state. He is elected by the traditional Malay rulers from among themselves for a term of five years.

In the middle of the 1st millennium ad, city-states emerged in Southeast Asia that reflected Hindu and Buddhist influences from India. The lands that now make up Malaysia were at different times affected by these states, but no major Indianized state seems to have existed in Malaysia. In the 15th century Melaka was founded, and shortly thereafter its ruler was converted to Islam. Melaka rapidly became the center of a commercial empire that controlled much of the trade in precious spices from the islands to the east, especially the Moluccas. From Melaka, Islam spread farther to the east, establishing itself in Borneo.

European powers soon began to intrude into the region, each seeking to control the highly profitable spice trade. The Portuguese captured Melaka in 1511. A century later the Dutch replaced the Portuguese. The British were the main rivals of the Dutch, and these two powers remained in contention until after the Napoleonic wars. In 1824 they signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty, which divided Southeast Asia into spheres of influence that were later to become colonial possessions. By this treaty Britain gave the Dutch all "factories," or trading posts, in Sumatra, recognized Dutch control over Java, and agreed not to establish posts or enter into treaty relations with rulers of islands "south of the Straits of Singapore." In return the Dutch agreed to give up all their posts and claims on the Malay Peninsula as well as to cede posts in India. This colonial division created the territorial structure of the present-day federation of Malaysia. In addition to developing control over the Malay Peninsula, the British established themselves on the northern coast of Borneo-now Sarawak and Sabah-as these areas did not lie south of the Straits of Singapore.

During the 19th century, Britain exercised direct rule over the Straits Settlements-George Town, Melaka, and Singapore, a port founded by Stamford Raffles in 1819. Various Malay sultanates were placed under treaty relationships. English adventurer James Brooke obtained permission in the 1840s from the sultan of Brunei in Borneo to pacify-and rule-the southwestern part of Sarawak. In North Borneo, later Sabah, the British North Borneo Company was granted a charter in 1846. Resistance to this intensification of colonial rule was widespread, and revolts simmered for years.

Economic change was rapid in the latter part of the 19th century and the start of the 20th. The establishment of British control enabled Chinese tin miners on the Malay Peninsula to expand their activities. Large numbers of Chinese laborers flowed into the region to work in the mines. Railroads were constructed to help export the tin. Various types of agricultural and plantation enterprises were established-primarily coffee, tea, and rubber. Rubber was native to the Amazon Basin in South America, but seeds were transported to London, England, in 1876 and from there to Singapore. After experiments in Singapore, rubber was recommended as a plantation crop in Malaya (the Malay region of the peninsula), and plantings expanded rapidly.

The native populations participated in the growing cash economy only to a minor extent. On the peninsula they continued to be hunters, and in the forests they continued to grow irrigated rice and other crops.

As a raw-materials producer, Malaya suffered severely during the years of the Great Depression. In the late 1930s economic conditions improved. However, in 1941, during World War II, Malaya, Sarawak, and Sabah were all invaded by the Japanese and remained under Japanese control until 1945. The British returned after the war to reestablish colonial rule in Malaya and took over Sarawak and Sabah. British plans for independence for its territories met with strong opposition. They included citizenship for both native and immigrant peoples and were perceived as reducing the status of the Malay princely states. The outbreak of a communist-led insurgency in 1948 also interfered with plans to grant independence. In 1957 Malaya became independent, but Sarawak and Sabah continued as British territories for several years.

In 1963 Britain proposed a federation to incorporate not only Malaya but also Singapore, Sarawak, Sabah, and Brunei. All but Brunei agreed to form the Federation of Malaysia. Singapore withdrew in 1965.

Over the last third of the 20th century the Malays came to dominate the country's political life. They found it necessary, however, to maintain a political alliance called the National Front (Barisan Nasional)-with groups in Sarawak and Sabah and with Chinese and Indian groups of Peninsular Malaysia. The National Front and its predecessors have held a majority in parliament without interruption since the granting of independence in 1957. Opposition to the National Front comes from factions on the left and on the right.

Malaysia enjoyed relative political stability over the last decades of the 20th century, and it entered the 21st century with a prosperous, diversified economy. Exports of products from farming and mining remained important, however. Largely as a result of the exploitation of natural resources, certain parts of the country struggled with severe environmental problems. Development policies were criticized as lacking ethnic and regional balance. Nevertheless, Malaysia had achieved considerable success in creating national unity and sociopolitical stability out of deep regional and ethnic divisions. ( See also East Indies.)

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A country of Southeast Asia, Malaysia consists of two components: Peninsular Malaysia, which is part of mainland Southeast Asia, and the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the...

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Official Name: Japan
Form of Government: Constitutional monarchy with parliamentary government
Capital: Tokyo
Population: 126, 048, 450
Official Language: Japanese
Money: Japanese yen
Area: 377,835 square kilometres
Major Mountain Ranges: Japanese Alps
Major Rivers: Biwa, Inawashiro, Kasumigaura

Japan is an archipelago, or string of islands, on the eastern edge of Asia. There are four main islands - Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu. There are also nearly 4,000 smaller islands, too! Japan"s nearest mainland neighbors are the Siberian region of Russia in the north, and Korea and China farther south.

Almost four-fifths of Japan is covered with mountains. The Japanese Alps run down the centre of the largest island, Honshu. The highest peak and Japan's most famous mountain is Mount Fuji, a cone-shaped volcano considered sacred by many Japanese.

Japan can be a dangerous place. Three of the tectonic plates that form the Earth"s crust meet nearby and often move against each other, causing earthquakes. More than a thousand earthquakes hit Japan every year. Japan also has about 200 volcanoes, 60 of which are still active.

The Japanese people have a deep affection for the beauty of the landscape. The ancient Shinto religion says natural features like mountains, waterfalls and forests have their own spirit or soul.

Japan is home to some wonderful wildlife! Some of the country's most incredible creatures include the sika deer, red-crowned crane, stellar's sea eagle and one of the coolest critters on the planet...the Japanese macaque monkey!

Most of Japan is covered by countryside - but with more than 100 million people living in such a small place, sadly, wildlife has suffered. Although pollution is now tightly controlled, over the years, road building and other human activities have harmed natural habitats. Today, about 136 species in Japan are listed as endangered.

Off the coast of this incredible country, the warm Tsushima Current flows from the south into the Sea of Japan, where it meets a colder current from the north. As a result of the mixing of different waters, the seas around Japan are very rich in fish and other sea life. Cool!

People first came to Japan about 30,000 years ago. At the time, the main islands were connected to Siberia and Korea by bridges of dry land, allowing people to cross on foot. The first society, called the Jomon culture, arose about 12,000 years ago. Around the same time, the Ainu people arrived by boat from Siberia. The Jomon and Ainu survived for thousands of years, hunting, fishing and gathering plants.

In 300 B.C., the Yayoi people came to Honshu Island from Korea and . The Yayoi were skilled weavers, tool makers and farmers, and they were the first people in Japan to cultivate rice in flooded paddy fields.

In 660 B.C., Japan's first emperor, Jimmu Tenno, came to power. For many years following, Japan was governed by a string of emperors, until the 12th century A.D. when military rulers, called shoguns, took control by force.

Europeans first arrived in Japan in 1543, bringing with them a range of new technologies and cultural practices, including the Christian religion. But in 1635, the ruling shogun closed Japan to foreigners and forbade Japanese to travel abroad, beginning a state of isolation that would last more than 200 years. In 1868, the shoguns were overthrown and emperors returned. This was a time of great change and modernisation for Japan.

During (1914-1917), Japan fought on the side of the Allies (Britain, , Belgium, Russia and the USA). But in World War II, Japan's military leaders sided with the Axis powers, joining forces with and .

The Japanese are famous for their willingness to work very hard. Children are taught to show respect for others, especially parents and bosses. They learn to do what"s best for their family or company and worry less about their own needs.

Japanese cuisine consists of lots of rice, fish and vegetables. With little fat and lots of vitamins and minerals, their food is very healthy. It's believed their nutritious diet is what makes the Japenese, on average, one of the longest living populations in the world!

Japan is the only country in the world with a reigning emperor. Emperors have no real power, but they are still respected as a symbol of the country's traditions and unity.

World War II devastated Japan's economy, but the Japanese people's hard work and clever innovation turned things around. Today, Japan has the third largest economy in the world. The country's high-tech industry makes some of the most popular electronic products and vehicles in the world.

Image credits

Japanese garden: Pod666, Dreamstime. People in a busy shopping district: Sean Pavone, Shutterstock. Japanese Shinto shrine: Sean Pavone, Dreamstime. All other images: Getty Images UK

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Official Name: Japan Form of Government: Constitutional monarchy with parliamentary government Capital: Tokyo Population: 126, 048, 450 Official Language: Japanese Money: Japanese yen Area: 377,835 square kilometres Major Mountain Ranges: Japanese Alps Major Rivers: Biwa, Inawashiro, Kasumigaura Japan is an archipelago, or string of islands, on the eastern edge of Asia.