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Sexism is ever present in the business of reviewing movies, much to the dismay of those who create those movies. Movies with female leads, directors, or general trend towards anything feminine experience an abundance of sexism and typically harsher critique than movies without.

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there are different types of sexism and a lot of them are displayed in movies way more often than one would think. These authors are trying to argue that even though these movies are well known and loved, they have deeply sexist roots. Throughout all decades and genres of movie, the researchers made sure to pick a wide variety of favorites and the results were the same across the board. These are movies that make millions in the box office and continue to be watched by audiences for years.

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Brewington, M., Hackathorn, J., & Velez, A. (2022). Sexism, actually? Analysis of ambivalent sexism in popular movies. Sexuality & Culture, 26(5), 1541–1560. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-022-09958-6

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Doughman, J., & Khreich, W. (2025). Beyond the spotlight: Unveiling the gender bias curtain in movie reviews. PLoS ONE, 20(1), e0316093. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316093

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Our findings revealed severe under-representation of women in key film roles: 72% of first actors, 91% of first directors, and 86% of first writers being male. Moreover, films with predominantly female casts faced 44% more benevolent sexism and a 149% increase in hostile sexism in reviews compared to male-dominated casts, a trend consistent across genres

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Consumers play a crucial role in shaping industry trends. By choosing to support films that promote gender balance and challenge stereotypical narratives, audiences signal to studios that there is a demand for more inclusive content. While there is an undeniable demand for nostalgic narratives, including those prevalent in classic Disney movies, it is essential to challenge the notion that audiences won’t accept more progressive storytelling. Many viewers appreciate updated takes on traditional stories that reflect contemporary values, offering familiar elements without perpetuating outdated stereotypes.

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Our findings underscore the substantial impact of gender bias in movie reviews, revealing how it influences both the perception of female-led films and the representation of women in the industry. The film industry can take actionable steps to improve gender balance and create more inclusive, equitable storytelling.

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Since the start of the twentieth century, adolescents and children have been looking to media figures as role models that play a key role in gender socialization. This is inherently problematic for young girls seeking to model roles that are portrayed in media, as most stories focus on boys as the primary action-taker and hero, while the contributions of girls are underplayed............. These subtle reinforcements of patriarchal roles socialize girls to maintain an underlying dependence upon men, which is then reflected in sexism due to their own lack of abilities.

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Media representation of gender roles has significant impact upon real-world attitudes toward gender, such as reinforcement of traditional stereotypes and gender-based division of societal roles. Movies targeted toward younger audiences have presented contrasting roles for men and women especially, with mothers placed in roles of caregivers and fathers as protective disciplinarians.

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This archival analysis of 137 top-grossing movies provided some interesting findings, but not all that was expected. Overall, sexism is prevalent in movies across time and regardless of genre. Importantly, we are not saying that sexism was a plot point in the film, but that sexism was depicted by the behaviors and/or situations of the main characters.

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men should be able to enjoy romance movies just as much as women do, because romance is a universal experience. gender roles have isolated men from the romance category while holding women in. Not being part of the target audience won't kill you or your enjoyment of a piece of media. Being in a target demographic does not override having preferences like a normal person. just being a teenage girl, movies expect you to enjoy cheesy romance, but if you really enjoy horror movies and would rather not with all the cheesy stuff, who cares???

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Men are accustomed to seeing aspirational archetypes of themselves reflected back at them, or highly idealized versions of what they wish to be.

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Pickering, K. (2018, October 29). Why can’t men love chick flicks? The Sydney Morning Herald. https://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/life-and-relationships/why-can-t-men-love-chick-flicks-20181029-p50cm8.html

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Hollywood is sexist, basically. It thrives to perpetuate traditional ideas of women at home and men in the workplace. the women are merely accessories to the men, supporting and loving them unconditionally. Even with the feminist movement gaining popularity in modern culture, this hasn't changed much about how movies are scripted and made. even if it depicts a modern independent #GirlBoss, when the male character is introduced, she realizes that maybe she was wrong in all her ambition and slows herself to settle into a more domestic role. since romance movies are obviously pro-love and pro-relationship (because thats what makes a movie) the relationship will always be portrayed as the better option. Not friends, not family, not work or school or any other interest or hobby: the priority is the relationship. this is a very unrealistic viewpoint that not all audience members will be able to decode. especially young girls and particularly impressionable individuals have a hard time not being persuaded that what they're seeing on screen is the ideal.

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the upcoming trend of humanizing female villains and giving them a more relatable background of oppression and overcoming hardships is really flipping the script on popular feminism. it gives moviegoers a chance to see from her perspective, leaving them the decision to agree with her decisions or not but spoon feeding audiences empathy for her nonetheless. it's having a positive impact on our society either way and should be kept up.

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even when minorities (in terms of gender, sexuality, and especially race) are portrayed or represented in film, they are usually put in roles that reinforce traditional values or racist stereotypes. the film industry is predominantly male and white, so white males are represented as unfairly superior to all other demographics in many different ways. They are allowed to be hot as well as smart, argue and be fair, have a job and a family, and many more while everyone else is usually confined to one.

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Overall, Cruella's representation as a villain is not simply a reflection of her character but rather a product of constructed cultural stereotyping and conventions that shape our understanding of gender, morality, and culture.

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due to how much sex and sexual content there is on TV, it is easy to be exposed to all sorts of different norms. popular shows and tv have a lot more sexism than previously thought and it aids itself to normalizing sexual aggression.

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Dowd, J., Crabtree, A. K., & Cannon, B. C. (2021). Movies, gender, and social change: the hollywood romance film. Journal of Gender Studies, 32(2), 201–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2021.1979479

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Eschholz, S., Bufkin, J., & Long, J. (2002). SYMBOLIC REALITY BITES: WOMEN AND RACIAL/ETHNIC MINORITIES IN MODERN FILM. Sociological Spectrum, 22(3), 299–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732170290062658

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Traesar, L., & Saktiningrum, N. (2024). THE PORTRAYAL OF FEMALE VILLAINS: a REPRESENTATION STUDY ON CRUELLA. Rubikon Journal of Transnational American Studies, 11(2), 327. https://doi.org/10.22146/rubikon.v11i2.94900

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Papp, L. J., Ward, L. M., & Marshall, R. A. (2021). Contributions of reality TV consumption to college women’s endorsement of the heterosexual script and acceptance of sexualized aggression. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 46(1), 50–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/03616843211044686

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Sexism in Romantic Comedies_ We Are Tired of the Out-of-Touch Lessons - Hollywood Insider

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romcoms have a way of categorizing women, especially in male written and directed films. they have idealized versions of women that are ridiculously unachievable or outright rude. horrible men always "get the girl" because this idyllic woman always forgives them for any fault. when these stereotypes are created, there is a price to pay for the viewers. undoubtedly there will always be certain stereotypes that are portrayed as desirable (like the girl next door) and some that are not (a girl exercising her sexual freedom) Now this is not cut and paste always the case. depending on the point of view of the main character, the roles can reverse and the stereotypes can totally swap out. even still, there is a protagonist and an antagonist and each one will fall into a certain stereotype, making the other seem better or worse. this is detrimental because it divides women into subcategories, pitting them against each other and showing men that women are allowed to be seen as genres more than individuals.

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Let's Face It, '16 Candles' Is Seriously Problematic

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this article highlights the specific problems within the film Sixteen Candles, explaining why they are harmful. It goes over blatant sexism and the disgustingly normalized culture of sexual assault, as well as outright racism. It's not a cute love story anymore.

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Guthrie, S. (2023, December 2). Sorry, But ’16 Candles’ Isn’t A Classic, It’s An Outdated Nightmare. ELLE. https://www.elle.com.au/culture/entertainment/16-candles-problematic-21215/

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McEvoy, J. (2020, September 13). Sexism in romantic comedies: We are tired of the Out-of-Touch lessons - Hollywood Insider. Hollywood Insider - News Entertainment & Culture. https://www.hollywoodinsider.com/sexism-in-romantic-comedies/

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There should be no exception. Men shouldn’t have rules and special cases in regards to how they treat women, there should be no process in deciding whether a woman is good enough to be treated well

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The traditional romantic narrative, however, would inevitably end with the man fully engaged in the public sphere of work and economic production while the woman’s future would be relegated to one of social support for the male’s aspirations. To manage this contradiction, romance films of the late 20th century adopted the strategy of initially presenting its female lead as independent and successful but then – by the film’s conclusion - evolving happily into a woman who was far more deferential to – and dependent on – the presumably more reliable judgement of the male partner.

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At one point in the film, Jake boasts to Ted: “I’ve got Caroline in the bedroom right now, passed out cold. I could violate her 10 different ways if I wanted to.”

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Based on this evidence, results from the 1977 U.S. Civil Rights Commission Report are still valid: On television and in films, white men tend to be older and more mature, while females and minority males are more likely to be younger and less mature.

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The underlying message delivered from such presentations is that men have the freedom to pursue challenges and attain goals separate from the family, while women are expected to perform their roles as wives and mothers despite their career aspirations.

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This article was published in 2002 by a journal entitled Sociological Spectrum through a larger publishing platform called Taylor & Francis. It was written by Sarah Eschholz, with help from Jana Bufkin and Jenny Long. Eschholz is with Georgia State University, while Bufkin and Long are with Drury University. We can tell that the authors have a special concern for the viewers of mass media, and they would like to see more diverse representation across all facets of movie production. All three of the authors are women, an underrepresented group that the paper itself is advocating for. Additionally, this paper is from over twenty years ago and has to be treated as such. There has been much progress since then, so their statistics may not still be true. It is important to note, though, where we started.

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Although both women and minorities have crossed many traditional boundaries in the work force and in terms of social norms, the Hollywood film industry is still owned and run predominantly by white males. Looking at the production teams of the films included in our study, 85 percent of the writers, 93 percent of the directors, and 84 percent of the producers were males.

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Stereotypes often align with these dominant ideologies and serve to maintain existing power structures. They can reinforce social hierarchies and perpetuate unequal power dynamics by marginalizing or stigmatizing certain groups

(Hall, 1997, 237).

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Villains are created to evoke intense feelings of dread and hatred in audiences. They deflect blame, turning anxiety and irritation into outrage and motivation, and transforming worry into anger

(Gamson, 1992, p. 29).

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Cruella's portrayal as a villain often reinforces stereotypes and norms. Her ambition, assertiveness, and lack of maternal instincts are often associated with negative feminine traits, while her male counterparts are often depicted as heroic or sympathetic.

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Broken men cannot possibly fix themselves, right? The perfect woman would come along, see his anger, his addiction, his abuse, and take it in stride. Wrong! Women and men can have separate existences and should not fall into a relationship that is mentally tolling for reasons outside of their control.

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To separate yourself from different forms of womanhood is to create a divide that contributes to the sexist culture in which movies are developed. Within recent years, women have awoken to the excused acts of misogyny that constantly surround our media and taken action to put more women behind the helm, consequently giving us well-rounded, realistic female characters to enjoy.

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The thing about rigid, prescriptive gender roles is that they rob all of us of our chance at a full humanity. So while women are told they can’t truly understand things like video games, rock music, or sports, men are likewise told not to enjoy things like dancing, fashion and big-hearted love stories.

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The irony, of course, is that what is traditionally termed “men’s entertainment” is awash with melodrama, sentimentality and heightened emotion. Sporting contests, war movies, even idiotic pastimes like betting on horses are wildly emotional undertakings where tears are permitted, along with yelling, screaming, crying, hugging, and other extreme expressions of celebration or commiseration. So why aren’t men supposed to like stories about romantic love? Why is romance “for girls”?

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From a critical perspective, however, there are obvious problems with the romance genre independent of the positive sense of communal connection they may provide. The first of these is their tacit acceptance of the sexism that has proven resistant to the social interventions intended to combat it and which remains a looming presence in the lives particularly of working-class and poor women.

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As with other narrative forms, film often provides tacit ideological support for existing structures of political and social inequality. It is important, then, that we understand the ways in which gender stereotypes continue to infiltrate screenplays and are embodied in the characters we see, and perhaps

enjoy, on screen. Gendered depictions in the media are what they are for many reasons, paramount among which are the economic reality of the profitability derived from such images but also what we all know to be obvious, that is, that our culture remains mired in traditional understandings of gender, unable to devise alternative ways of scripting the lives of ordinary men and women in film.

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Moreover, there are no punishments for

any of the characters who engage in obvious sexist behavior, and in most cases

the female characters forgive the male characters’ behaviors, and they all live

happily ever after.

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Since the start of the twentieth century, adolescents and children have been looking to media figures as role models that play a key role in gender socialization. This is inherently problematic for young girls seeking to model roles that are portrayed in media, as most stories focus on boys as the primary action-taker and hero, while the contributions of girls are underplayed. Previous analyses of women’s representation in film have found consistent messaging that girls are incapable of facing problems alone and cannot be trusted to make big decisions without the guidance of a man, purported to be wiser (Hylmö, 2006).

These subtle reinforcements of patriarchal roles socialize girls to maintain an underlying dependence upon men, which is then reflected in sexism due to their

own lack of abilities

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Social cognition literature extends upon this by implicating that categorizing individuals of stigmatized social groups can lead to stereotype activation and impact decision making and perceptions of self (Pollock et al., 2021). Considering the implications of media through the lens of social cognition and cultivation theories suggest that consumption of sexist media may have substantial impacts on any viewer’s perception of gender and sexist behaviors, and particularly harmful women’s perception of their roles in society.

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Starting with the repeated ridicule of his name, Long Duk Dong is essentially reduced to one big running joke. Every time he appears on screen, a gong sounds. He’s repeatedly referred to as “the Chinaman” by other characters. His use of American-English is parodied at length and he’s portrayed as idiotic and clueless.

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He then offers to hand over his unconscious girlfriend to Ted in exchange for Sam’s underwear. Ted proceeds to drive away with Caroline, take photos of her without her permission, and either sleep with her or convince her that they slept together (it’s not entirely clear what actually went down).

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For example, in their analysis of 299 episodes of five reality programs, Flynn et al. (2015) found that female cast members exposed their bodies more than 50% of the time and exhibited higher rates of body exposure than male cast members. Analyzing 64 hr of reality dating programming, Ferris et al. (2007) reported that references to women as sexual objects occurred 5.9 times per hour and references to men as always looking for sex occurred 3.6 times per hour. Based on these studies, both scripted TV and reality TV offer abundant examples of the heterosexual script that could be informing viewers’ perspectives of courtship.

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Media models, though offered as entertainment, could play a significant role in providing young women with prominent and attractive examples of “normative” courtship behavior. It is believed that the media frequently present examples of the heterosexual script, and that regular consumption of this content normalizes and validates these scripts for media consumers.

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Drawing

on both cross-sectional and longitudinal data, we demonstrated that reality TV viewing predicts greater endorsement of the heterosexual script. Moreover, endorsing this script was associated with college women’s greater acceptance of sexualized aggression in social drinking settings. These findings extend well the existing literature on the correlates and consequences of the heterosexual script for young women

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This was created as a research article for the Suliman S. Olayan School of Business at the American University of Beirut in Beirut, Lebanon. It was cowritten by Jad Doughman and Wael Khreich. Khreich is an assistant professor at the university, while Doughman got his Bachelor's there. It was written to shed light on the rampant sexism of movie reviews and audience reactions. It was published January 29th of 2025. We can tell that the authors care for the wellbeing of actors and moviegoers, and find the advancement of culture through film important. Within those beliefs, it can be assumed that they were biased towards proving sexism.

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This article was published in the Sydney Morning Herald on October 30th, 2018. It was written by Karen Pickering, a feminist author from Australia. Pickering has written two books, as well as dozens of articles. This document exists as an entertaining and relatable piece with an underlying message. The vocabulary isn't formal and the information isn't necessarily cited, but she does have a point. We can tell that the author has had many experiences with this sort of thing, and can recognize it in many different scenarios.

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What are target audience demographics and how to use them_ - HappyOrNot

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Understanding audiences - Independent Cinema Office

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How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation

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The current study investigated whether fiction experiences change empathy of the reader. Based on transportation theory, it was predicted that when people read fiction, and they are emotionally transported into the story, they become more empathic.…

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This study was done by Sohad Murrar and Markus Brauer. They both hold PhDs. Murrar received her PhD at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, while Brauer remains a professor and researcher there. It was published in January of 2017 through the Group Processes & Intergroup Relations journal. GPIR's journals are aimed for researchers and students in social psychology, and a new issue comes out twice a month. This organization of knowledge exists through Sage Journals, a platform for publishing works of higher education.

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Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How does fiction reading influence empathy? An experimental investigation on the role of emotional transportation. PLoS ONE, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341

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A Williams, J. a. W. [Emotional Intelligence Coach]. (2024, November 25). Men and Empathy—Are they a lost cause? Heartmanity. https://blog.heartmanity.com/men-and-empathy-are-they-a-lost-cause

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HappyOrNot. (2023, July 25). What are target audience demographics and how to use them? - HappyOrNot. https://www.happy-or-not.com/en/insights/blog/what-are-target-audience-demographics-and-how-to-use-them/

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Understanding audiences - Independent Cinema Office. (2017, July 27). Independent Cinema Office. https://www.independentcinemaoffice.org.uk/advice-support/how-to-start-a-cinema/understanding-audiences/

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This article was published in October of 2024 through the Rubikon Journal of Transnational American Studies. It was written by Livia Traesar and Dr. Nur Saktiningrum; both affiliated with Universitas Gadjah Mada from Indonesia. Saktiningrum gives lectures at that university, and Traesar's connection is unknown. This document exists to review the new ways in which film portrays women in power.

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This article was published online in 2021 by the Journal of Gender Studies through a larger publishing platform called Taylor & Francis. It was written by James Dowd, Arialle K. Crabtree, and Bryan C. Cannon. Dowd was a sociology professor at the University of Georgia from 1977 to 2015. Crabtree earned her PhD at UGA, but currently works for the gender studies program at Mississippi State University. Cannon also earned his PhD at UGA, but his current employment is unknown. This piece was created to explore the shifting themes of gender in Hollywood romance movies. We can tell that the authors are experienced in their fields, as their research is thorough and refined. They clearly stand in the belief that societal expectation of men versus women is better than it has been but is not where it should be.

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This article was published in September of 2019 on ELLE, a fashion and pop culture magazine. It was written by Susannah Guthrie who has written many other pieces for the magazine, none as contemplative as this one. It is obvious that Guthrie was wanting a little deviation from her normal, in pointing out problems in the beloved movie, Sixteen Candles. In the recent aftermath of the #MeToo movement, a lot of widely celebrated people and their creations were under review for any previously missed red flags, and this piece seems to be one of those. Guthrie's take on Sixteen candles is controversial because of its cult classic status. She admits to not having seen it originally, but watching it recently through her 21st century lens and being appalled.

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This article was published in April of 2022 through the journal of Sexuality and Culture with Springer Nature. It was written by Morgan Brewington, Jana Hackathorn, and Alex Velez. All three authors are affiliated with Murray State University of Mississippi. Hackathorn is a psychology professor there, Brewington recieved her Bachelor's degree there, and Velez completed Graduate school there. This document exists to review the types and frequencies of sexism throughout the last decades of popular movies. These movies being so popular makes this topic controversial. People don't like being informed that one of their cult classic favorites is wrong or bad in any way.

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sexism, prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls. Although its origin is unclear, the term sexism emerged from the "second-wave" feminism of the 1960s through '80s and was most likely modeled on the civil rights movement's term (prejudice or discrimination based on race). Sexism can be a belief that one sex is superior to or more valuable than another sex. It imposes limits on what men and boys can and should do and what women and girls can and should do. The concept of sexism was originally formulated to raise consciousness about the oppression of girls and women, although by the early 21st century it had sometimes been expanded to include the oppression of any sex, including men and boys, intersex people, and transgender people.

Sexism in a society is most commonly applied against women and girls. It functions to maintain patriarchy, or male domination, through ideological and material practices of individuals, collectives, and institutions that oppress women and girls on the basis of sex or gender. Such oppression usually takes the forms of economic exploitation and social domination. Sexist behaviours, conditions, and attitudes perpetuate stereotypes of social (gender) roles based on one's biological sex. A common form of socialization that is based in sexist concepts teaches particular narratives about traditional gender roles for males and females. According to such a view, women and men are opposite, with widely different and complementary roles: women are the weaker sex and less capable than men, especially in the realm of logic and rational reasoning. Women are relegated to the domestic realm of nurturance and emotions and, therefore, according to that reasoning, cannot be good leaders in business, politics, and academia. Although women are seen as naturally fit for domestic work and are superb at being caretakers, their roles are devalued or not valued at all when compared with men's work.

The extreme form of sexist ideology is misogyny, the hatred of women. A society in which misogyny is prevalent has high rates of brutality against women-for example, in the forms of domestic violence, rape, and the commodification of women and their bodies. Where they are seen as property or as second-class citizens, women are often mistreated at the individual as well as the institutional level. For example, a woman who is a victim of rape (the individual or personal level) might be told by a judge and jury (the institutional level) that she was culpable because of the way she was dressed.

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Sexism | Definition, Types, Examples, & Facts

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Sexism, prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls. Although its origin is unclear, the term 'sexism' emerged from the 'second-wave' feminism of the 1960s through '80s and was most likely modeled on the civil rights movement's term 'racism.'

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sexism, prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls. Sexism can be a belief that one sex is superior to or more valuable than another sex. It imposes limits on what men and boys can and should do and what women and girls can and should do.

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Film intervention increases empathic understanding of formerly incarcerated people and support for criminal justice reform _ PNAS

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Contrary to most other prejudice reduction methods, the effects of the entertainment-education sitcom persisted for at least 4 weeks. As predicted, greater identification with members of the target group was associated with reduced prejudice in the entertainment-education condition.

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This article was written by Jordyn McEvoy for Hollywood Insider as an honest and illuminating opinion piece on the state of Romance/Comedies today. She talks of many different areas of sexism within the film industry, from the writing room to who's being taught these convoluted messages. It was published on September 12th in 2020. Since then, more movies with forward-thinking plots have come out, but not nearly as many as would be appreciated.

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It is hard not to love a Disney movie. They are entertaining for both kids and adults and often have a heartwarming message. Yet, it is also hard not to wonder if some of the messages and storylines in these movies might have a negative impact on children. Many people argue that Disney promotes consumerism, negative female gender stereotypes, toxic masculinity, and unrealistic body standards. So does the research provide any insight into whether Disney movies, TV shows, and merchandise have a positive or negative impact on children?

Concerns about Disney Princesses (and Princes)

Research finds that 50 percent of young girls engage with media related to Disney princesses at least once per month and 29 percent of young boys engage with this type of media once per month. It is so common that only 4 percent of girls and 13 percent of boys report never engaging with princess media.

One concern about Disney princesses is that they may have a negative impact on body image. Most Disney princesses have an unrealistic body that often includes a tiny waist-to-hip ratio (even tinier than Barbies). In addition, the waist-to-hip ratio for Disney princesses is less than that of Disney female villains, suggesting that these movies may promote the "skinny is good" stereotype. The Disney princess dolls also tend to be very thin with tight clothing and high-heeled shoes. This is concerning since research finds that exposure to unrealistically thin bodies in media may make some women more likely to report feeling bad about their own bodies.

A second common concern is that Disney princesses may promote negative gender stereotypes about women. Disney princesses have historically conformed to traditional gender roles (being portrayed as physically weak, attractive, nurturing, submissive, and fearful). Disney princesses have also been portrayed as being more valued for their physical appearance than other traits. Again, this pattern seems to be improving in recent years, with films placing more value on female characters' skills and intellect (for example, Moana and Raya).

Research finds that more recent Disney princesses have been more independent, less focused on romantic relationships, and just as likely to be a "hero" as the male characters. When research includes these more "modern" princesses, they find no difference between female and male characters in intelligence, ability, or story role (yet they still find differences in terms of occupations, leadership, and attractiveness). However, research suggests that these more "progressive" female characters may not change children's perception of a "princess," and children may not even view characters such as Moana as "princesses." In addition, even in more recent years, there are still more male characters than female characters in Disney movies and a linguistic analysis found that male characters tend to speak more than female characters in most Disney films (see graph below).

In addition, many Disney movies do not pass the "Bechdel Test." The Bechdel Test is a measure of gender stereotypes in a movie. It requires that, in a movie: 1) there are at least two female characters, 2) the two female characters have a conversation, and 3) the conversation is about something other than men. For example, Aladdin includes only one female character with a speaking role, and the Lion King includes several female characters, yet they do not interact, so both would fail the Bechdel Test. Exceptions include Brave, Mulan, Frozen, and the Princess and the Frog.

Disney princess movies also tend to have "hyper masculine" princes or male characters. These characters tend to be aggressive, strong, brave, unemotional, and rejecting of anything feminine. This is concerning since men who adhere to hyper-masculine norms may have more negative attitudes towards women. However, like the female characters, the male Disney characters seem to be changing in recent years with characters such as Kristoff in Frozen, who show weakness and emotion.

The Impact of Disney Princesses (and Princes) on Child Development

So we have discussed the potential concerns about Disney media and why it might impact children, but does research actually find any links between engaging with Disney media and child development? Sarah Coyne addressed this question through two longitudinal studies (translation: studies that follow children over time to study developmental trends). In the first study, her research team found that 4- and 5-year-old children who watched more TV shows and movies involving Disney princesses showed more stereotypically feminine behavior one year later, such as focusing on beauty or appearance, showing more kind and helpful behavior, and being more interested in female domains such as cooking and child care. Although there is nothing "wrong" with stereotypically feminine behavior, the researchers expressed concern that adhering to these stereotypical gender roles may make children feel limited in what they can do in the future.

However, a follow-up study when the children were 10 and 11 years old suggests a different result. Specifically, the researchers found that girls who were more interested in princesses at 4 to 5 years actually showed more egalitarian attitudes about women (seeing women and men as equal) at 10 to 11 years. The researchers also found that children from lower income families who engaged more with princess media showed more positive body image and less acceptance of hyper-masculinity.

Yet, one issue with these longitudinal studies is that children were not randomly assigned to engage with princesses. The children and families who choose this type of media are different from those who do not. One study randomly assigned children to watch a brief princess video with appearance-related content (like the scene in Beauty and the Beast where Gaston says that Belle is the most beautiful girl in the world) or another video without appearance-related content (like Dora the Explorer). They found that watching the Disney clip did not increase girls' appearance-related concerns. Another study found no impact on toy preference, prosocial behavior, or perseverance when girls were randomly assigned to dress up in Disney princess costumes. However, these studies are limited since children were only briefly exposed to the video clip and the costumes in the laboratory rather than a childhood full of these influences.

Ultimately, further research is needed on the topic, but there is currently no consistent research linking watching movies or TV shows with Disney princesses to negative gender attitudes or body image in young children.

The Messages of Disney Movies

Many parents are also concerned about the messages and themes of Disney movies. Although there is usually a "happy ending," many Disney movies involve aggression, promotion of stereotypes, a focus on unrealistic romantic relationships, absent parents, and portraying some people as "villains." It seems that we should take these criticisms seriously since Disney movies represent some of the first stories that our children hear. So are the messages from these movies positive or negative, and what impact might these messages have on our children?

Indeed, research finds that many Disney movies (particularly older movies) promote gender, racial/cultural, and socioeconomic class stereotypes. Most Disney movies also involve frequent negative references to mental illness (such as calling characters "crazy" or "nuts"). Disney movies also tend to demonize anyone who engages in "bad" behavior, with 74 percent of Disney movies referring to someone as "evil" with an average of 5.6 "evil" references per film. This is concerning because we would not want our children to label someone who makes a mistake as "evil" or "bad" (or perhaps even worse, to label themselves as "evil" or "bad").

Research also finds that Disney movies on average involve nine instances per hour of indirect aggression (gossiping, spreading rumors, excluding others).However, indirect aggression in Disney movies is typically shown in a bad light and most often used by villain-like characters, suggesting it may be less likely to be imitated by children.

On the other hand, research finds that most Disney movies (73 percent) include messages about loving yourself and others, and 27 percent include themes related to morality or values. Disney movies also have an average of one prosocial act per minute (translation: a prosocial act is anything that involves helping, cooperating, sharing, comforting or giving to others). This is important since prosocial behavior in mediais associated with more positive behavior and attitudes in children.

One research study even found that when children were randomly assigned to watch a Disney movie clip showing one character helping another, they were more likely to help a friend.

Disney may even have a positive impact on adults. Research finds that when adult women were randomly assigned to watch Disney movies during chemotherapy, theywere less tense and worried less. They also showed a higher quality of life during treatment and less fatigue.

While Disney movies may promote stereotypes and include indirect aggression, they may also contain prosocial messages.

Practical Tips

This research is both concerning and reassuring. As with all parenting decisions, the research is only there to help inform our decision, rather than make the decision for us. If Disney movies and TV shows make you uncomfortable and/or don't align with your family values, it would be a reasonable decision to not allow this type of media. However, if you love Disney despite its potential limitations and want to share this love with your child, the following research-backed tips may help you to feel more comfortable about some of the concerns listed above:

1. Decide in advance which movies and TV shows you will allow your child to watch, given your own family values and your understanding of your child. You may only allow movies with main characters that defy gender stereotypes, or you may prefer movies that have a prosocial message (such as Moana). Either way, it is always easier to make these decisions in advance rather than debating with your child or parenting partner in the moment.

2. Watch Disney movies and TV shows with your child using a research-backed strategy called "active mediation." Active mediation means discussing the characters' choices or general themes with the goal of promoting critical thinking in children. Active mediation while watching TV shows and movies helps children to become "critical consumers" of media. Examples of active mediation can include asking about the consequences of the characters' "bad" choices ("Will that choice actually make them happy? How will it affect others around them? What could they have done instead?"), challenging stereotypes ("Does it seem like that character is making an assumption based on looks?" "Do you think that is true of all people who look like that character?"), and praising the characters' positive behavior ("I love how they help the animals too," or "Wow, it's amazing that they would help other characters even though they are scared").

3. When watching Disney shows or movies (or any media that is overly focused on appearance), help your child to notice and focus more on personality qualities of the characters (such as being brave, strong, kind, or generous) rather than physical appearance. Point out when characters have bodies that are "unrealistic" and explain that appearance isn't as important as some of these movies or shows may suggest.

4. Help children to distinguish between reality and fantasy in Disney movies. Some scenes in Disney movies may be scary or disturbing for young children. These scenes may cause nightmares or increase feelings of fear. Although it may seem obvious to you, make sure to explain to your children that scary scenes are "make-believe" and would not happen in real life. Research finds that young children get better at distinguishing fantasy versus reality when you provide more information. For example, you could say, "You see how the people are flying in this movie? That would never happen in real life, so you know this is just a pretend story," or "Have you ever seen a monster like that in real life? That's how you know that this monster is just make-believe."

5. If a theme or message in a movie or TV show does not align with your family values, explain that to your children and talk about it. For example, I will never forget my feminist mother explaining to my sister and me after watching Cinderella that marriage is not the solution to every one of life's problems. Researchers have suggested that parents can use the themes and messages from Disney movies as a way to jumpstart important conversations with children (see here for a cheat sheet with all of the major themes and messages from Disney movies). You can use Disney movies to discuss both when the message is consistent with your family values or beliefs and when it is not. Research suggests that these types of conversations are most effective when parents support the child's autonomy (when parents explain their reasoning and ask for their children's feelings and perspectives).

6. Help your child to understand that people are not "good" versus "bad" or "princesses/princes/heroes" versus "villains." Instead focus on their actions, choices, and thought patterns ("Was that a good choice?", "That decision didn't seem very thoughtful", "Was he/she thinking about others when he/she did that?" or "It seems like that character made a mistake").

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Are Disney Princess Movies "Bad" for Kids?

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The research behind Disney princesses (and princes), movies, and TV shows.