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Harvard Reference - Frances G. Sussman, J. Randall Freed. 2008. Adapting to Climate Change: A Business Approach, Arlington, VA: Pew Center on Global Climate Change. Accessed 20/10/23

This Report titled "Adapting to Climate Change: A Business Approach" portrays how a business would approach and adapt to the physical risks of Climate Change. Whilst it does this well, it also mentions opportunities that Climate Change might present such as new markets for new products.

In this report, it provides guidance and structure to businesses on how to adapt to the risks of Climate Change. It is presented in a simple way for the reader to understand and for businesses to apply.

The use of Real-world examples shows how climate change is already having an effect on businesses and that businesses have had to adapt to issues caused by Climate Change such as Diavik Diamond Mines in Canada.

However, due to the article being published in 2004, it may be outdated due to the rapid growth of Climate change in the last 19 years. Some of the guidance given, may not be effective anymore which is a real weakness of this article.

Both Authors are credible, with both of them having experience in Climate Change and have published many articles and reports on this topic.

The Publisher, Pew Center on Global Climate Change is a well-respected organisation that has a specific focus on Climate Change.

It is also very reliable with its references used to support there points - their references include industry reports and academic research. It also mentions how the report has been peer-reviewed by doing this it ensures the accuracy and quality of the report.

The purpose of this report is to show businesses about the risks and opportunities Climate Change may possess with guidance on how to deal with the risks make the most with the opportunities presented.

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Harvard Reference - David Kiron et al. 2013. How Serious Is Climate Change to Business?, Massachusetts: MIT Sloan. Accessed on 20/10/23

In this Management Review, "How Serious Is Climate Change to Business?" they have carried out a questionnaire with all the answers coming from managers within numerous Companies. The leading question being: 'How are Managers thinking about Climate Change?' within this leading question,  they asked about urgency, preparation and changes in business model because of Climate Change.

From Looking at the questionnaire, the main question that stands out is about the urgency of Climate Change, with only 8% of managers believe that climate change is urgent with over 50% of managers asked, believe that Climate Change is slightly urgent or not urgent at all. This shows that the urgency of Climate change is not having an effect on Mangers as right now it is something they're not worried about - there's other urgent problems ahead of Climate Change and its potential major impact.

A weakness of of this Management Review, is that the questionnaire does not go into depth on the managers answers for each question. As they only have a few choices to answer which does not allow them to expand on their answer. If a detailed response was given, it would help in understanding their answer given.

As this management review was published in 2013, it is possible that the managers asked, views may have changed which shows the accuracy of this Management Review may not be up to standard as Climate Change has become much more of a bigger issue in the last 10 years with businesses taking Climate Change a lot more serious.

The Credibility/Reliability of this article is very good with the Authors, being experts in their fields and have conducted many management reviews previously on sustainability.

The purpose of this article is to show how managers are responding/thinking about climate change and their connection between climate change and their businesses.

It is also important to educate managers reading and encourage them to take steps and action to address issues caused by Climate Change.

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Harvard Reference - Per-Anders Enkivst, Tomas Naucler, Jeremy Oppenheim, 2008. Business Startegies for climate change. Stockholm: TheMcKinseyQuarterly. Date Accessed 02/11/23

The article "Business strategies for Climate Change" focuses on Climate Change and specific ways in which businesses could help reduce climate change such as shifting to a low-carbon economy and reducing greenhouse gases. It also addresses the potential opportunities and challenges businesses are likely to face with Climate Change becoming a bigger problem.

From reading this article, a strength is that it provides insight to businesses on how they can achieve growth in a time of Climate Change and gives practical advice for businesses which is backed up with data, in the form of graphs and charts to back up their points made.

However, a weakness of this article is that it was published in 2008, as Climate Change has developed majorly some of these points may not be as accurate and applicable as it was when it was published.

The Authors have published many articles on global issues such as Climate Change, Greenhouse gas reductions, and carbon emission reductions in which they are experts in these topics. The article also cites reliable sources such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) which is a company that informs businesses on the risks and impacts of Climate Change. In addition, the publisher is reliable and reputable which provides confidence to the reader.

The purpose of this article is to address the seriousness of climate change and how businesses can prepare, change, and overcome it - it includes strategies and any challenges/opportunities they may face during this time of Climate Change.

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Havard Reference -  Thomas A. Tsalis, Ioannis E. Nikolaou. 2017. Assessing the Effects of Climate Change Regulations on the Business Community: A System Dynamic Approach. Xanthi, Greece: Wiley Online Libary. 13/10/23

This article, "Assessing the effects of Climate Change Regulations on the business community" it talks about the positive and negative impacts climate change has had on businesses.

The article talks about how businesses may use Climate Change as an opportunity to increase corporate profitability and to gain a competitive advantage over rivals and other businesses.

For the company, this could be beneficial in getting a competitive advantage over rival companies as this leads to greater profit and may lead to consumers switching from a rival to your company.

However, they talk about how Climate Change can also pose threats to businesses in two categories - Direct and Indirect.

The direct risks include physical impacts climate change has had such as Weather Conditions and the Indirect risks include the reputation of the company and the regulations Climate Change has set.

With Regards to the credibility of the article, I think that it is very credible as the Authors have written many articles on Sustainability - The impact it has on businesses, and other articles related to Climate Change.

The reliability of this article is shown, with the citations coming from reliable Articles and Journals which have been used throughout the article to state information to back up their initial points. The Authors of the article are also affiliated with Democritus University of Thrace in Greece.

The purpose of this article is to show how businesses can manage the risks associated with climate change and challenges businesses may face with the new climate change regulations/ environmental regulations come into play and how managers can strategize to face climate change.

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Harvard Reference- Cosma, S., Principale, S. and Venturelli, A. (2022), "Sustainable governance and climate-change disclosure in European banking: the role of the corporate social responsibility committee", Corporate Governance, emerald insight, 20/10/23.

This article article explores how sustainable governance and climate change discourse are connected in European banking and specifically focuses on on the role of corporate social responsibility in driving climate change. This study provides insights into how these committees can promote sustainable practices in the banking industry. The article published in 2022 shares a current form of research on this topic which makes the research up to applicable to todays society.

This article has many uses of secondary research, which makes this article more reliable as all claims are backed up by sufficient evidence proving to be a trustworthy source.

Although, this article may lack generalisability since its specific to European banks so may not paint the most reliable view on business as a whole as it is only specific to Europe.

The authors of the article; Simona Cosma of the Department of Sciences of the Economy. Salvatore Principale, Department of Law and Economics of Productive Activities, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy. Andrea Venturellie

Department of Economics Sciences, Università del Salento, Lecce, Italy. These authors are all specifically educated in different fields making them trustworthy authors on this topic. Also the article was published on emerald insight which is a trusted website for journals and articles giving to reader confidence that they can rely in the articles published on on this website.

The purpose of the article is to educate people, although a weakness may be that it’s not necessarily geared towards the general public and is industry specific which only gives a specific view on the impact climate change has on business.

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Abstract

Purpose

The purposes of this paper are: firstly, to assess the disclosure related to climate change (CC) by major European banks to understand if the banks have grasped the most substantive aspects of the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD) recommendations and secondly, to evaluate the contribution of a non-traditional committee (i.e. corporate social responsibility (CSR) committee) to TCFD-compliant disclosure.

Design/methodology/approach

Using content analysis and ordinary least squares regressions on a sample of 101 European banks, this study sought to investigate completeness, tone and forward-looking orientation of CC disclosure and explore the relationships between CSR committee and previous disclosure aspects.

Findings

This study shows that European banks have been able to reach an intermediate level of adequacy of compliance in terms of completeness of information but forward-looking orientation seems to be the aspect that needs the most improvement. The existence of a CSR committee dedicated to sustainability issues seems to constitute the difference between the banks in terms of disclosure. The results highlight vulnerabilities in disclosure and board characteristics relevant for improving CC disclosure.

Practical implications

Firms interested in strengthening stakeholder engagement and capturing strategic opportunities involved in CC should be encouraged to establish a CSR committee and appoint female directors in financial companies. This paper should be of interest to policymakers, governance bodies and boards of directors considering the initiative of corporate sustainable governance complementary to Directive 2014/95/EU on non-financial reporting by the European Commission.

Originality/value

To the best of the authors' knowledge, no prior study has investigated the relationship between the CSR committee and the application of the TCFD's recommendations in the European banking industry.

Citation

Cosma, S., Principale, S. and Venturelli, A. (2022), "Sustainable governance and climate-change disclosure in European banking: the role of the corporate social responsibility committee", Corporate Governance, Vol. 22 No. 6, pp. 1345-1369. https://doi.org/10.1108/CG-09-2021-0331

Publisher
:
Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright

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Sustainable governance and climate-change disclosure in European banking: the role of the corporate social responsibility committee

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Sustainable governance and climate-change disclosure in European banking: the role of the corporate social responsibility committee - Author: Simona Cosma, Salvatore Principale, Andrea Venturelli

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Harvard Reference- Jawad, A. 2019 Impact of total quality management on corporate green performance through the mediating role of corporate social responsibility.20/10/23

This article as shown above published by science direct, discusses the “Impact of total quality management on corporate green performance through the mediating role of corporate social responsibility” which has been found through the use of Google Schollar. This article aims to highlight the pressure business, specifically within manufacturing have faced over the last 20 years to consider the impact of their operations on the environment as a result of increasing pollution which in turn pushes companies to use a more Green approach such as alternatively using renewable energy.

This article, published in 2019 holds a relevant and current discussion about the environmental impacts on businesses and provides an applicable perspective to the research at hand by exploring different types of secondary research that the author has found and compiling it together to look at different ways businesses can be more conscious of its environmental impacts.

This article, after extensive examination proves to be of sound reliability. The author is part of the Department of Business Administration, Iqra University, Islamabad Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan. This suggests that he has conducted his research from an impartial perspective with no ulterior motive other than for the purpose of educating. His thorough use of secondary research also implies that this article has a stronger reliability due to its large amount of evidence to support the research which seem to be from trustworthy sources.

As previously mentioned the author appears to be writing this article for educational purposes and not necessarily for any personal gains. Aswel science direct where the article is published is the worlds leading source of for scientific, technical and medical research meaning that articles published on this website should give the reader confidence in the integrity of the research.

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During the last two decades, businesses, particularly the manufacturing ones, started facing growing pressure from different stakeholders to consider the impact of their operations on the natural environment (Abbas and Sağsan, 2019). The continuous efforts by the ecologists to create public awareness about declining natural resources (Wijethilake, 2017), change in natural climate and significant increase in the air, water and soil pollution (Li et al., 2018) is pushing manufacturing firms to abandon their reliance on fossil energy resources causing environmental hazards and start capitalizing on renewable resources (Ji and Zhang, 2019; Sepehri and Sarrafzadeh, 2018). In addition to increased customers' awareness, local and international regulations to preserve the natural environment also have forced businesses to consider the impact of their operations on the natural environment and follow environment-friendly (Davenport et al., 2018) or green production processes (Fernando et al., 2019). This scenario has also changed the demands and preferences of customers and encouraged them to opt the products or services of firms causing minimum damage to the natural environment (Masocha, 2018). For this reason, companies have to ensure not only quality in their products and services, but also make it certain that their activities are not harming the natural environment.

Corporate green practices have great potential to counter the issues pertaining to the natural environment. The concept of corporate green performance (CGP) focuses on introducing new or improving the existing products or processes (Amores-Salvadó et al., 2014) in a way that it not only fulfils the customers' expectations with respect to quality, but also results in improved environmental performance (Yu and Huo, 2019). CGP is linked with green product, green process (Xie et al., 2019) and green management (Li et al., 2018) practices to mitigate the environmental challenges caused by production activities. Green innovation is also linked with CGP through which firms introduce new technologies which enable them to produce, assimilate or exploit product, process or management activities which minimize environmental issues, such as pollution, and resources consumption, caused by organizational activities. However, according to Zhang et al. (2019) and Wang (2019), studies pertaining to green performance are in the early phase and there is a strong need to enrich the literature on this area.

One of the factors which could help organizations to enhance their green performance is total quality management (TQM). TQM is a management system that has the potential to boost the individual as well as organizational performance. It not only facilitates organizations to attain competitive advantage (Zwain et al., 2017), but also leads to the development of competitive products and services, with superior quality, at minimum cost and delivery time (Qasrawi et al., 2017). TQM is also believed to be an environment-friendly system as it aims to minimize waste through efficient utilization of resources (Yusr et al., 2017). Moreover, through its focus on training and development and continuous improvement in all aspects (Hollingworth and Valentine, 2014), TQM greatly enhances individual capabilities to innovate new or improve the performance of existing products or services (Shafiq et al., 2017). TQM may thus play a pivotal role in enhancing organizations capabilities to achieve green performance objectives.

Another factor which could enable firms to achieve green performance objectives is corporate social responsibility (CSR) (Shahzad et al., 2019). CSR is a voluntary initiative of firms to integrate the social and environmental concerns with the business operations (Gazzola and Pellicelli, 2009). Through CSR, firms take initiatives to preserve the social, cultural and economic aspects of the environment in which they operate (Raimi, 2017), and make an investment in the development of human capital (European-Commission, 2011). Saunila et al. (2018) and Makhdoom and Anjum (2016) stated that the philosophical roots of TQM, CGP and CSR concepts are similar. The more a firm invest in quality and social and environmental aspect, the more likely it is to achieve excellence in green performance.

Firms following quality management (Kenneth et al., 2019) and green performance strategies (Huang and Li, 2017) have great potential to respond to issues pertaining changing customers' preferences with respect to quality and green environment. However, according to Fernando et al. (2019) and Wang (2019), studies pertaining to green performance are in the early phase and there is a strong need to enrich the literature on this area. Moreover, different researches on this topic have yielded mix results. For instance, Li et al. (2018) analysed the impact of TQM on green innovation performance in Chinese manufacturing firms and found a significant negative relationship between the two variables. Zeng et al. (2017) also concluded that quality and environment management practices negatively affect the performance of firms. However, on the other side, Tasleem et al., (2018) found a positive correlation between TQM and corporate sustainable development. The study of Shahzad et al. (2019) on the impact of knowledge absorptive capacity and CSR on CGP also indicated significant positive results. However, Zhang et al. (2019) termed the achievement of CGP objectives with the government financial and technical support since it results in increased production time and cost.

These mixed results pertaining to different components of TQM, CGP and CSR signify the need for exploring the relationship between these variables in a comprehensive manner. Moreover, according to Li et al. (2018), there is scarce literature on the relationship between TQM and CGP, particularly in developing countries, such as Pakistan, where sustainability and green performance concepts are at an introductory level. Given TQM's prominence in the modern business world, this study will explain how manufacturing businesses capitalise on their critical resources (such as TQM) to achieve green performance objectives, and how CSR mediates this relationship. The researcher adopted six TQM practices based on the American 'Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award' (MBNQA), namely leadership, customer focus, strategic planning, process management, HRM, and information and analysis. Following Xie et al. (2019) and Li et al. (2018) recommendations CGP is measured through three dimensions, namely green product, green process, and green management performance. Finally, CSR is measured through three indicators, that is community, customers, and employees. Therefore, the current study aims to answer the following questions:

RQ1: What is the impact of total quality management on corporate green performance?

RQ2: Do corporate social responsibility mediate the relationship between total quality management and corporate green performance?

The current study will not only bridge the literature gap on the relationship between TQM, CGP, and CSR, but will also provide valuable insights to the management of manufacturing firms to achieve green development objectives through TQM and CSR. Considering the contextual factors, the current study takes organizational size (medium and large) as a control variable so that it can be explored that does firm-size matters to achieve CGP objectives.

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Impact of total quality management on corporate green performance through the mediating role of corporate social responsibility

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Considering the environmental deterioration mainly caused by manufacturing industries and inadequate studies identifying the factors facilitating firm...

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Harvard Reference- Huang, Q. and Lin, M., 2022. Do climate risk beliefs shape corporate social responsibility?. Global Finance Journal. 24/10/23.

This article discusses how climate change impacts the US economy and the importance of corporate social responsibility in mitigating those impacts. It was published in 2022 which makes this a current piece of research and in turn adds to the relevance that this shows the relationship between business and climate change.

As previously mentioned, this is a recently produced article which adds to its relevance of this research but also the reliability as it assures the reader an extensive literature review was undertaken whilst writing the paper.

The author of this article Qiping Huang of the University of Dayton and Meimei Lin of Georgia Southern University, can be trusted as reliable writers of this article as they are educated in this field of work. As well, the publisher science direct is a trusted research engine making it a valuable piece of research.

This research is for educational purposes, it is trying to bring awareness and is not for personal gain such as to make you purchase a product etc. Additionally the authors seem to be researching objectively which further adds to the point of this being for educational purposes.

Although this research has plenty of secondary research to support the evidence, evidence used fails to use specific examples and case study’s of how firms respond uniformly to climate change. This would help provide a better understanding of how businesses respond to climate challenges.

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Do climate risk beliefs shape corporate social responsibility?

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Global climate change is one of the most pressing issues of our time, potentially affecting everyone, both individuals and businesses. This paper exam...

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Harvard Reference- Allen, M.W., Craig, C.A. Rethinking corporate social responsibility in the age of climate change: a communication perspective. Int J Corporate Soc Responsibility 1, 20/10/23.

This article explores different ways of moving forward with corporate social responsibility in relation to climate change. Although this article was published in 2016 making it a fairly current outlook on climate change and business, it’s important to consider that there is significant research and growth since this article was published. This is a weakness as the time frame of this being released may affect the relevance of the information within the article and more relevant research may be available more recently to this release.

The author has used thorough evidence throughout, consistently using secondary research to strengthen the reliability of the article. The article was also published on springer link which is a reading platform used by hundreds of thousands of researchers worldwide. This reinforces the reliability of the article as it suggests the information published is a trustworthy and backed up by research.

The authors, Myria Allen and Christopher Craig are both from the university of Arkansas. Myria is from the department of communications and Christopher is from the Environmental Dynamics Department which suggests they both are educated on the topic at hand, it also implies that they are capable at conducting reliable research to a high standard in their specialised areas.

The purpose of this article as stated by the authors is for them to act as ambassadors for climate action, by focusing on solutions. This suggests that there is no present hidden agendas within this article, and that they are aiming to spread public awareness of climate risks.

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In 2015, working with the World Economic Forum, the CEOs of 43 companies operating in over 150 countries and territories representing 20 economic sectors signed an open letter to world leaders urging for concrete climate action (Open letter 2015). Together these companies generated over $1.2 trillion in revenue in 2014. In the letter they wrote,

We agree on the need for inspirational and meaningful global action and aligned messaging. We will act as ambassadors for climate action, focusing on solutions and economic opportunities and using "the science debate is over: climate change is real and addressable" as one of the common themes to raise public awareness. We will actively manage climate risks and incorporate them in decision making - not least to realize growth opportunities. We will take steps to implement effective strategies to strengthen not only our companies' but also societal resilience.

Climate change challenges present organizations (e.g., companies, corporations, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)), communities, and citizens with the need to redefine current views on corporate social responsibility (CSR) from a voluntary luxury as being a necessity. By midcentury, climate challenges are expected to seriously disrupt business-as-usual and change the way citizens live their lives around the world. Indeed, many countries are already experiencing the vanguard of challenges and many organizations are planning for the projected risks they will face (e.g., limited clean water, expensive and unreliable energy). This essay proposes refocusing CSR efforts in light of projected climate challenges and expanding our investigation into the role of communication in such efforts. Communication is more than a tool to craft a positive corporate image so as to gain or protect legitimacy. It is the means through which CSR sustainability-related initiatives are created and disseminated within organizations and among their key stakeholders (i.e., governments, communities, competitors, supply chains, employees).

In the following pages, projected climate change challenges are identified and the Paris 2015 response discussed, literature defining CSR, responsibility, and sustainability is reviewed, a brief history of CSR in the United States (U.S.) is provided, the need to study CSR globally is addressed, the role of communication is described, and some research agendas are offered to guide future scholarship appearing in the International Journal of Corporate Social Responsibility.

Climate change challenges

This essay focuses on CSR issues related to climate change and the corporate turn toward sustainability. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2013) released a report entitled Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. The report describes the very high probability by the late 21st century of increased temperatures and more heat waves over most land areas; increased frequency, intensity, and/or amount of heavy precipitation; increased intensity and duration of drought; increased intense tropical cyclone activity; and increased extreme high sea level. In terms of water, the World Resources Institute ( 2015) provides their Aqueduct map of global water risks, and rising sea levels are expected to contaminate coastal freshwater reserves, increase flooding risks, and displace large coastal populations. In 2010 almost 40 % of the U.S. population lived in counties on the shoreline. In terms of food production, warmer temperatures threaten food production requiring plants to use more water while encouraging more insects to proliferate leading to higher occurrence rates of vector-borne disease (IPCC 2014). Food costs and scarcity are projected to increase. Globally, climate is expected to increase the possibility of war (Department of Defense 2014), and the lack of food and/or water to migrating populations has been linked to recruitment by terrorist organizations.

Global climate change presents the most pressing issues for industry, government, and civil society this century (Okereke et al. 2012), and forecasts for the middle and the end of this century just in the U.S. are chilling (see National Climate Assessment 2014). Related environmental meta-trends (i.e., decreased freshwater access and global climate change) are threatening to disrupt organizational operations due to reduced resource supply (e.g., inadequate water) and the potential for a displaced workforce and customer base (Shen et al. 2011; Wei and Fang 2012). Climate change is expected to increase healthcare costs, disrupt access to and lead to higher costs for supply chain materials, and change tax structures as the public sector attempts to cope with intensified weather and climate conditions which challenge their ability to provide infrastructure and social-service support (Allen 2016). Climate change challenges increase risks to insurers and insurance costs for organizations and individuals (Tucker 1997; Wei and Fang 2012). For example, between 1980 and 2014 organizations, individuals, and governments in the Southeastern U.S. collectively experienced more billion dollar disasters related to extreme weather events than elsewhere in the U.S. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2015) and increased extreme events and climatic variability are projected to increase (Ingram et al. 2013). By 2050 the economic impact of extreme events and climatic variability is projected to increase financial losses by factors up to 3.9 times those currently experienced (Preston 2013). This further increases the necessity that organizational actors act now to mitigate climate changes and to avoid risks related to the changes.

Climate change has been linked to carbon emissions and reliance on fossil fuels is the primary driver of the increase in carbon. Between 1854 and 2010, the majority of carbon emissions negatively influencing rising temperatures globally are attributable to large energy producing organizations (Heede 2014; IPCC 2014). Climate change has also been positively linked to electricity consumption, and electricity consumption is projected to increase along with changing climatic variability and extreme weather events (Craig 2016; McFarland et al. 2015). As fossil fuels are used to generate electricity for organizational and individual consumers, carbon emissions are released and trapped in the Earth's atmosphere. When working correctly solar radiation from the sun passes through our atmosphere, some is trapped but most reflects back into space. Increasingly, the buildup of carbon trapped in our atmosphere hinders the ability of solar radiation to reflect off Earth surfaces and exit out of our atmosphere. This change effectively allows heat in but diminishes its ability to exit. The system is further complicated by the melting of more reflective ice, allowing for additional heat to be absorbed in the world's oceans and less solar radiation to be reflected (United Nations Environmental Programme 2013). The world's scientists have been warning the consequences for humanity can be very dangerous if we do not keep the global temperature rise below 2 °C.

The changing global conversation

Awareness of impending climate change challenges and the need to limit our use of fossil fuels and other forms of carbon emissions were discussed in 2009 at the United Nations Conference on Climate Change in Copenhagen. These discussions set the scene for a historic meeting in Paris in the winter of 2015 (i.e., COP 21). Prior to December 12, 2015, 186 countries published action plans for how they intend to reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. "This agreement marks a change in direction, towards a new world. It confirms the target of keeping the rise in temperature below 2 °C ...The agreement even establishes, for the first time, that we should be aiming for 1.5 °C, to protect island states, which are the most threatened by the rise in sea levels" (United Nations Conference on Climate Change 2015a). The agreement opened for signing by the countries on April 22 in New York. It only goes into effect if ratified by 55 countries, representing at least 55 % of emissions. An evaluation of the proposed action plans indicates that even with those changes the rate of global warming would be between 2.7 °C and 3 °C, still above the threshold recommended by scientists (United Nations Conference on Climate Change 2015b). Following the agreement, social media carried many enthusiastic comments generated by world leaders (United Nations Conference on Climate Change 2015c). Jim Yong Kim, 12 th president of the World Bank Group, commented "People rarely change the world when they work within the constraints of what they think is possible-the ambition of #COP21 is truly historic." Tony de Brum, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, commented "We have made history today. With this agreement I can go back home to my people and say we now have a pathway to survival". Narendra Modi, Prime Minister of India, commented the "Outcome of #ParisAgreement has no winners or losers. Climate justice has won & we are all working towards a greener future." However, Margot Wallström, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Sweden, wrote, "Felicitations! A global deal on climate change is an enormous achievement. But remember: A deal is only as good as its implementation".

Moving forward in the face of the threats posed by climate change, national governments are not the only actors. Our global response requires a renewed commitment of organizational actors to engage in meaningful sustainability and corporate responsiveness initiatives. Historically corporate actors (both large and small) have been a major cause of the problem. Recent evidence surfaced that Exxon knew of climate change in 1981 but funded deniers for 27 more years (Goldenberg 2015) while reporting on a wide variety of CSR-related activities, and there were certainly other corporate actors which have displayed a blatant disregard for anything beyond profit maximization and resource exploitation. However, increasingly businesses are recognizing the need to limit their carbon emissions and other natural resource use (e.g., water). In 2013 more than 500 businesses, including giants like General Motors, Nike, Starbucks, Levi Strauss, and Unilever, signed a Climate Declaration that urged U.S. policymakers to capture economic opportunities associated with addressing climate change (BICEP 2013). A variety of other initiatives exist to enlist companies in the fight against climate change including the Global Compact's Caring for Climate, the World Wildlife Federation's Climate Savers, and the Climate Group's RE100 initiative, part of the World Economic Forum. At COP 21 nonstate actors signed the Paris Pledge for Action (The pledge 2015) which reads,

As cities, regions, businesses, investors, civil society groups, trade unions and other signatories, coming from every sector of society and every corner of the world, we realize that dangerous climate change threatens our ability and the ability of future generations to live and thrive in a peaceful and prosperous world. We also realize that taking strong action to reduce emissions can not only reduce the risks of climate change but also deliver better growth and sustainable development.

For-profit organizations are not the only ones taking action. Cities are joining the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) which is the world's leading network of over 1000 cities, towns and metropolises committed to building a sustainable future; universities are signing the American College and University Presidents' Climate Commitment; and sports teams are joining the Green Sports Alliance (Allen 2016) as organizations of all types commit to changing the ways they run their operations and do business.

Now that some climate change challenges and organizational responses have been discussed, the focus shifts to CSR. It is important to have a better understanding of what CSR is and how it differs from organizational efforts surrounding sustainability. CSR efforts should be part of an organization's response to climate change challenges but are an insufficient response if not part of a larger coordinated corporate and industry effort. Today with our unfolding understanding of the impending impact of climate change on our species' survival, "Important initiatives are afoot within and outside corporate boundaries to .... broaden relationships between corporations and their multiple stakeholders, to apply consumer pressure toward social responsiveness ... and to convert what sometimes begin as the mere window dressings of corporate philanthropy and nods to community projects into meaningful and sustained efforts" (Cheney et al. 2007, p. 3).

Key concepts defined: responsibility, CSR, sustainability

What is corporate social responsibility? CSR is a well-known and widely used term in business, government, NGOs, and academia, but there is little agreement about what it means and what it entails (Brei and Böhm 2013). Yet scholars representing multiple academic disciplines (e.g., organizational and management studies, communication and marketing studies, international relations, political theory) are researching and writing about the topic. Buchholtz and Carroll ( 2008) write that CSR requires that business organizations encompass "the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary (philanthropic) expectations that society has of organizations at a given point in time" (p. 40). It is often used as an umbrella term that encompasses a range of ethical discourses and practices including business ethics, corporate philanthropy, and corporate citizenship. In these discussions, CSR generally involves discretionary organizational actions which means they are often sporadic, short-term, idiosyncratic (Brei and Böhm 2013), and loosely coupled with other organizational actions and actors. When allowed to select what social problems to focus on corporations will support a very narrow set of social needs and values (Shumate and O'Connor 2010) - those which ultimately will benefit the corporation. Depending on an organization's products and operations, the legal frameworks in the countries where they operate, and the strength of various civil society institutions different issues become the focus of their CSR efforts.

To better understand CSR we investigate the definition of responsibility. Responsibility is one of the three key words in CSR. Responsibility is the state, quality, or fact of being responsible. Responsible includes being legally or ethically accountable for the care or welfare of another, personally accountable or having the ability to act without guidance or superior authority, capable of making moral or rational decisions on one's own and therefore answerable for one's behavior, capable of being trusted or depended upon, characterized by good judgment or sound thinking, having the means to fulfill obligations, required to be answerable (American Heritage Dictionary 1982). We italicize key words in this definition most important to our understanding of CSR. Words like legal or ethically accountable, welfare of another, personal accountability, acting without guidance, rational decision-making, good judgement, and trust place the faith to take action in the hands of individual corporate actors often guided by their own self-interests and operating in changing legal and normative environments. We argue that CSR as practiced by many, but certainly not all, organizations is only loosely related to the word 'responsible'.

So CSR often is addressed through voluntary responses to an issue perceived to have ethical components. But it is difficult to identify what ethical obligations exist at a particular time and place. Some argue that corporate actors' fiduciary duty to their stockholders is a moral responsibility. However, increasingly armed with the knowledge of impending climate change challenges key spokespeople for various faith communities are talking about the corporate actors' moral responsibilities to act in humanity's best interests, and taking action themselves. For example, in his encyclical letter, Pope Francis ( 2014) wrote, "Many of those who possess more resources and economic or political power seem mostly to be concerned with masking the problems or concealing their symptoms" (sect. 26), "A true 'ecological debt' exists, particularly between the global north and south, connected to commercial imbalances with effects on the environment, and the disproportionate use of natural resources by certain countries over long periods of time" (sect. 51), "Economic powers continue to justify the current global system where priority tends to be given to speculation and the pursuit of financial gain, which fail to take the context into account, let alone the effects on human dignity and the natural environment. Here we see how environmental deterioration and human and ethical degradation are closely linked" (sect. 56). Other religious groups are speaking out. For example, The World Council of Churches and the Church of England Pensions Board signed the Paris Pledge (The pledge 2015). In terms of action, The Episcopal Church became the third and largest faith group in the U.S. to vote to divest from fossil fuel holdings so as to be more consistent with moral beliefs (Eisenstadter 2015).

What is sustainability? Although related, sustainability initiatives should not be conflated with CSR. The most frequently used definition of sustainability appearing in the scholarly literature focusing on organizations reads, "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (World Commission on Environment and Development 1987, p. 43). At its core sustainability is concerned with resource use consistent with the carrying capacity of our planet so as to maintain human life. Elkington ( 1999) linked corporate sustainability with the idea of the triple bottom line - profits, planets and people. An organization's economic, social, and environmental performance are interconnected. The economic dimension centers on the value creation and enhanced financial performance of an organization's sustainability-related activities. The social dimension encourages organizations to consider their impact on society and addresses issues such as community relations, support for education, and charitable contributions. The environmental dimension involves activities that do not erode natural resources due to prudent corporate environmental management efforts (Allen 2016). Of these three dimensions the social dimension, often constrained by the economic dimension, is most closely related to the issues commonly associated with CSR.

Today, sustainability is seen by many to be an attractive, if not necessary, development in how businesses operate. The main argument is there can be a positive relationship between environmental, social, and financial performance. Blackburn ( 2007) provides seven business case arguments including increased reputation and brand strength; more competitive, effective, and desirable products and services; new markets; productivity; lessened operational burdens and interference; lower supply chain costs; lower cost of capital; and less legal liability. In their review of related theories, research, and tools, Salzmann et al. ( 2005) conclude that the research does not show a strong causal relationship between the variables. However, a lack of unified findings is not surprising since an organization's performance depends on various organizational dynamics, its industry sector, the magnitude and types of environmental challenges faced, and the tools used to measure environmental, social and financial performance (Allen 2016).

The idea of sustainability extends CSR by focusing organizations and researchers on the need to equitably balance environmental and social concerns with economic concerns - a balance rarely really existing in CSR discussions which continue to privilege economic concerns, and to a much lesser extent social concerns. This privileging of economic concerns is evident in how Carroll ( 1991) described CSR's four segments. A business must pursue maximum profitability as an economic responsibility, be aware of and comply with all laws and regulations, operate in a way that respects the concerns and values of society at large -and adjust to new values and concerns, and support educational, religious, artistic, medical, social welfare, or other charitable endeavors in order to meet its philanthropic responsibilities. Critics argue that CSR often attempts to mask and silence historical struggles within communities and countries. Rather than helping deal with the social, environmental, and economic issues, CSR campaigns can actually blur the lines of accountability and responsibility between public and private actors (Brei and Böhm 2013).

A brief history of CSR and sustainability

In the U. S. what came to be called CSR emerged post World War II during a time of postwar prosperity, although its roots can be traced back to the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. According to Cheney et al. ( 2007) some scholars credit the idea of CSR to economics professor Howard R. Bowen who talked about the emergence of a new set of expectations for corporations in his book Social Responsibilities of the Businessman (1953). Several years later the iron law of responsibility emerged which argued that businesses' responsibility should be commensurate with their social power. Expectations regarding corporate philanthropy (i.e., the effort or inclination to increase the well-being of mankind, as by charitable aid or donations) emerged along with new governmental regulations, major regulatory agencies, and the birth of some strong public interest groups.

In the 1970s societal expectations shifted to ask what companies could do to better the world beyond merely ensuring their own survival. The 1970s was a period when multiple landmark environmental laws were passed in the U.S. (Cox 2013) which required polluting companies to take responsibility for some of the previously externalized consequences of their operations. In response to societal pressures and regulatory threats corporate actors began engaging in even more corporate political action, public affairs, lobbying, and public relations efforts. These efforts were focused on managing the public's normative expectations for corporate actors. Organizations began deciding how to act (or not) around issues such as resource degradation, pollution, carbon emissions, and climate change. How an organization positions itself strategically around such issues can influence that organization's legitimacy in the eyes of society and its key stakeholders. Legitimacy is "a generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs, and definitions" (Suchman 1995, p. 574). A legitimacy gap (Sethi 1979) exists when society expects something from an organization that it cannot or will not deliver, and this can present a threat for the organization (e.g., a loss in clients, customers, or donors; government sanctions; citizen protests; difficulty attracting employees). The quest to be perceived as a legitimate corporate actor remains a driving force behind CSR and sustainability efforts (Allen 2016).

In 1970 Milton Friedman's now classic essay appeared to a receptive business community. Friedman argued that the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits and that decisions regarding the allocation of scarce resources should be made by political, not market, mechanisms (Cheney et al. 2007). Friedman felt if businesses make decisions based on shareholder value then all would benefit. This became the neoliberal philosophy enacted through the trickle-down economics orientation which gained strength during the Reagan era and remains a dominant Discourse in the U.S. today. Discourses reflect the general and enduring systems of thought which, in turn, influence the formation and expression of ideas within a historically situated time (Grant et al. 2004). Friedman argued that a focus on social responsibility is "a fundamentally subversive doctrine" in a free society (as cited in Cheney et al. 2007, p. 6). Others argued that profit-making organizations have no legitimate interest in philanthropy and to do so distracts from their primary obligation of making a profit (Seeger and Hipfel 2007). The argument goes that profit-making organizations simply do not have the resources needed to solve social problems. Social problems should be solved by government and social welfare organizations. However, government's capacity and commitment to do so has diminished over time. In the 1980s government power to regulate economies was replaced by a more laissez fair, free market, neoliberal economy (Cheney et al. 2007). By the late 1980s the negative social effects of neoliberalism began emerging. Unemployment rose, the wealth gap widened dramatically, jobs moved overseas, the financial industry deregulated, and environmental degradation increased in the U.S. as businesses sought profit.

During the 1990s discussions of CSR expectations and offerings intensified as the corporate sector became the primary societal institution influencing social developments. Simultaneously, institutions more traditionally associated with the social good weakened (e.g., governments, religious, familial, educational, and community) (McMillan 2007). "Pursuing a narrow mission (i.e., shareholder profit) and without the influence of countervailing institutions, such as churches, small businesses, strong local civic organizations, and schools, the modern organization has also assumed the oversight of social responsibility" (p. 17). Some scholars see the emergence of CSR as part of a broader historical shift from government to governance which involves a new political role for corporations, often in cooperation with NGOs, where global social problems (e.g., poverty and health issues) previously seen as government's responsibilities (Brei and Böhm 2013) are addressed.

Today, CSR can be categorized into two streams (Brei and Böhm 2013), or contrasting perspectives (Dhanesh 2015]. Some scholars and institutions such as the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) see CSR as a way to fulfill businesses' commitment to economic development while simultaneously improving the quality of life of the workforce, their families, the community, and society at large (Brei and Böhm 2013). From this perspective wider societal aims for development and human well-being are part of the CSR agenda. The second stream of CSR is more focused on the strategic implications of CSR for corporations and less on its effects for society. An organization's financial performance is dependent on successful cooperation with stakeholders and shareholders (i.e., stakeholder management). Corporations are more likely to conduct and discuss CSR projects associated with economic benefits. In the last two decades, corporate involvement in aid and development projects emerged as a powerful corporate discourse because CSR could contribute to profits. Dhanesh ( 2015) talks about the two contrasting perspectives as involving the moral and the strategic. The moral perspective suggests that businesses engage in socially responsible behaviors because it is "the right thing to do" or they are motivated by intrinsic factors (e.g., ethical values and moral leadership). The strategic perspective suggests that businesses engage in CSR because of extrinsic motivators (e.g., market and institutional pressures) and expected benefits (e.g., profits, increased employee commitment, customer loyalty). A third perspective of CSR combines the two. Given the impending climate challenges being forecast globally it is likely that this third perspective will be the strongest impetus for CSR moving forward.

In terms of sustainability, following the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit of 1992, the WBCSD, which included 162 of the world's largest corporations, primarily represented by the manufacturing, mining and energy sectors, coauthored Changing Course: A Global Business Perspective on Development and the Environment, along with Stephan Schmidheiny ( 1992). In 2002, at the World Summit on Sustainable Development, the corporate leaders present articulated that business must be a major participant in sustainable development. Interest in sustainability have grown over the past decade (McIntosh 2007). "Multistakeholder engagement among business, government, and civil society, have resulted in a significant number of global voluntary corporate citizenship initiatives" (p. 46). Allen ( 2016) discusses many of these in terms of their importance to environmental sustainability including the Global Reporting Initiative (environmental reporting), the Carbon Disclosure Project (environmental reporting directed to the investment community), ethical workplace management systems certifications (SA8000), and sustainability management systems assurance (AA1000S). Some argue such voluntary mechanisms are replacing or preventing regulatory initiatives and therefore setting back real corporate responsibility (see McIntosh 2007). However, compliance with voluntary reporting guidelines and certification programs, along with legal changes, are beginning to change the normative environment of how businesses conduct themselves in terms of their environmental and social obligations. Also, such initiatives provide organizations with new metrics that can be utilized to bring about corrective actions.

CSR activities and sustainability initiatives are not without critics. There is a growing literature that critically addresses CSR practices and discourses (see Brei and Böhm 2013). Critics argue that short-term CSR actions are ineffective if not dangerous. Cause-related marketing campaigns often associated with CSR efforts allow organizations to make a profit due to global social problems (i.e., limited safe drinking water) especially in developing countries. CSR can function as a depoliticizing marketing practice that cements the role and power of corporate actors without delivering real improvements to people and communities. Critics argue that CSR is increasingly part of the problem, that half-hearted CSR campaigns are not effective, that CSR is just another management fad that supports wider corporate and capitalist ideologies, that CSR can have a devastating impact on workers, local communities and other stakeholders, and that modern CSR scholarship is irrelevant because it fails to articulate a realistic normative position or adequately study its subject. However, it is important to distinguish isolated CSR cause-related marketing campaigns from the more systematic and widespread changes occurring within the business communities as sustainability-related initiatives (e.g., carbon reporting, ethical workplace management systems certifications, sustainability management systems assurances) take hold. See Allen ( 2016) for a review of the major criticisms surrounding sustainability initiatives.

CSR as a global topic

The CSR tradition developed differently in other parts of the world (Cheney et al. 2007). In Europe social-democratic practices provided for a greater regulatory role for governments and corporations were expected to respond to social needs and demands. Governments and trade unions collaborated to exert social control over corporate actions in the publics' interest. The ecological modernization Discourse is stronger than in the U.S. where the sustainability Discourse predominates (Allen 2016). Distinctive models also developed in Japan and China. Dhanesh ( 2015) describes the key drivers of CSR in India. He argues that the practice of CSR is embedded within specific sociocultural contexts which means that CSR needs to be studied in situ. Currently little is known about CSR in emerging economies, and even less about specific sociocultural practices and traditions that drive CSR. However, research suggests that CSR is influenced by Confucianism in East Asia, by Kyosei in Japan, and by dharma in India.

Stohl et al. ( 2007) discuss the new generation of global CSR brought on by four previously identified dynamic processes of globalization: no distinction between 'out there' and 'in here'; 'glocalization' in new and old media forms; the complex network of organizational relations across sectors; and the permeability of public/private boundaries. We would add that the challenges brought on by global climate change add a new process that brings a critical new dimension to our need for serious discussions regarding global CSR.

Given the International Journal of Corporate Social Responsibility's aims as the journal develops we will learn more about these alternative histories, models, and drivers of CSR across the globe. Recent CSR scholarship is emerging from Scandinavia (e.g., Morsing et al. 2007), Asia (e.g., Whelan 2007), Singapore (e.g., Sriramesh et al. 2007), Mexico (e.g., Chavarria 2007), New Zealand (e.g., Lawrence 2007), and South Africa (e.g., Samkin and Lawrence 2007). Recent articles appearing in communication journals which focus on CSR have investigated informational technology companies in India (Chaudhri and Wang 2007); corporate websites (Tang et al. 2015), media discourse (Tang 2012), and social media (Yin et al. 2015) as they relate to CSR in China; CSR in Romania (White et al. 2011); CSR campaigns in Turkey (ÖztÜrk 2012); health literacy as an example of CSR in Europe (Sørensen and Brand 2011); ways to strengthen volunteerism in Germany's Deutsche Post DHL (Gupta 2011); and water conservation appeals in Thailand tourism resorts (Morgan and Chompreeda 2015). Coupling CSR research with the research on sustainability-related global supply chains (see Allen 2016) in developing countries provides us with a way to look at how various power dynamics influence how CSR is operationalized around environmental and social issues. CSR discourses often claim to be 'doing good to do good,' particularly in relation to delivering aid and development in so-called 'developing' countries, when that may not indeed be the case (Brei and Böhm 2013).

Communication, CSR, and sustainability

Researchers and practitioners need to think more broadly about the role of communication. Given the challenges associated with climate change, effective communication is absolutely essential for the purpose of mobilization; achieving buy-in and agreeing through consensus over priorities. Hence, a measure of "consensus and synergy is required across the board; from the board room to the boiler room; and from the federal government to municipal courts" (Okereke et al. 2012, p. 26). Communication is always present "when sustainability-related issues are conceived, defined, discussed, planned, initiated within and between organizations, modified, and, perhaps, terminated... and when various stakeholders encounter and react to the initiatives," (Allen 2016, p. 25). Communication is pragmatic when it educates, alerts, persuades and helps people enact sustainability initiatives within and between organizations (Cox 2013). Communication is constitutive as it orients people to consider a particular perspective, evokes certain values and not others, and creates referents for our attention and understanding. And, communication occurs at the intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, organizational, interorganizational, and macro environmental level. Theories and research exists to guide communicators at each level in creating CSR or sustainability related SMART (i.e., strategic, memorable, accurate, relevant, and trustworthy) messages and disseminating them through an organization, through a supply chain, and within interorganizational collaborations (see Allen 2016). Researchers interested in identifying useful theories surrounding CSR and/or corporate sustainability initiatives and/or potential research topics will find Allen's work particularly helpful.

Communication about CSR and sustainability has generally been narrowly thought of in terms of public relations, marketing, public affairs, and crisis management strategies. Most often communication was seen as a way to improve a corporate actor's reputation and legitimacy. Corporate sustainability communication (CSC) (Signitzer and Prexl 2008) grew out of the reactive public relations efforts of organizations' corporate social reports and environmental communication programs of the 1970s and 1980s when organizations in certain industries (e.g., chemical, oil) faced environmental scandals. Under pressure, they created communication programs which focused mainly on crisis communication and one-way reporting about environmental success stories. In this essay, due to space limitations we do not review research about CSR-related public relations and marketing efforts designed to minimize corporate crises. Rather our focus is on how communication can be used to change a corporate actor's operations so it becomes more responsive to its key stakeholders in terms of CSR and sustainability issues, used to create more sustainable supply chains, and used to help corporate actors become key partners in creating resilient communities.

Increasingly scholars are talking about the idea of corporate social responsiveness versus corporate social responsibility.

Responsiveness requires communication. Responsiveness emphasizes "how organizational processes and structures need to react to the social needs and values of a wide range of individuals and groups who have an interest in the organization ... Responsiveness concerns the relative permeability of the organization's boundaries and its willingness and ability to anticipate and adjust to society's changing character, needs, and values. In this way responsive organizations are able to be more socially responsible by virtue of their willingness to hear and respond to social needs, standards, and values" (Seeger and Hipfel 2007, p. 157). Responsiveness is an excellent goal, but, given the range of stakeholders who hold a corporate actor accountable (see Allen 2016), to whom should the corporate actor respond in addition to their stockholders? Given the anticipated threats associated with climate change and the multiple voices raised in Paris in December, 2015 at COP21, responsiveness is of critical importance at this time in human history.

Researchers should investigate the responsiveness of corporate actors in terms of CSR and sustainability issues in terms of reporting, stakeholder collaboration to create resilient communities and sustainable supply chains, and corporate activism in helping to change industry norms. Researchers then need to communicate their findings in other outlets in addition to scholarly journals - outlets that reach the business community and stakeholder groups interested in an organization's CSR or sustainability-related initiatives.

One commonly used communication channel past researchers have investigated CSR reports and, more recently, sustainability reports. Scholars have traced the evolution (e.g., Bowers 2010; Maharaj and Herremans 2008) and content of both types of reports (e.g., Morali and Searcy 2013; Tate et al. 2010). Social reports published in the 1970s and 1980s were often advertising instruments lacking honesty, transparency, significant quantitative data, explanations for trends, negative news, or proposed future actions to improve negative results. They largely occurred in response to public pressure following an environmental disaster and stressed regulatory compliance. By the end of the 1970s, although many companies stopped publishing such information, some were successful in their framing efforts (Allen 2016). However, with a renewed interest in gaining legitimacy and signaling their organization's commitment to corporate sustainability, corporate actors located across the globe are publishing more uniform reports often using the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) comprehensive sustainability reporting framework for measuring and reporting sustainability-related impacts and performance. In their 2011/2012 annual report, GRI summarized a study showing that 95 % of the world's 250 biggest companies disclosed sustainability performance information in 2011, and 80 % of those used the GRI guidelines.

The process of gathering data for and writing sustainability reports can benefit internal and external stakeholders. These reports offer a mechanism to present a company's values and governance model, and show how company strategy reflects its commitment to CSR and/or sustainability. Going through the process of report writing can help companies set and measure goals, understand the social and environmental impacts of their actions, and communicate about economic, environmental, social, and governance performance. Senior decision makers can use the report's information to shape organizational strategy and policies, and improve performance. However, the evidence suggests that such reports are rarely read across an organization and/or integrated into its key operations (e.g., Mitchell et al. 2012). Moving forward, we need fewer content analytic studies of CSR or sustainability report content and more studies investigating how corporate decision makers can use the report's content to drive true CSR or sustainability-related changes throughout their organizations. Rather than simple descriptive studies, more action oriented predictive models and theory development efforts are needed.

Earlier we reviewed arguments talking about the weakening role of government and the strengthening role of corporate actors in shaping our individual and community experiences. Moving forward in the face of impending climate change challenges, it is important that governments, corporate actors, and communities collaborate. Collaboration requires entities to develop and use effective communication skills and processes.

Determining the meaning of sustainability is a process involving all kinds of stakeholders in many contexts, i.e. people who may not agree with one another. In dealing with conflicts about how to organize, consume and produce in responsible ways, learning does not take place in a vacuum but rather in rich social contexts with innumerable vantage points, interests, values, power positions, beliefs, existential needs, and inequities (Wals and Schwarzin 2012, p. 13).

One of the most powerful tools we possess is our ability to collaborate as we problem solve, plan, implement, assess, and redesign in an ongoing process. Collaborative efforts have grown along with our knowledge of the challenges we face. Interorganizational collaboration efforts cross governments, scientific disciplines, geographic boundaries, and communities, and build on the strengths of various stakeholders working together (i.e., businesses, governments, NGOs, communities) to plan and implement interventions and responses. Communication is key to a successful collaboration and multiple useful communication theories and research studies exist in this area (see Allen 2016). However, future research is needed on how successful cross-sector communication can lead to the creation of more resilient communities and more sustainable supply chains.

Future researchers might follow the lead of Uysal ( 2014) who investigated how shareholder activism can be a driver for positive change in corporate CSR behaviors. Activism is a form of persuasive, and often public, communication. Investors increasingly use ownership rights to influence a corporation's CSR practices and policies. Socially responsible investing efforts integrate social, environmental, and economic responsibilities into investment processes. Such efforts have been present in the financial world in recent years, however, shareholder activism has received very limited scholarly attention in the field of communication. Strategic communication scholars note the need for more theory development and comprehensive empirical investigations into these efforts. It is important to study the impact and the processes associated with initiatives (e.g., the Carbon Disclosure Project) aimed at enlisting the investor community in helping change industry norms related to CSR and sustainability. Yet shareholder activism is not the only form of activism worthy of study. Future research is needed into how centrally located organizations within their industries' institutional field can shape the normative discourse within their industry toward more sustainable or socially responsible actions (Allen 2016). For example, the 43 CEOs (Open letter 2015) referred to at the beginning of this article are engaging in sustainability related corporate advocacy. They write that the private sector has a responsibility to actively engage in global efforts to reduce GHG emissions, and help lead the global transition to a low-carbon, climate-resilient economy. They hope to "catalyze and aggregate action and initiatives from companies from all industry sectors - towards delivering concrete climate solutions and innovations in their practices, operations and policies." They support clear and consistent policies and robust monitoring, reporting and verification, believing such actions will stimulate innovation and collaborative solutions.

The creation of the International Journal of Corporate Social Responsibility gives researchers representing every continent a valuable new forum for publishing scholarship that engages around the key words in the term corporate social responsibility, that addresses issues previously largely unaddressed (e.g., the role of communication in socially responsible investing), and that addresses global climate change challenges. Moving forward it is important to remember corporate actors, communities, governments, and individuals are all on a shared journey into a world forecast to undergo dramatic climate changes. Many are already committed to changing the path. And the journey is only possible through communication which employs SMART messaging.

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Rethinking corporate social responsibility in the age of climate change: a communication perspective - International Journal of Corporate Social Responsibility

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In the winter of 2015 world leaders presented plans for keeping the global temperature rise below 2 °C due to projected climate change threats. These threats present organizations, communities, and citizens with the need to change viewing corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a voluntary luxury to being a necessity.

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Harvard Reference - Okereke, C., Wittneben, B. and Bowen, F. (2012). Climate Change: Challenging Business, Transforming Politics. Business & Society. Accessed 20/10/2023

This article highlights some of the challenges businesses face due to climate change, and how they plan to adapt to these challenges.

Firstly, Sage publications has published many articles based around climate change beyond what's in this article alone making them quite a credible and reliable source. In this specific article it has aimed to cover multiple aspects of climate change 'challenging businesses'. This is done through the three research questions used to help keep the article well structured with developed points about; the challenges posed to businesses, how they aim to navigate around these challenges as well as creating further insights to make further adaptations meaningful and effective.

However, this article is from 2012. When it comes to a topic like climate change which has transformed rapidly it is very easy for this article to feel outdated especially when it comes to the challenges that existed in 2012 compared to the development of those same challenges now such as the carbon emissions from businesses and transportation in addition to new ones businesses have to face as new research and information is released all the time. This will largely affect the accuracy of the information and points highlighted in this article.

On the other hand, however, the use of facts and information from the likes of the IEA stating that 'global CO2 emissions are almost certain to exceed the 32Gt limit by 2020' and 'the window of opportunity is closing to keep the average global temperature rise below 2 degrees' by the Copenhagen Accord and Cancun Agreements does boost the credibility and accuracy when comping from such high status sources.

The purpose of the article, is to challenge both industries and the government to look at climate change and the challenges associated with it to help to reverse the effects.

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Harvard Reference - Ihlen, Ø. (2009). Business and Climate Change: The Climate Response of the World’s 30 Largest Corporations. Environmental Communication, [online]. Accessed 20/10/2023

This article, titled 'The climate response of the world's 30 largest corporations' investigates how different businesses address climate change and everything surrounding the issue.

After reviewing this article I have been able to get a greater understanding of why companies aim to focus on the effects of climate change. Companies will show willing in climate change not only because they may be genuinely concerned but also because it may prove to be more beneficial for them as they're seen as more favourable by consumers as it is 'societies norm' to be environmentally friendly. This shows a different side to a businesses approach to 'tackling' climate change as perhaps they don't always do it for that sole purpose but also because of the financial and societal benefits and edges they get over their competitors. This helps give the article a broader approach to climate change as businesses use the topic in a slightly different manner.

Secondary research is used within this article which took non-financial reports from some top corporations and a keyword frequency (words linked to climate change) was made. This allows data to be gathered based on which companies use these keywords in their reports the most often therefore, identifying the companies that pay most attention to the issue. Using secondary research that was carried out a few years before this article was published may not be the most reliable, however, there are tables and charts to back up the findings which in turn may increase the credibility and accuracy of the research.

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"From carbon dependence to renewables: The European oil majors' strategies to face climate change"

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Vieira, L.C. Longo, M. Mura, M. (2022). From carbon dependence to renewables: The European oil majors’ strategies to face climate change (online). Wiley Online Library. Accessed 20/10/2023.

The is an article extracted from ‘Wiley’s Online Library’, found through research via Google Scholar. It offers a comprehensive examination of sustainability in business education.

I have undertaken thorough reading and understanding of this article and have discovered many strengths. The systematic approach taken to form this piece enhances its reliability as it ensures comprehensive analysis of existing literature, making it a valuable resource for academics like myself to utilise within my research. Secondly, the article discusses the drawbacks that companies suffer dealing with whilst acting on climate change issues in great depth, backed up by many recent and dated references, and samples of primary research.

However, although the article displays strengths, there is also a notable weakness. Generally, the research displayed in this article is particularly geared towards specific audiences (due to its core focus on European oil majors’ strategies to face climate change), damaging its relevance to more generalised research tasks like the one at hand.

As for the article’s credibility and reliability, Wiley is a credible publisher, as articles published on its platform are typically well overseen. The systematic review method utilised to structure the formation of this article increases its reliability, as it is less likely to be influenced by biased viewpoints.

Although its focus on a specific industry, this article can be concluded as a reliable, credible source to support the group research, with key strengths within its content.

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Harvard Reference - Nyberg, D., Ferns, G., Vachhani, S. and Wright, C. (2022). Climate Change, Business, and Society: Building Relevance in Time and Space. Business & Society. Accessed 27/10/2023

There's no doubt that the articles depth is quite extensive, and the idea of time and how it affects climate change is explained well which certainly adds credibility to this piece. Although, aspects of space and place stray a bit too far away from the key points that could be explained when it comes to businesses and their effect on climate change.

This article was written and published in May 2022 making it very up to date. This allows some of the most recent issues surrounding climate change such as heatwaves, droughts and carbon emissions to be discussed. Also, the ways in which businesses aim to function can be looked at as some businesses chose the approach 'business-as-usual' even with the current climate crisis. Overall, this helps boost the reliability of the article.

Multiple authors are included in this article whom of which are professors at various universities like Bristol and Bath and researchers. These professionals have brought forward strong points that are thorough helping boost the accuracy of the article. Although, having multiple authors with potentially different ideas may lead to misinformation if it is not portrayed correctly, but instead in a fashion that allows them all to get a point or idea in that doesn't fit the true explanation of time and space rather than one persons clear understanding and narrative of the topic.

The articles purpose is to push people's response to climate change and act upon it before it gets to an irreversible state by aiming to get through to the people at the top (politicians) to make that difference on everyone.

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Harvard Reference - Pesonen, H.-L. and Horn, S. (2013). Journal of Cleaner Production by Elsevier. [online]. Accessed 23/10/2023

Two main focuses in the article which look at; the systematical approach to dealing with climate change, and creating novel approaches to develop a SWOT analysis (Climate SWOT).

A questionnaire was created and sent out to a small sample of participants to gather information about Climate SWOT's and their value on helping businesses form ideas and solutions when adapting to climate change as well as contributing to keeping the world as clean as possible. Carrying out this extensive research and gathering this information first hand massively boosts the credibility and reliability of this article.

Hanna-Leena Pesonen is a professor who is highly qualified in environmental management making her a top author when it comes to talking about climate change. This makes the information highly accurate as not only is she creating articles but also presenting information to students in the University of Jyväskylä in Finland making her very trustworthy when it comes to this topic.

On the other hand, this article only really focuses on the strategies for change in businesses and the climate SWOT which makes it out to be something that would cater to students in an educational setting as SWOT analysis is something taught within colleges and universities. It would be more substantial if it looked at climate change on a broader scale.

The purpose of the article looks massively at the ways in which businesses aim to tackle climate change in a strategic way. This is of course where the Climate SWOT is suggested and researched to determine whether it would be suitable for businesses to use.

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Filho, W.L. Artie, W.NG. Sharifi, A. Janova, J. Ozuyar, P.G. Hemani, C. Heyes, G. Njau, D. Rampasso, I. (2022) Global tourism, climate change and energy sustainability: assessing carbon reduction mitigating measures from the aviation industry (online). Springler Link. Accessed 20/10/2023.

The article titled “Assessing the environmental and economic benefits of circular economy practices in the apparel sector: a case study of India” extracted from Springer Link, found through research via Google Scholar, offers a comprehensive literature report based off findings through research on how climate change is affecting the aviation industry, alongside other factors.

I have undertaken thorough reading and understanding of this article and have discovered many strengths. It’s magnification of topics such as Global tourism and climate change, and its use of first hand, collected data being analysed, enhances its value as a resource for academics like myself to utilise within my research.

However, although the article magnifying certain topics can be viewed as a strength, this can also serve as a weakness in our review as our research on Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility as a group would ideally cover a broad range of industries to enhance the credibility of our research.

The reliability of this article is enhanced by its location of publication, as Springer upholds strong academic, editorial standards. However, the extent of its reliability also depends on the quality and depth of the research methods and data used in the case study.

Springer is a reputable publisher, and articles on its platform are generally well-regarded in the academic and research industries. This positively correlates to the credibility of this article.

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Introduction

Global efforts to combat climate change revolve around debates on who should take responsibility for carbon emission reductions; nonetheless, the significance of business and its potential impacts has been widely asserted (Dessens et al. 2016; Sivapuram and Shaw 2020; Johnstone et al. 2021). While there are still differences among governments on how to advance the Paris agreement (Gunfaus and Waisman 2021), the business sectors have already begun evaluating measures to take to claim their role. Despite a decrease in the global greenhouse gas emissions during the COVID-19 period (Le Quéré et al. 2021), businesses will have to step up their efforts to maintain this momentum. The urgency for businesses to take long-term measures in boosting sustainability can be elucidated with respect to nominal, legislative, or market-based drivers (Kara et al. 2014; Santa-Maria et al. 2021; Hao and Renneboog 2019).

The discourse to mitigate global warming and adapt to climate change creates a major agenda item, especially for some of the material sectors, which are largely business sectors or industries that depend heavily upon the use of various raw materials, particularly fossil fuels. Due to the risks posed by climate change, it is expected that businesses have to bear increased operating costs, and only a few companies are prepared for such challenges under a major transformation in the supply of raw materials and related logistics processes (Arnell et al. 2021; Wang et al. 2020; Gerlak et al. 2018; Sun et al. 2020). Since climate change mitigation and adaptation measures have the potential to affect the future livelihood of businesses, a well-calculated, negotiated and mutually agreeable implementation mechanism must be set in place.

Businesses are a key part of this concentrated effort towards this transformation. While this mobilization will be significant to most business sectors, certain sectors, such as tourism, are considered relatively more impactful in terms of materializing environmental sustainability. In the discussion of climate change mitigation and adaptation, the global tourism sector and its comprising aviation industry call for much attention, while there are global targets from the Paris Agreement, specific strategies to cap carbon emissions from specific material sectors/industries are not in place yet despite the emerging efforts of climate finance. A number of prior studies have pointed out the cruciality of developing green transport infrastructures to enhance sustainability within the tourism sector and the aviation industry (Monsalud et al. 2015; Erdogan 2020; Santa et al. 2020; Kazancoglu et al. 2021). In this relation, there are studies noting the importance of adopting cleaner energy to transform the unsustainability of local economies that rely on tourism (Rizzo 2017; Lin et al. 2018; Jea 2019). Interdisciplinary studies on such transformation for smart and sustainable tourism are desirable, as the world is to undergo a challenging period of recovery from COVID-19 (Casado-Aranda et al. 2021).

Against this background, this paper first provides an extended literature review on the underlying issues connecting global tourism business, climate change, and the aviation industry, which are complemented by a bibliometric analysis of literature in the domain of climate change and tourism (772 articles) as well as an analysis of 20 representative cases in the global aviation industry, taking into consideration the industry's mitigating measures through a self-regulatory approach to reducing carbon emission systematically by 2050. It aims to investigate the industry's current approach to reducing carbon emissions in alignment with the Paris Agreement and to the limitations of a self-regulatory environment. It contributes to the existing literature by examining the relevance of adopting cleaner energy and green infrastructures to the sustainability of global tourism as key possible ways to augment carbon reduction through such innovative and transformative measures.

Climate change and tourism as a business sector

Global tourism and climate change

Theoretically, there is a two-way interaction between climate change and global tourism (Hewer and Gough 2018; Hoogendoorn and Fitchett 2018; Njoroge 2015) (see Fig. 1). Tourism has a significant impact on the environment and climate (Lenzen et al. 2018; Scott et al. 2012; Scott and Becken 2010). Nature-based tourism, particularly along the coastline and in winter destinations, is vulnerable to weather and climate change (Morrison and Pickering 2013; Spandre et al. 2019). On the other hand, tourists' perceptions and responses to this environmental change are yet to be fully understood (Dube and Nhamo 2020; Hindley and Font 2017; Morrison and Pickering 2013). The assessment of tourism development and climate change interconnections has been given much attention and intensively studied in developing countries that are potentially vulnerable to climate change, and yet economically dependent on tourism (Chapagain et al. 2020; Le 2020; Scott et al. 2012).

As illustrated in Fig. 1, we can see the current complex, overall interconnections of global tourism and climate change. Tourism contributes to climate change via greenhouse gas emissions, while climate change impacts tourism in multiple ways (UNWTO 2008):

1. i.
directly, by the weather changes resulting in, e.g., severe weather conditions or less snow in winter sports destinations;

2. ii.
indirectly, through reduced landscape aesthetics, loss of biodiversity, lower water availability, or increased incidence of diseases;

3. iii.
through mitigation policies that may result in changing tourists' travel patterns; and

4. iv.
through societal impacts, possibly resulting in social unrest and political instability.

The tourism industry stakeholders are tourists, tour operators, and the destinations where the services are provided. Mitigation strategies aim to lower the impact of tourism on climate change, as the industry simultaneously adapts to the new climate conditions. While tourists and tour operators have a high adaptation capacity for climate change (shifting timing or destination, product, and market diversification, respectively), the destinations face a limited adaptation capacity. Even though it was found that consumers identify air travel as a cause of climate change (Bonini and Oppenheim 2008; Brouwer et al. 2008), other studies have evidence that there is little willingness among air passengers to change their behavior to limit oneself in flying (Cohen et al. 2011; Hall et al. 2015; Lassen, 2010; Xu et al. 2021). Consumers are considered to have the most flexibility, i.e., having the highest capacity to adapt, as compared to destinations and tourism operators (Njoroge 2015). The willingness to apply mitigation actions is relatively more observable among the destinations, but the willingness of tourists to voluntarily change their travel behavior to reduce environmental impacts was evidently rather low (Higham and Cohen 2011; McKercher et al. 2010; Xu et al. 2021).

Mitigating measures and significance of the aviation industry

The impacts of tourism on the environment in general, and specifically on the climate, have been receiving significant attention in the past decades since the essential tourism components of traveling are considered carbon intensive. Moreover, tourism is expected to account for an increasingly larger share of global greenhouse gas emissions, even if other sectors manage to achieve absolute emission reductions (Gossling et al. 2013). Based on the analysis of traveler habits in 160 countries between 2009 and 2013, a study (Lenzen et al. 2018) showed that tourism's impact on global emissions is four times higher than previously thought. Tourism contributes to about 8% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, resulting mainly from the transport and consumption of goods and services, including food and accommodation. Its findings suggest that tourism has turned into a carbon-intensive sector and would continue to accelerate local carbon emissions. Another study warns that at least 15% of global tourism-related emissions associated with global aviation are under no binding reduction targets in the Paris Agreement (Lenzen et al. 2018).

The possible impact of tourism on climate change has raised debates and induced studies during the last decades of the twentieth century, and since then, related research has intensified considerably (Hall et al. 2015; Kajan and Saarinen 2013; Scott 2010; Scott and Becken 2010). The need for the reduction of emissions in the aviation sector and for imposing appropriate policies has been declared (Gossling and Hall 2008; Scott et al. 2010). In 2008, the UNWTO proposed particular mitigation actions that would improve the situation: to encourage travelers to choose a closer destination, use more public transportation and less aviation, and provide incentives for tourism operators to improve their energy and carbon efficiency (UNWTO 2008). The tourism industry has continued to face pressure from the growing awareness of the carbon footprint of travel (Becken and Hay 2007; Dawson et al. 2010).

In fact, the aviation industry has long been recognized for its adverse impact on environmental sustainability and climate change (Lee et al. 2009; Fahey and Lee 2016). Such concerns have been addressed by calls for demand-side management of aviation (Larkin 2015), owing to the fact that pre-COVID the aviation sector was predicted to continue growing at a rate of 4.8% to 2030, a figure far greater than the technological and operational efficiencies the industry has been able to demonstrate in recent decades (Lee et al. 2021). This has led to airlines seeking ever more radical efficiency savings that impede the customer experience, such as weight-saving measures that include unpainted aircraft, removal of in-flight safety jackets, and seeking the reduction of weight from the sale of duty-free products (Heyes et al. 2019). Baumeister ( 2020) points out that there are five general mitigation strategies for the aviation industry, namely technological changes, market-based changes, operational changes, regulatory changes, and behavioral changes. In particular, technological innovation has reached the point of incremental returns on investment, whilst operational savings are complex and subject to a range of competing environmental interdependencies, not least air quality and noise, both of which are typical of a greater priority to airport communities (Hoolhorst 2022).

Advancing mitigation strategies in a post-COVID-19 era for energy sustainability

In 2011, the WTTC position paper issued carbon reduction targets of 25% by 2020 and 50% by 2035 when compared to 2005 levels (Scott et al. 2012; UNWTO 2011). However, from 2005 to 2019 worldwide tourism continuously expanded. The number of national and international aviation-related tourists has almost doubled, while the number of international arrivals has risen by 50% and the amount of total tourism has increased by 125% worldwide (WDG 2021). During the pre-COVID era, the mitigation strategies had yielded limited success. Neither responsible travel behavior nor technological improvements have alleviated the increase in tourism's footprint (Lenzen et al. 2018). Carbon-intensive tourism at its current scale remains unsustainable. Until 2019, tourism was producing an increasing share of GHG emissions each year, and simultaneously, tourists are generally not willing to apply any mitigation strategies to their traveling habits. The burden of a shift to sustainable practices is placed upon destinations and tour operators, including tourist offices and long-haul transport services, particularly the aviation industry.

Further mitigating measures from the aviation industry to reduce carbon emissions

Targets for CO ₂ emissions from the aviation industry are considered relevant within the Paris Agreement, which aims to restrict increases in temperature to under 2 °C by 2100 (Lee 2018). To meet the Paris Agreement's goals, a significant reduction in global greenhouse gas emissions is necessary for the industry on a global basis. Its emissions of CO ₂ are overseen by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which has taken measures to adopt the "Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation" (CORSIA) and has a carbon-neutral growth goal for international aviation emissions of CO ₂ to not surpass 2020 levels (ICAO 2021a). On the other hand, the International Air Transport Association (IATA), the trade association representing 290 airlines in 120 countries, has stepped up to support the development of environmental standards and recommended practices in ICAO. IATA is the entity that advocates and collaborates with airlines to identify policies to mitigate the sector's impact on climate change (IATA 2021). IATA reckons its members need to tackle the global challenge of climate change and has adopted three targets and four pillars to mitigate CO ₂ emissions from air transport, as summarized in Table 1.

Methods

This study aims to explore the implications of the changing climate for businesses, with a focus on tourism as a business sector and its intertwining global aviation industry, and to examine the initiatives taken by the pertinent industry actors to reduce the carbon footprint of the business activities. It adopts a mixed-method approach to examine the underlying relationship between business and climate change in the sector. First, text mining is performed to reveal the research landscape of prior studies, based on the bibliometric analysis method. Of different bibliometric analysis techniques, this study mainly relies on co-occurrence analysis to examine issues related to climatic impacts and sustainability implications of tourism. Subsequently, being informed by the results of the text analysis, the research team identifies and examines representative cases of 20 of the largest commercial airline operators from the global aviation industry which disclose their commitment to a global framework approach embraced by the industry. This mixed-method approach enables an external validation of the underlying research landscape by examining in-depth the current practice of these representative cases by analyzing their disclosures, thereby mitigating the possible limitation of merely reviewing prior studies considering the evolving climate change issues.

Bibliometric analysis method

The rapid rate of scientific publication has made it challenging to obtain knowledge about the overall structure of a field using traditional methods based on manual analysis. To solve this issue, several software tools for bibliometric analysis of the literature have been developed in the past decade that can provide an overview of the research landscape using text mining methods. VOS viewer is a frequently used bibliometric analysis tool that, among other things, allows one to identify major thematic focus areas in a research field using the term co-occurrence analysis (van Eck and Waltman 2010). The input data for term co-occurrence analysis can be downloaded from scientific databases such as the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus. In a recent study on human mobility behavior in COVID-19 by Benita ( 2021), bibliometric analysis is adopted to conduct a systematic literature review.

In this study, we have used WoS for its broad coverage of quality peer-reviewed articles related to the topic. A broad-based search string that includes different variants of terms related to climate change mitigation and tourism was used to retrieve relevant articles (see the Appendix for the complete search string). The terms used in the search were selected in a way to cover multiple issues related to climate change and tourism. The literature search was conducted on February 28, 2020, with 850 returned articles. Titles and abstracts of these articles were screened to select those that are within the scope of the paper. In the end, 772 articles were selected for final analysis using the VOSviewer. The output of the term co-occurrence analysis (see Fig. 2) is a network of nodes and links. Each node represents a term, and node size is proportional to its frequency of occurrence. Terms that have co-occurred are linked to each other, and link width is proportional to the strength of the connection between two terms. In other words, terms that have co-occurred more frequently are connected by wider links. The frequently co-occurred terms establish clusters that represent major thematic focus areas.

Multiple-case study

Complementing the bibliometric analysis, a multiple-case method is adopted to examine the global aviation industry, with individual airlines as units of analysis (Yin 2003). The top 20 largest commercial airlines in the world, in terms of aircraft size, are selected to assess their above-mentioned performance, based on their public disclosures in February/March 2021 (Airportcodes 2021). Under supervision for a systematic approach to data collection and analysis, five independent researchers reviewed such disclosures and evaluated their performance against the adopted framework of sustainability strategies for the industry presented in Table 1. Each researcher was initially assigned to assess four airlines regarding compliance and performance; subsequently, the results were compared to ensure consistency in terms of biases.

Results and discussion

Bibliometric analysis

Through the bibliometric analysis, two major clusters can be identified in Fig. 2. The cluster on the left has a clear focus on emissions and mainly focuses on terms and issues related to climatic impacts and sustainability implications of tourism, while the one on the right focuses on key economic issues related to tourism. The cluster on the right has a clear focus on economic issues and has links between tourism-led growth and environmental degradation. The top 10 articles related to each cluster are listed in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The term tourism has co-occurred frequently with CO ₂ emissions and climate change, indicating ample research on and evidence of tourism's impacts on climate change and mitigation policies (Akadiri et al. 2020; Lenzen et al. 2018; Rico et al. 2019). In addition, there are relatively strong connections between tourism and terms such as ecological footprint (total link strength value of 201), pollution (total link strength value of 196), and environmental sustainability (total link strength value of 318). This is indicative of the ecological impacts of the tourism sector that have been discussed in the literature (Lee and Chen 2021; Ozturk et al. 2016). As for issues related to the nexus between tourism and CO ₂ emissions/climate change, strong connections with transportation-related terms (e.g., mobility, transport, aviation) and terms related to energy consumption and renewable energy demonstrate the significant roles of the energy and transportation sectors in contributing to tourism-related emissions (Spasojevic et al. 2018). Tourism-related air and land transportation accounts for about 10% of the annual global CO ₂ emissions (Bella 2018). Accordingly, sustainable tourism initiatives should enhance the efficiency of these sectors in contributing to climate change mitigation.

In addition, promoting travel to closer destinations and further investment in public transportation networks may also contribute to reducing travel-related emissions. Another likely influential actor is the hospitality industry, which could be water and energy intensive (Cazcarro et al. 2014; Chen 2019). The term "water resources" has relatively co-occurred less frequently with other terms. This may indicate that existing research is mainly focused on energy-related issues. In addition to their significance for climate change adaptation, water resources also have links to energy resilience (through the water-energy nexus) and deserve further attention. Therefore, both energy and water consumption should be considered in studying enhanced management practices for optimizing the sustainability performance of hotels. Overall, it is evident that sustainable and responsible tourism is needed to reduce CO ₂ emissions, to ensure the conservation of ecosystem services, and to minimize the ecological footprint.

The cluster on the right revealing the causality between tourism flow and different variables such as economic growth, financial development, income growth, energy consumption, and environmental pollution has been studied in the literature using various economic methods, such as co-integration and time series analysis (Bella 2018; Ozturk et al. 2016). There is consensus in the literature that tourism development can lead to economic growth, but this could have significant impacts on the environment (Ozturk et al. 2016; Zaman et al. 2016). Figure 2 shows that the term "Kuznets curve" has occurred frequently in the tourism literature. Indeed, there is a vast body of research from different countries that examines the validity of the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in the context of tourism-led development (Bella 2018; Ozturk et al. 2016; Zaman et al. 2016).

These studies often validate the hypothesis, indicating that responsible tourism development policies in the context of economic growth will eventually result in reduced environmental degradation. It is essential to further prioritize sustainable tourism in environmental and climate policies that aim to meet ambitious decarbonization targets (Bella 2018). Climate-friendly and sustainable tourism can also provide sustainable livelihood options for many communities, especially those in developing countries that are economically dependent on tourism (Chapagain et al. 2020; Le 2020; Scott et al. 2012). All in all, the carbon emission is perceived to be the central issue for tourism sustainability as demonstrated in this bibliometric analysis which needs to be mitigated by the industry.

Multiple-case analysis

As reflected in the literature overview using the term co-occurrence analysis, tourism-related air travel is identified as a major contributor to global emissions (Lenzen et al. 2018; Lee et al. 2021). The multiple-case analysis is undertaken to examine actions taken by the aviation industry towards reducing emissions. Against the adopted framework (Table 1), the multiple-case analysis of the aviation industry reveals four main observations of the 20 leading operators in their implementation approach to the sustainability strategy. First, it reveals that more than half of them have recognized the target of achieving a reduction in net aviation CO ₂ emissions by 50% by 2050 (T3) (see Fig. 3). European airlines have shown to be disclosing the most commitments to the 50% reduction target. Second, improvement in immediate and near-term efficiency in aircraft operations is a pillar (P2) embraced by most of the airlines, cultivating the economic incentives driven by lowered operating costs and enhanced profitability (see Fig. 4). Third, Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) is widely adopted among airlines as an innovative approach or pillar (P1) that improves sustainability among top airlines from advanced economies, particularly in North America and Europe. Fourth, infrastructure improvement, such as the synergistic role of the airport facilities and systems for sustainability, appears to be lagging as a pillar (P3).

While complementary green infrastructure is considered critical for transforming the sustainability performance of the airlines, airports that enable the supply of SAF and pertinent technological infrastructure are integral to the aviation industry in this respect. As depicted in Fig. 5 and summarized in Table 4, there are currently 22 international airports that can deliver SAF, concentrated in Europe and North America (ICAO 2021b). Despite the increasing market share of tourism and aviation activities among the emerging economies, SAF delivery infrastructure is missing in these regions. To complement the data in Fig. 5, Table 4 presents a list of the airports using SAF, based in various international tourist destination cities around the world.

International airports with batch or ongoing delivery of Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF). (Source: Adaptation from ICAO 2021b)

It is worth noting that most airports using SAF are in Europe and North America, illustrating a notable disparity in such fuel supply infrastructures across geographical regions that have yet to be effusively developed.

Conclusions

This paper has provided an overview of the extent to which the global tourism business contributes to the production of carbon emissions and, inter alia, to climate change as demonstrated in the bibliometric analysis. Because of the significant impacts of the aviation industry in association with global tourism, its sustainability status has been examined as the focus. Emphasis was given to reveal the industry's ongoing adoption of different sustainable approaches, the development of building capacity for drastically improving operational efficiency, as well as the utilization of cleaner energy sources among a set of the largest international commercial airlines.

First, carbon-intensive tourism, at the pre-pandemic scale, has been evidently unsustainable, largely based on a self-regulatory approach. Until 2019, i.e., prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, its share of global GHG emissions increased year by year. As it is expected that travel will gradually resume over time, GHG emissions levels are likely to grow again. This "rebound" effect is already being seen now, as some airlines are slowly returning more and more of their aircraft back to business. This trend is compounded by the fact that not all tourists are accustomed to or willing to engage in mitigation strategies associated with their traveling (e.g., purchase of carbon credits to offset the emissions associated with their travel), due to the additional costs.

Second, whereas a considerable portion of the shift towards sustainable practices is mostly placed upon the aviation industry, its key operators are not yet fully prepared to handle it. Based on the results of our analysis of the top 20 global aviation operators, their targets, and their activities towards CO ₂ emission reductions, it is apparent that specific strategies and particular attempts to establish sustainable practices are mostly ad hoc and not part of a consistent strategy. Moreover, as discussed by Lenzen et al. ( 2018), each of the historically formulated mitigation strategies has yielded only limited success so far. Neither responsible travel behavior nor technological improvements have led to significant reductions in the carbon footprint of the tourism industry.

This state of affairs suggests that unless more effective measures to address the current trends associated with the tourism sector are implemented, the goal to reduce GHG emissions by 50% by 2050 will be endangered. In addition to the existing self-regulatory approach being adopted by the industry, some other carbon reduction measures initiated among airlines could include the following:

1. i.
Providing resources and incentives to operate more efficient aircraft and to scale up the production and consumption of Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) across various geographical regions around the world, based on the success achieved in the places where it has been implemented. This approach is considered by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) as a promising way to reduce the carbon footprint and, to some extent, the environmental impacts of the aviation sector. Airports of international tourist destination cities situated among the emerging economies, as key components of the global travel network, would need to consider providing the availability of SAF by investing in complementary facilities and infrastructures to supply such a cleaner fuel.

2. ii.
The setup or-where it is available-upscaling of complementary green infrastructures at airports and hotels to cater to the many land-based sources of GHG emissions systematically (e.g., renewable energy use, energy savings means, food processing, and waste, etc.). Such infrastructures for facilitating direct or indirect sustainable consumption by the sector's stakeholders are expected to enable more comprehensive carbon neutrality solutions while reducing operating costs.

3. iii.
Encouraging operators to enhance and promote the usefulness of carbon offset schemes among travelers, with the objective to reduce unnecessary long-haul travels.

On the consumer front, the promotion of more responsible travel behavior to support the efforts to improve the sustainability of the overall tourism sector does not suffice on its own. A complementary global regulatory strategy that aligns with the goal of GHG emissions reductions, as stated in the Paris Agreement, to revive the global tourism sector would be necessary for reinforcing capital investments in pertinent green infrastructures, particularly in the aviation industry, which will facilitate sustainable energy consumption. Such an investment strategy to redirect the allocation of resources into such infrastructures would harmonize with the advocated climate finance mechanism deployed to meet the targets set under the Paris Agreement.

Acknowledgement

This paper is part of the "100 Papers to Accelerate Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation" initiative.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

1. Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK

Walter Leal Filho

2. International Climate Change Information and Research Programme, Research and Transfer Centre "Sustainable Development and Climate Change Management", Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Hamburg, Germany

Walter Leal Filho

3. Centre for Sustainable Business, International Business University, Toronto, Canada

Artie W. Ng

4. Waterloo Institute for Sustainable Energy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada

Artie W. Ng

5. Research Centre for Green Energy, Transport and Building, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR

Artie W. Ng

6. Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, and Network for Education and Research On Peace and Sustainability, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, 739-8530, Japan

Ayyoob Sharifi

7. Center for Peaceful and Sustainable Futures (CEPEAS), Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, 739-8530, Japan

Ayyoob Sharifi

8. Department of Statistics and Operational Analysis, Faculty of Business and Economics, Mendel University in Brno, Zemedelska 1, Brno, Czech Republic

Jitka Janová

9. Faculty of Economics, Administrative and Social Sciences, Bahçeşehir University, Istanbul, Turkey

Pınar Gökçin Özuyar

10. RuChiNi ESP, Delhi, India

Chinmai Hemani

11. Centre for Enterprise, Faculty of Business and Law, Manchester Metropolitan University Business School, All Saints, Manchester, UK

Graeme Heyes

12. Prime Research Division, Palme Research and Training Consultants, Nairobi, Kenya

Dennis Njau

13. Departamento de Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile

Izabela Rampasso

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Artie W. Ng.

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Appendix

Appendix

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TS = (("climate change mitigation" OR "climate mitigation" OR "carbon footprint*" OR "carbon dioxide" OR "CO ₂ " OR "greenhouse gas emission*" OR "GHG*" OR "carbon flow*") AND ("tourism" OR "tourist*"))

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Leal Filho, W., Ng, A.W., Sharifi, A. et al. Global tourism, climate change and energy sustainability: assessing carbon reduction mitigating measures from the aviation industry. Sustain Sci 18, 983-996 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-022-01207-x
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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Global tourism, climate change and energy sustainability: assessing carbon reduction mitigating measures from the aviation industry - Sustainability Science

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
As many business activities-especially those associated with the energy-intensive industries-continue to be major sources of greenhouse gas emissions, and hence significantly contributing to global warming, there is a perceived need to identify ways to make business activities eventually carbon neutral.

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Wren, B (2022). Sustainable supply chain management in the fast fashion industry: A comparative study of current efforts and best practises to address the climate crisis (online). ScienceDirect. Accessed 20/20/2023.

The article, published on ScienceDirect, presents a comprehensive examination of Sustainable supply chain management in the fast fashion Industry with a comparative study of current efforts and best practises to address the climate crisis.

The article employs a comprehensive approach using different methods of data collection to assess current and most appropriate methods of dealing with the climate crisis in the fast fashion Industry. With this, the article considers various indicators, providing a thorough evaluation.

The reliance on data and scientific methodology enhances the article's reliability. The study employs both quantitative and qualitative data to support its findings.

However, although the article's strengths, its’ exclusive focus on the fast fashion industry hinders its applicability to a broader industrial context. Its findings hold specific relevance to the fast fashion industry and its dealings with climate change, and therefore the information gathered in the article isn’t directly transferable to other industries and climate change issues (comparable though).

The article's foundations in its collection of data and systematic analysis bolsters its reliability. However, the reliability could also be dependent on the accuracy and quality of the data sources used.

The article is published on ScienceDirect, a reliable platform for peer-reviewed academic content, therefore the article benefits from an added layer of credibility. The authors' involvement with academic and research institutions also contribute to the article’s credibility.

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Abstract

In 2018, the fashion sector was responsible for approximately 2.1 billion metric tons of GHG emissions, half of which were created by fast fashion. Fast fashion brands produce high volumes of synthetic, petroleum-based garments in developing countries, creating high levels of emissions and textile waste. In recent years, fast fashion leaders have adopted sustainability initiatives, including sustainable supply chain management (SSCM). However, even with current strategies in place, fast fashion is on a trajectory that will contribute to irreparable damage to the environment by 2030. The following study analyzes how fast fashion brands currently implement SSCM, identifies weaknesses in current initiatives, and outlines key actions brands can take to significantly reduce the environmental impact of their supply chains in the long term.

To analyze SSCM in the fast fashion industry, this study compares the sustainability reports of H&M and Everlane, industry leaders with strong sustainability messaging. This comparison reveals that fast fashion has failed to sufficiently engage upstream and downstream stakeholders in their SSCM strategies. Moving forward, fast fashion companies should incentivize collaboration towards more comprehensive SSCM policies throughout the supply chain. To significantly reduce their impact, brands must invest in long-term decarbonization and energy infrastructure, engage with suppliers and consumers, and re-evaluate the design standard for products. If adopted at the industry level, these reforms will significantly mitigate fast fashion's impact on the planet.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Sustainable supply chain management in the fast fashion Industry: A comparative study of current efforts and best practices to address the climate crisis

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In 2018, the fashion sector was responsible for approximately 2.1 billion metric tons of GHG emissions, half of which were created by fast fashion. Fa...

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Harvard Reference - Thorpe, J. and Fennelly, S., 2012. Climate Change Risks and Supply Chain Responsibility: How should companies respond when extremem weather affects small-scale producers in their supply chain?. Oxfam.

Accessed on 18/10/2023

In this Book ‘Climate Change Risks And Supply Chain Responsibility’, found via google scholar; outlines the immediate effects and risks companies face through their sourcing of materials in the productions process due to extreme weather conditions. Throughout, qualitative data (including three case studies) and quantitative data (graph fluctuations) are explored to provide relevance to the topic.

The strengths of the findings I have accounted are based off primary research through the form of interviews with specialists within the businesses affected by climate change. This increases credibility & reliability as the interviewees can imply specialised knowledge, extensive experience, and a deep understanding of the topic.

It also provides wide-ranging detail throughout the book to provide a better understanding to the audience on the topic issue.

Despite this, the authors of the article are part of the Oxfam charity which could make the information slightly biased in the context that it is a charity to fight against poverty. However it is still recorded as a reliable source due to the use of first-hand research participants. Another aspect to take into account is the publication date, which is 11 years ago. This time lapse raises the possibility that the data figures may have changed over the years, potentially rendering the research slightly outdated.

The purpose of the book was created to present findings to climate issues on businesses and to suggest ways in which companies can mitigate the impact of these issues.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Climate Change Risks and Supply Chain Responsibility: How should companies respond when extremem weather affects small-scale producers in their supply chain?

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Zakari, A. Khan, I. Tawiah, V. Alvarado, R. Li, G. (2022). The production and consumption of oil in Africa: The environmental implications (online). ScienceDirect. Accessed 20/10/2023.

The article published on ScienceDirect provides a literature review of the environmental implications of the production and consumption of oil in Africa.

The article conducts a comprehensive review of existing research, consolidating a wide range of information, making it a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners interested in African production and consumption of oil and its environmental implications upon its surroundings and the world.

The article relies on data, case studies, and scientific research to support its claims, enhancing both its reliability and credibility.

Although the article presents strengths, it primarily compiles and reviews existing studies, which means it doesn't present new, original research findings. It relies heavily on the work of others, and therefore doesn’t present any new findings.

While the article assesses the environmental sustainability of African production and consumption of oil, the article may not provide a comprehensive overview of other aspects like economic or social sustainability, which are also vital for the reader to develop a full, meaningful understanding of the article’s topic research.

The article's reliance on established research and data sources from reputable publications increases its reliability. It follows a systematic approach in its literature review, which also enhances its credibility.

Published on ScienceDirect, a trusted platform for peer-reviewed academic content, the article benefits from added credibility as a result. However, the credibility also depends on the quality of the sources and studies included in the review, which damages the articles credibility due to its lack of primary research efforts. Therefore, it would be acceptable to conclude that the article is somewhat credible.

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Harvard Reference - de Abreu, M.C.S., Webb, K., Araújo, F.S.M. and Cavalcante, J.P.L., 2021. From “business as usual” to tackling climate change: Exploring factors affecting low-carbon decision-making in the canadian oil and gas sector. Energy Policy, 148, p.111932.

Accessed on 18/10/2023

This journal highlights the significant role of tourism in contributing to climate change primarily through the release of greenhouse gas emissions.

Furthermore, studies show that ‘transport may be responsible for over 90% of tourism’s overall contribution to global climate change, with air travel dominating these emissions.’ In the near future, the airline industry may face challenges as restrictions may be implemented to reduce tourist’s carbon footprints. This could lead to the introduction of interventions and alternatives to air travel, posing a potential threat to the industry.

Journals on ‘Science Direct’ are overseen by esteemed editorial boards, ensuring a high level of expertise and articles undergo a rigorous peer-review process to maintain quality and credibility. The reliability of this journal is also strengthened by the inclusion of citations from other authors, which provide specific facts and figures. This incorporation of diverse viewpoints supports the initial point made, further enhancing the credibility of the journal. The authors of this article are also members of the school of services management at Bournemouth University. This adds credibility as they would be encompassing both primary and secondary investigations, to analyse human-generated emissions in the context of tourism.

Another aspect to take into consideration is the publication date of the journal being 2010. New research or developments may have emerged since then, meaning that there may be slight changes to the evidence as global climate change is becoming worse in the near future.

The article generates primary data by carrying out focus group research samples. However, to enhance the reliability of the journal, it would be beneficial to have information regarding the size of the focus group sample and its representativeness in relation to the entire population. This would contribute to improving the efficiency of the journal's findings.

The purpose of this article is to overview the moving of the tourist industry onto a sustainable emissions path. I am taking a view within the article as to how this purpose will affect air travel businesses economically.

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Abstract

Whilst much effort has been made to communicate to the public the importance of reducing carbon footprints in the home, one area where emissions are growing rapidly and little attempt has been made to increase consumer understanding of the impacts is holidays, particularly those involving air travel. Using focus group research, this paper explores tourists' awareness of the impacts of travel on climate change, examines the extent to which climate change features in holiday travel decisions and identifies some of the barriers to the adoption of less carbon-intensive tourism practices. The findings suggest that many tourists do not consider climate change when planning their holidays. The failure of tourists to engage with the of holidays, combined with significant barriers to behavioural change, presents a considerable challenge in moving the tourism industry onto a sustainable emissions path. The findings are discussed in relation to theoretical perspectives from psychology and climate change impact sociology.

Introduction

Tourism is a highly energy-intensive industry and has only recently attracted attention as an important contributor to climate change through greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It has been estimated that tourism contributes 5% of global carbon dioxide emissions (UNWTO, 2007). Studies show that transport may be responsible for over 90% of tourism's overall contribution to global climate change (Gössling, 2002), with air travel dominating these emissions. Gössling and Peeters (2007) conclude that in an average holiday or short break involving air travel, 60-95% of its contribution to global warming will be caused by the flight. The growth, and predicted future growth, in international tourism is a major concern. International tourist arrivals grew to 903 million in 2007 and are forecast to increase to 1.6 billion in 2020 (UNWTO, 2008). International tourism is largely dominated by developed countries. The current tourism trend in these industrialised countries has been described as hyper-mobility (Høyer, 2000) and is characterised by the taking of several short-breaks and longer holidays every year. Global growth rates of air travel have been in the order of 5-6% per year in the period 1970-2000 and are predicted to continue growing at annual rates of 5% until 2020 (Gössling and Peeters, 2007). Estimates suggest that carbon dioxide emissions from air travel could rise to more than 15% of total carbon dioxide emissions from all sources by 2050 (Dubois and Ceron, 2006).

The tourism sector needs to progressively reduce its GHG contributions if it is to move onto a sustainable emissions path. Aviation has been identified as the most important area for reducing these emissions (Peeters et al., 2006). There have been a number of potential changes proposed for reducing the impact of air travel on climate change. These include technological changes, market-based changes and behavioural changes. Emission reductions from technological changes to aircraft engine design could be in the order of 20% by 2050 (Penner et al., 1999), with further potential reductions coming from improvements in air traffic management and operational efficiency. However, even if these emission reductions are achieved the impacts will not be that significant, as the forecasted growth in air travel demand will far outpace the predicted technological efficiencies. There are also limitations with the impacts market-based changes could have on emissions from air travel. Market-based changes, such as taxes on jet fuel or aircraft emissions, are hugely unpopular with the airline industry and politically very difficult to enforce due to the 1950 resolution by the International Civil Aviation Organisation to exempt fuel for international air travel from taxation. Research suggests that even if taxes on jet fuel were introduced, they would have to be very high in order to have a serious impact on the demand for air travel (Olsthoorn, 2001, Tol, 2007). The third of the options, behavioural change, is considered to have the most important role to play in leading to reductions in GHG emissions from air travel associated with tourism (Gössling et al., 2007).

As part of a wider study, this paper reports the findings of exploratory focus group research designed to investigate the role that climate change plays in the holiday and travel decisions of UK tourists. The paper has three objectives: to explore the levels of awareness amongst UK tourists of the impacts travel has on climate change, to establish the extent to which climate change considerations feature in holiday travel decision-making processes, and to investigate the major barriers to UK tourists adopting less carbon-intensive travel practices.

Section snippets

Climate change and tourist behaviour

Until recently, there has been very little research undertaken to investigate whether tourists are aware of the impacts that their holidays and travel have on climate change. Several studies report low awareness of the impact of air travel on climate change (Becken, 2007, Gössling et al., 2006, Shaw and Thomas, 2006). In the UK a number of quantitative studies have examined public attitudes towards air travel (Department for Transport, 2002, Department for Transport, 2006a, Department for

Methodology

Despite the potentially high-risk scenario for the tourism industry and the global environment, relatively little research has been undertaken with respect to tourism and climate change (Becken, 2007, Hunter and Shaw, 2007). Furthermore, much of the research on transport and tourism has been grounded in quantitative geography traditions focused on price elasticity and space/time considerations. However, more recently work has emerged that seeks to develop a nuanced understanding of society's

Understanding of climate change

The most dominant understanding of climate change was related to changes in weather patterns that participants had personally observed in their lifetime. In particular, milder winters, with very little snowfall over recent years, and wetter summers. Many of the participants were unsure about what climate change is and some were sceptical it was taking place. There was some uncertainty about the human contribution to climate change through the production of greenhouse gases.

Barriers to behavioural change

The final part of the focus group revolved around a number of questions aimed at generating discussion on potential ways that holiday and travel behaviour might change in favour of less carbon-intensive tourism practices. Outlined below are some, but not all, of the barriers identified from this research.

Conclusions and implications for policy

Whilst the participants in these focus groups had a basic understanding of climate change, they generally lacked a more in-depth knowledge. Nonetheless, flying was widely identified as a major cause of climate change. When it comes to planning holidays, climate change does not feature in the thoughts or decisions of many of the participants even though many of them acknowledged air travel as a cause of climate change. The association between holidays and climate change, in the minds of the

Anable, J., Lane, B., Kelay, T., 2006. An evidence base review of public attitudes to climate change and transport...

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Tourists' perception of international air travel's impact on the global climate and potential climate change policies

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Climate change and the air travel decisions of UK tourists

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Whilst much effort has been made to communicate to the public the importance of reducing carbon footprints in the home, one area where emissions are g...

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Harvard Reference - Ang, C.P., Toper, B. and Gambhir, A., 2016. Financial impacts of UK's energy and climate change policies on commercial and industrial businesses. Energy Policy, 91, pp.273-286.

Accessed on 18/10/2023.

This study examines the impact of UK energy and climate change policies on the energy costs and bills of two business sites. It provides a comprehensive analysis, comparing its findings to theoretical calculations of policy costs. ‘The overall impact of energy and climate change policies on costs is projected to be around 0.4% of total business costs by 2020.’

This statistic is likely to have increased significantly by now as we are three years on and climate change is becoming more of a problematic contemporary issue.

Climate change-related expenses will exert significant financial pressure on businesses, compelling them to strive harder to maintain their financial goals.

The authors of this study are students within the Imperial College of London studying at the Grantham Institute for Climate Change. This therefore demonstrates their extensive research expertise in the subject matter, enhancing the article’s overall credibility. Reliability of this article is further increased as it was published via Google Scholar by ‘ScienceDirect’ which is a platform known for it’s impartiality, avoiding any political bias.

The article’s publication date being 2016 provides some strengths and weaknesses to the article as the article may not reflect advancements to present findings. This could comply that the research may be fairly out-dated. However, the findings are still encountered as well-established evidence & knowledge to the topic matter coming from reliable sources.

The purpose of this article was published to show awareness of how climate change can create a struggle of unexpected costs for businesses having to adapt to meet criterias to improve climate change.

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Abstract

This study provides a detailed case study assessment of two business sites in the UK, to understand the policy drivers of increases to their energy costs and energy bills, considering all current UK energy and climate change policies. We compare our findings to more generalised, theoretical calculations of the policy cost impact on energy costs and bills - we have found no other studies as comprehensive as ours in terms of policy coverage.

We find that for one site the government has over-estimated the likely energy savings due to energy efficiency options. Such differences in estimates should be taken into account when considering the efficacy of climate change policies on future energy savings. The overall impact of energy and climate change policies on costs will be of the order 0.4% of total business costs by 2020. This provides an important metric for the near-term cost of mitigation to meet longer-term climate change goals.

Introduction

Addressing the challenge of climate change will require significant levels of emissions reductions from all sections of the economy. This will entail both the more efficient use of energy, as well as the decarbonisation of energy supply (IPCC, 2014). A number of countries including the UK have enacted policies to achieve such aims. The Climate Change Act commits the UK to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by at least 80% from 1990 levels by 2050 (Great Britain Climate Change Act, 2008). Most of these policies work by setting an explicit or implicit price on energy use or carbon emissions, or by providing subsidies or tax breaks to encourage investment in energy efficient or low carbon technologies. A key concern over such policies is the impact that they have on energy costs for both businesses and households (Bassi et al., 2013).

In recent years, a number of studies have attempted to investigate the extent of cumulative impacts of the UK's energy and climate change policies on businesses' energy prices and bills. There is a general consensus among these studies that energy and climate change policies will result in an increase in businesses' energy prices and bills. However, the extent of impacts varies quite significantly among the studies largely because of differences in methodologies, assumptions and coverage of policies. Furthermore, the analyses of existing studies on the impacts of policies on energy prices and bills, are broadly speaking, based on hypothetical energy users with certain assumed energy consumption and energy mix. However, the impacts of policies on energy prices and bills depend largely on the sector the business belongs to and its energy consumption and energy mix. Hence there is a research gap around specific analysis of specific businesses, covering all relevant policies.

The primary objective of this study is to assess the cumulative impacts of the UK's energy and climate change policies on the energy prices and bills of real businesses. It examines both the actual cumulative impacts on energy prices and bills in the past, as well as the cumulative impacts in the future. Secondary objectives of the study are to examine the businesses' energy saving measures for mitigating the impact on energy bills, the barriers to the implementation of such measures, as well as the impacts of the policies on competitiveness loss and carbon leakage for the businesses studied. In examining these, this study provides an in-depth detail of how energy and climate change policies affect real companies and how these real companies respond to the impacts of policies on energy prices and bills. This allows us to go beyond theoretical studies found in existing literature; and compare real life findings against theoretical ones. This paper begins by describing the research methodology used to address the objectives of the study and a brief review of the literature material (Section 2). Section 3 presents the results for the businesses being assessed and Section 4 analyses the results and offers a discussion on the findings of the research undertaken. Section 5 provides a summary of the key findings and conclusions.

Section snippets

Literature review

A comprehensive review of the existing literature was undertaken to examine the past, existing and recently announced UK's energy and climate change policies affecting businesses, as well as studies relating to the cumulative impacts of these policies on businesses' energy prices and bills, competitiveness loss and carbon leakage.

Background of case study site

The food retail store selected as the case study site for this study is a superstore commissioned in 2005. It has a gross floor area of around 6500 m ² and a sales floor area of around 4200 m ². Both electricity and natural gas are used at the site. The site has a 140 kWe natural gas-fired combined heat and power (CHP) system that was commissioned in 2010 to generate heat and electricity for use onsite. The CHP has been certified by DECC as a Good Quality CHP (DECC, 2013h).

Past cumulative impacts of policies on energy prices and bills

The findings on the

Company A

The comparison of findings of impacts of energy and climate change policies on energy prices and bills against those in the literature are discussed here and shown in Table 6, Table 7. Findings from this study show that the impact of policies on electricity price in 2013 was 2.633 p/kW h, adding 37% to the unit electricity price. This is similar to the figures reported in the studies by CCC and DECC. For gas, this study shows that the impact of policies in 2013 was 0.141 p/kW h, adding 5% to the

Conclusions and policy implications

This study has shown that assessing the impact of energy and climate change policies on energy prices and bills requires a comprehensive policy assessment - we have found.no other studies as comprehensive as ours in terms of policy coverage. It also requires a detailed site by site analysis as specific decisions or plans on energy efficiency, cost mitigating measures such as CHP and other factors need to be taken into account. For example, for Company A, the impact of policies on electricity

Energy Use Policies and Carbon Pricing in the UK

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The sustainability issues of energy management are among the open challenges that lack an integrative sustainable framework and need urgent solutions in the power plants. Extant literature has neither defined energy management sustainability adequately, nor developed any sustainable framework in the power plants. In light of this, the study responds to this research gap through achieving four objectives: (1) To create a coherent research taxonomy with a new scope, (2) To systematically analyze current challenges and future trends, (3) To identify the critical success factors (CSFs) of the energy management system (EMs) in the power plants, and (4) Develop a smart integrated framework to ensure the success and sustainability of EMs in power plants. The methodology is based on two approaches: the theoretical approach through comprehensively systematic literature review (SLR) and establishing a coherent research taxonomy to extract the CSFs. In contrast, the second approach is based on the judgment of technicians and energy experts working in power plants to develop a sustainable framework via a case study in the power plant. The SLR finding was employed with expert judgment to develop a smart model. The IBM-SPSS and PLS-SEM software were utilized to analyze data in the case study. The study was validated using three methods: first, content validity test through the SLR and expert arbitration. Secondly, the construct validity test via composite reliability (CR), Cronbach's alpha (CA), and average variance extracted (AVE). Thirdly discriminant validity test through Fornell and Larcker Criterion. The normality assessment by Skewness and Kurtosis has also been checked. All the results proved the validity and reliability of the integrated framework for sustainable EMs in power plants. The results for CA and CR were above 0.7. and the results of AVE were more than 0.5. The data normality value of skewness and Kurtosis are +/-2. Thus, the case study results indicate that it was acceptable and confirmed the literature results. Also, it confirmed the success of the proposed sustainable framework. The results fulfilled the normative requirements for validity and reliability. This study succeeded in developing a smart and sustainable framework for the future directions of energy management in power plants, which is a novel outcome of this study.

The design of waste to bioenergy supply chains (W-BESC) is critically important for meeting the circular economy (CE) goals, whilst also ensuring environmental sustainability in the planning and operation of energy systems. This study develops a novel optimization methodology to aid sustainable design and planning of W-BESC that comprise multiple technologies as well as multiple product and feedstock types. The methodology identifies the optimum supply chain configuration and plans the logistics operations in a given region to meet the energy demand of specified nodes. A scenario based fuzzy multi objective modelling approach is proposed and utilized to capture the economic and environmental sustainability aspects in the same framework. We test the proposed model using the entire West Midlands (WM) region from the United Kingdom (UK) as a case study. In this scope, a comprehensive regional supply chain is designed to meet the energy and biofertilizer demand of specific nodes considering available waste and crop type biomass in the region. Further analysis is conducted to reveal the impacts of main economic and technological parameters on the supply chain performance indicators.

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Financial impacts of UK's energy and climate change policies on commercial and industrial businesses

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This study provides a detailed case study assessment of two business sites in the UK, to understand the policy drivers of increases to their energy co...

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Harvard Reference - Ngin, C., Chhom, C. and Neef, A., 2020. Climate change impacts and disaster resilience among micro businesses in the tourism and hospitality sector: The case of Kratie, Cambodia. Environmental research, 186, p.109557.

Accessed on 22/10/2023.

This article outlines the dramatic effects climate change issues have had on private businesses within the tourism & hospitality sector within Cambodia. The study reveals that ‘projections estimate between USD 4.2 trillion for SME’s & USD 43 trillion for private businesses to adapt to climate change’. The smaller businesses will struggle due to a lack of funding & resources to be prepared for these circumstances.

I have identified several strengths within the article, one of which it’s 2020 publication date, rendering it fairly current. While there may have been some minor changes, the findings remain relevant and not significantly outdated.

The study also includes secondary data as it uses surveys from organisations such as the UNFCCC. This increases credibility of the article by using data from other sources to increase the validity of the research.

The author of the article is also affiliated with the school of social sciences at the University of Auckland which indicates that they would have had access to a wide range of resources including academic libraries and databases.

As ScienceDirect is a platform peer-reviewed it will ensure that the content is thoroughly vetted by experts in the field before being published, which enhances the credibility and accuracy of the information presented.

The overall purpose of this article is to educate and warm the audience how different micro & private businesses have been affected by climate change in Kratie and how they responded to the impacts.

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Abstract

Cambodia is considered extremely vulnerable to climate change due to high poverty, limited infrastructure, and weak adaptive capacity. Kratie province, in particular, has suffered from climate-induced disasters, including floods, droughts, storms, lightning, and heatwaves. To date, climate change interventions in the province have primarily focused on impacts on agriculture. However, enhancing the climate resilience of micro businesses in the tourism and hospitality sector is also crucial since the provincial economy increasingly depends on the interlinkage between agriculture, tourism and related enterprises. This article examines how climate change has impacted micro businesses in Kratie Town, and how they responded to the impacts. This study is based on semi-structured interviews with micro entrepreneurs randomly selected in the town. Results show that businesses have been predominantly affected by floods and storms. Business exposures and locations, types of business, production and supply chains, and client bases determined different impacts of and responses to these climate-related hazards. Businesses adopted primarily temporary and reactive responses rather than long-term systematic measures. Strengthening adaptive infrastructure, both physical and informational, will improve businesses' capability to prepare for and cope with these disasters.

Introduction

Impacts of climate change on small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) ¹ have recently received more attention in the global climate agenda. Given their increasing significance for sustainable economic growth and the intense effects of climate change on them, SMEs have been urged to engage in climate change adaptation strategies (UNFCCC, 2017). It was estimated in 2015 that climate change would cost private businesses between USD 4.2 trillion and USD 43 trillion between then and the end of the century (ibid). Consequently, many global-level initiatives have been implemented to identify impacts on and needs of SMEs in response to climate change. For example, in 2017 UNFCCC conducted a Survey of Adaptation Actions and Needs to understand perceptions of SMEs on climate change and how the changes in climate have altered the ways they do business. Further, the small enterprise sector has been included in the international framework of climate resilience, as evidenced in the recognition of improving SMEs' resilience to natural hazards endorsed in the Sendai Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction (Schaer and Kuruppu, 2018). Financially, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) is committed to continuing to support adaptation actions by SMEs. Regional players like the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) have also started initiatives to support SMEs' post-disaster business continuity planning. These global and regional efforts signify the increasing recognition of the importance of strengthening the resilience of SMEs facing climate change (ibid).

Small businesses are adversely impacted by extreme weather events many of which are caused or compounded by climate change. Most small and micro businesses lack access to capital and resources and operate with marginal profits and therefore have limited cash reserves to respond to and recover from a disaster (Runyan, 2006; Tierney, 2007; Reynolds, 2013). They also tend to be housed in non-engineered buildings and often have insufficient capacity to devise and execute a disaster management plan (Zhang et al., 2009). Thus, they are extremely susceptible to mechanical failures, absence of employees, disruptions of utility supplies, telecommunications breakdowns, and property destruction as consequences of a disaster (Crick et al., 2018; Howe, 2011; Marks and Thomalla, 2017). Despite their vulnerabilities, however, small businesses have received little attention from the climate change community and policy-makers until recently (Lo et al., 2019).

In Cambodia, climate change has amplified the frequency and intensity of climatic variability and natural hazards, expressed by such phenomena as higher intensity of rainfall, an irregular timing of the rainy season, and more prolonged droughts (Chem, 2012). Floods, droughts, and storms have severely impacted agricultural production (UNDP, 2011; RGC, 2013; MEF and GSSD, 2019). Therefore, climate change interventions have centred on how to make agriculture more climate-resilient. However, since the Cambodian economy has reduced its reliance on agriculture and shifted its focus on the manufacturing and services sectors (World Bank, 2017), climate change adaptation efforts need to prioritize other growth sectors. This necessity is reflected in a recent projection that without climate change, Cambodia would sustain annual gross domestic product growth of 6.9% during 2017-2050 (MEF and GSSD, 2019). Yet, with climate change, the growth would be reduced to 6.6% in 2020 and 2.5% in 2030 (ibid). Climate change initiatives should target small and informal businesses since the private sector in the country is dominated by SMEs and informal enterprises. Over 90% of 510,000 registered firms are SMEs and 95% of 152,332 local SMEs are unregistered (MIH, 2017). It is estimated that SMEs employ over 1.2 million people (ibid). The FM Global Resilience Index 2019 developed by the insurance company FM Global ranked the resilience of Cambodia's business environment at 114 among 130 countries considered in the ranking (FM Global, 2020).

Although Kratie province's economy still depends largely on agriculture, the small-scale tourism and hospitality sector and other small businesses are also becoming increasingly important. According to the 2011 Economic Census, there were 11,046 business establishments in the province, almost all of these being small businesses (NIS, 2013). Given the growing importance of small enterprises and the rising interlinkage between agriculture and tourism in the provincial economy, it is crucial to comprehend how climate change has affected small businesses in the province's tourism and hospitality sector and what can be done to make them more climate-resilient.

This exploratory study examines how climate change has impacted micro businesses in Kratie's provincial capital and how they responded to the impacts. We show how location, type and supply and production chain of businesses determined impacts and responses, and how some businesses gained an advantage even during a disaster. Studies on the impacts of climate change on small businesses have predominantly focused on SMEs in developed countries (e.g., Lo et al., 2019; Chin et al., 2019; Kaesehage et al., 2019). While some studies have dealt with SMEs in developing country contexts, they tend to focus on national implications of climate change and characterize the general vulnerabilities and responses of SMEs (e.g., Schaer and Kuruppu, 2018; Crick et al., 2018; Chaudhury, 2018; ADPC, 2017; UNEP and AXA Group, 2015). Notable exceptions in the Southeast Asian context are the studies by Chinh et al. (2016) on small businesses' preparedness and response to the 2011 flood event in the Mekong Delta and by Pathak and Ahmad's (2018) on SMEs' coping strategies and the role of government in the recovery from the 2011 floods in Thailand's Pathumthani province. However, these studies did not provide sufficiently disaggregated data and in-depth information that would distinguish between particular locations of small businesses, their dependency on certain supply chains and the linkages among businesses that have an impact on coping strategies and adaptation mechanisms. Our study attempts to fill this gap by examining particularities, such as locations, types and supply chains of micro businesses, which have been largely neglected to date.

Section snippets

Impacts of climate change on businesses

Respondents perceived both extreme weather events (or natural hazards) and climate change as affecting their businesses. ³ They perceived such disasters as floods and storms as extreme weather events because of the extraordinary conditions they noted. Moreover, when responding to questions about specific disasters, many mentioned climate change or frequency and severity

Discussion

This study confirms some common direct and indirect impacts of climate change on small businesses' internal and external environments. Internally, we have shown that climate-induced disasters (i.e., floods and storms) disrupted business operations, caused profit loss, damaged business property, and caused mental health problems which confirms findings from studies in other contexts (Chaudhury, 2018; Crick et al., 2018; Lo et al., 2019; Chin et al., 2019). Externally, disasters disrupted

Conclusion

The major contribution of our study to the current state of discussion in the field of climate resilience of the business sector in developing countries is that impacts of climate change on micro businesses and their subsequent responses are complex and nuanced, which requires a contextualized understanding and analysis. Particularly, we have shown that in a provincial town setting in Cambodia, the differentiation in locations, types and supply chains of businesses influenced impacts and

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Chanrith Ngin: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Project administration. Chanchhaya Chhom: Investigation, Data curation, Validation, Visualization, Writing - review & editing, Project administration. Andreas Neef: Methodology, Investigation, Supervision, Writing - review & editing, Project administration, Funding acquisition.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This research was part of a project on "Climate Change Adaptation in Post-Disaster Recovery Processes: Flood-Affected Communities in Cambodia and Fiji" (CAF2017-RR01-CMY-Neef) funded by the Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research (APN). The funding agency had no involvement in the study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; and in the decision to submit this article for publication.

We thank Thidameas Hak, Nakhem Eom and Vannet

Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre (ADPC)
Strengthening disaster and climate resilience of small and medium enterprises in Asia: regional synthesis report. Bangkok

M. Chaudhury
Conceptualizing micro, small and medium enterprise engagement in climate change adaptation

Climate change and water governance in Cambodia

Mekong River Basin Water Resources Assessment: Impacts of Climate Change

FM Global
FM Global Resilience Index 2019

General Secretariat of National Council for Sustainable Development (GSSD)
Promoting private sector contribution to the climate change response in Cambodia

Climate information for climate change adaptation

Adaptation of MSMEs to climate change: a review of the existing literature

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Climate change impacts and disaster resilience among micro businesses in the tourism and hospitality sector: The case of Kratie, Cambodia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Cambodia is considered extremely vulnerable to climate change due to high poverty, limited infrastructure, and weak adaptive capacity. Kratie province...