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Learning to read is a complex process involving multiple skills and knowledge. Read about the challenges children face as they learn how sounds are connected to print, as they develop fluency and learn to construct meaning from print.

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What is reading? And what are the core skills that young children need to become successful readers? Learning to read is complex, but this overview can help explain key terms and demystify the process.

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What the Science Says About How Kids Learn to Read

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There are so many pieces to the Science of Reading that it can be difficult to know where to start. Here are a few highlights about what the Science of Reading IS and what it IS NOT. This knowledge will help you on your journey to teaching all children, including those with diverse needs and cultural backgrounds, to read.

What it IS

A Collection of Research

Research, over time, from multiple fields of study using methods that confirm and disconfirm theories on how children best learn to read.

Teaching Based on the 5 Big Ideas

Phonemic Awareness - The ability to identify and play with individual sounds in spoken words.

Phonics - Reading instruction on understanding how letters and groups of letters link to sounds to form letter- sound relationships and spelling patterns.

- The ability to read words, phrases, sentences, and stories correctly, with enough speed, and expression.

Vocabulary - Knowing what words mean and how to say and use them correctly.

Comprehension - The ability to understand what you are reading.

Ever Evolving

There is new research and evidence all the time. As populations, communities, and approaches evolve, so should practice.

What it is NOT

A program, an intervention, or a product that you can buy.

The Science of Reading could be considered an approach to teaching reading that is based on decades of research and evidence. It is NOT a specific program.

Phonics-based programs that drill phonics skills.

Phonics is an integral part of teaching reading based on science, but it is just one of the five big ideas that should be taught so all children can learn to read.

Complete and no more study needs to be done.

As with any science, it is never complete. We can always know more. More study happens all the time and researchers, teachers, and families can work together to bring the best research into classrooms.

National Center on Improving Literacy (2022). The Science of Reading: The Basics. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, Office of Special Education Programs, National Center on Improving Literacy. Retrieved from http://improvingliteracy.org.

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If you prefer, read the text-version of the infographic. Click to Enlarge There are so many pieces to the Science of Reading that it can be difficult to know where to start. Here are a few highlights about what the Science of Reading IS and what it IS NOT.

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Parents almost universally recognize the importance of learning to read, seeing it as a key link to success in school and a vital way for children to develop their full potential, both academically and personally. Schools understand this, too, spending extensive time and resources on helping kids learn to read. At the same time, according to the National Assessment of Educational Progress, it's typical for only about one-third of U.S. 4th graders to score at or above "proficient" on reading assessments. This means that over 60% of children score below "proficient" in 4th grade, making it challenging for them to access the curriculum at the age where kids transition from "learning to read to reading to learn," as educators often observe.

To understand how kids learn to read, and in order to advocate effectively for their own children and the needs of children in their communities, parents need to understand the science of reading, which refers to scientifically validated techniques shown to ensure that the majority of children will learn to read proficiently, regardless of other factors like socioeconomic status or parental education. Parents also need to know that, unlike a baby learning a language, learning to read is actually not a natural process. The brain evolved over hundreds of thousands of years to allow us to learn language from infancy, but reading is a much newer process in terms of human development, developing only about 5500 years ago. As a result, learning to read requires significant conscious effort for most people. This effort can be harnessed most effectively when applied in a step-by-step process that relies on techniques based in the science of reading.

What do educators and researchers mean by "the science of reading"?

"The science of reading" refers to two related concepts: the study of how the brain learns to read, and to methods for teaching reading that high-quality scientific studies have shown to be effective. When it comes to ensuring children develop the skills needed to enjoy literature and nonfiction texts, parents can benefit from understanding the science behind learning to read.

A key component of scientifically based literacy instruction is instruction in phonological awareness and systematic phonics.

Phonological awareness includes skills like rhyming, alliteration, identifying syllables, and blending syllables together. It also includes phonemic awareness, which is the ability to identify and manipulate individual sounds in spoken words. Individual sounds are called phonemes. Phonemic awareness skills are critical for learning to read. Children practice these skills through activities such as removing the /k/ sound from the word "cat" and substituting the /r/ sound to make "rat." Through rhyming, substituting, and manipulating sounds in other ways, children get ready to learn to read.

Systematic phonics refers to the process of teaching children to associate sounds (phonemes) with letters (also called graphemes). In English, there are often multiple ways to spell phonemes. For example, the sound /k/ - the symbol for the sound at the beginning of the words "cat" and "ketchup" - can be made with the letters c-, k-, and even sometimes ch-, as in "architect." Systematic phonics involves learning these letter-sound correspondences in an organized, step-by-step way that reflects the findings of high-quality research studies.

The sound-letter connection is how children learn to read effectively. When all children are taught phonological awareness skills and systematic phonics directly, most can learn to read effectively and at or above grade level, and with moderate additional support, almost all children can learn to read proficiently.

Five areas educators can use to evaluate the effectiveness of reading programs

Programs that provide all five of these instructional approaches are more likely to support all students in learning how to read proficiently:

Five components of evidence-based instruction. The National Reading Panel (2000) identified five components of evidence-based instruction, which include phonics, phonological awareness, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. An effective reading program must include these five components using a scope and sequence that is implemented with fidelity.

Explicit instruction. The program should support direct instruction, first modeling skills for students, then allowing guided practice, then permitting independent application of skills. Students must receive adequate opportunities to practice.

Systematic implementation. Skills must be broken into steps so that students encounter simple topics before complex ones, and have opportunities to practice using meaningful, decodable texts.

Diagnostic teaching. The program should provide formal and informal assessments that allow teachers to diagnose skills students have not yet mastered. This allows teachers to tailor instruction.

Multisensory instruction. Research shows that children form more brain connections to information when they encounter it in visual, auditory, and kinesthetic or tactile modes. For example, students should have opportunities to practice a letter form by writing it with a finger on sandpaper or a squishy surface, saying the letter name aloud, and writing it in the air or on their arm while saying the letter sound out loud.

Which at-home activities best support children's developing literacy skills?

Reading aloud to children, as well as speaking with them as much as possible, helps create an environment that's rich in language. Exposing toddlers and preschoolers to specific phonological awareness skills can be a part of daily life activities.

Here are some examples:

Rhyming games. "I'm thinking about an animal that rhymes with frog...that's right! Dog!" Then, have your child choose a word and ask you to think of a rhyme.

Rhyming groups. "Let's think of all the words that rhyme with mat."

Nursery songs. Tongue twisters, brief poems, and silly songs let children play with language. Very young children may especially enjoy finger-plays like The Itsy-Bitsy Spider that have hand movements to accompany the words.

Car time. Ask children to spot a house, then ask what rhymes with house. Mouse! Dog? Log! Tree? Knee!

Syllables. Help kids learn to break down words into their parts. Rowboat = row boat. Firetruck = fire truck. Eggplant = egg plant. Once a child understands syllables, they can break down words like "ap-ple" where the syllables don't necessarily have meanings on their own.

Older preschoolers and kindergarteners can learn letter names. Starting with letters in a child's name is a common way to help kids understand the context for learning letter names. This does not need to be a high-pressure task; letting these activities remain fun is important. Children do not need to learn all of their letter names perfectly before starting school. Parents should keep in mind that any literacy activities can be positive ways to develop kids' ability to connect with reading, and that reading aloud remains one of best ways to grow children's engagement with stories, language, and reading.

Once children enter the elementary grades, making time for reading can often mean limiting other activities. Establishing firm times of day when reading or playing with non-electronic toys are the only options is one way that many families make time for reading. Kids likely won't choose reading over more stimulating activities, like screen time, so parents who want to keep their kids reading need to create opportunities for constructive boredom. Reading isn't as attractive as video games for most kids, but it's a great alternative to boredom.

Kids of any age benefit from spending at least thirty minutes per day reading. If a child loves graphic novels, consider having them read a more text-heavy option - a chapter book or series, for example - for part of their reading time. The reason for this is that text-heavy choices expose children to more vocabulary, and over time, this adds up to significantly more reading experience. The message isn't that graphic novels are bad, but that everyone needs variety in their reading diet. Similarly, reading nonfiction texts, magazines, and even instruction manuals for games like Minecraft are good choices for kids.

What if my child doesn't seem to be catching on to phonological awareness activities or is having trouble learning to read?

It's vital for families to act on these concerns as soon as they can. Reading intervention is most effective the earlier it is provided. Children can be identified as being at risk for reading difficulties when they are in kindergarten. Rather than assuming that reading problems will resolve on their own, parents should advocate for assessment of any concerns. Research indicates that, far from improving over time, reading difficulties that are not addressed can become significant impediments to learning. In contrast, when children with such difficulties receive appropriate interventions as early as possible, they can thrive and overcome these challenges.

Children who learn to read using methods that focus on phonological awareness and systematic phonics will be set up to read successfully, and to continue reading for a lifetime. This makes a huge difference in supporting kids' academic success and socioemotional growth and wellbeing.

Katharine Hill, MS, MAT, ET/P, is a learning specialist and educational therapist in private practice in Brooklyn, NY, who has twenty years of experience working in K-12 and higher education. upnext.nyc

Categories: For Parents, Homeschool, Uncategorized | Tags: early reading, how to read, phonics, phonological awareness, reading, struggling reader | Permalink

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What Parents Need to Know About the Science of Reading

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Parents almost universally recognize the importance of learning to read, seeing it as a key link to success in school and a vital way for children to develop their full potential, both academically and personally. Schools understand this, too, spending extensive... #earlyreading #howtoread #phonics

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Reading 101 for Parents: Phonological and Phonemic Awareness

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Phonological and phonemic awareness is the ability to hear, identify, and play with the sounds in spoken language - including rhymes, syllables, and the smallest units of sound (phonemes).

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Reading 101 for Parents: Phonics and Decoding

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Phonics is a step-by-step way to teach the alphabetic principle - the idea that letters represent the sounds of spoken language - and that there is a predictable relationship between letters and sounds. "Decoding" is the act of sounding out words using phonics.

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Phonics -  Everything Parents Need to Know

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Accurate and quick reading

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Fluency is a child's ability to read a book or other text with accuracy, at a reasonable rate, and with appropriate expression. Reading fluency is important because it provides a bridge between word recognition and comprehension.

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Fluency -  Everything Parents Need to Know

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Vocabulary is word knowledge - knowing what the words mean. Word learning is an ongoing process - we are always adding to our "word bank." The goal is to recognize and understand the meaning of spoken and written words.

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For young children

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For elementary age kids

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Comprehension is the reason for reading. If readers can read the words but do not understand or connect to what they are reading, they are not really reading. Good readers are both purposeful and active, and have the skills to absorb what they read, analyze it, make sense of it, and make it their own.

Strong readers think actively as they read. They use their experiences and knowledge of the world, vocabulary, language structure, and reading strategies to make sense of the text and know how to get the most out of it. They know when they have problems with understanding and what thinking strategies to use to resolve these problems when they pop up.

Teachers can play a critical role in helping students develop their comprehension skills. Reading research has shown that comprehension instruction can help students do a better job of understanding and remembering what they read. Good instruction can also help students communicate with others, verbally and in writing, about what they've read.

What good readers do

Draw on prior knowledge. Good readers draw on prior knowledge and experience to help them understand what they are reading.

Draw inferences. In addition to understanding the literal points that the author is making, good readers are able to "read between the lines" and draw inferences about a wide range of hidden meanings, such as why events are unfolding as they do, why characters behave in a certain way, what the characters are thinking, and what might happen next.

Self-monitor. During reading, good readers learn to monitor their understanding, adjust their reading speed to fit the difficulty of the text, and address any comprehension problems they have. After reading, they check their understanding of what they have read. Students who are good at monitoring their comprehension know when they understand what they're reading and when they don't.

Form mental images. Good readers often form mental pictures, or images, as they read. Readers (especially younger readers) who picture the story during reading understand and remember what they read better than readers who do not create a picture in their mind.

Summarize and retell. Summarizing requires students to determine what is important in the text and then put it into their own words by retelling, verbally or in writing. Instruction in summarizing can help students become more purposeful as they read and more skillful in comprehending. Summarizing can help students to:

Identify main ideas orally or in writing.

Connect the main or central ideas orally or in writing.

Learn to weed out unnecessary information.

Remember what they have read.

Can your child tell you what happened in the story?

This video is from Home Reading Helper, a resource for parents to elevate children's reading at home provided by Read Charlotte . Find more video, parent activities, printables, and other resources at Home Reading Helper .

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Comprehension is understanding what you read - the goal of reading! It is the thinking process readers use to understand what they read. Strong vocabulary, background knowledge, and an understanding of how language works are keys to comprehension.

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Reading Comprehension - Everything Parents Need to Know

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The Research: National Reading Panel Report

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The Research: National Reading Panel Report

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The National Reading Panel found that certain instructional methods are better than others, and that many of the more effective methods are ready for implementation in the classroom. To become good readers, children must develop:

Phonemic awareness

Phonics skills

The ability to read words in text in an accurate and fluent manner

The ability to apply comprehension strategies consciously and deliberately as they read

The Panel found that many difficulties learning to read were caused by inadequate phonemic awareness and that systematic and explicit instruction in phonemic awareness directly caused improvements in children's reading and spelling skills.

The evidence for these casual claims is so clear cut that the Panel concluded that systematic and explicit instruction in phonemic awareness should be an important component of classroom reading instruction for children in preschool and beyond who have not been taught phoneme concepts or who have difficulties understanding that the words in oral language are composed of smaller speech sounds - sounds that will be linked to the letters of the alphabet. Importantly, the Panel found that even preschool children responded well to instruction in phonemic awareness when the instruction was presented in an age-appropriate and entertaining manner.

The Panel also concluded that the research literature provides solid evidence that phonics instruction produces significant benefits for children from kindergarten through 6th grade and for children having difficulty learning to read. The greatest improvements were seen from systematic phonics instruction. This type of phonics instruction consists of teaching a planned sequence of phonics elements, rather than highlighting elements as they happen to appear in a text.

Here again, the evidence was so strong that the Panel concluded that systematic phonics instruction is appropriate for routine classroom instruction. The Panel noted that, because children vary in reading ability and vary in the skills they bring to the classroom, no single approach to teaching phonics could be used in all cases. For this reason, it is important to train teachers in the different kinds of approaches to teaching phonics and in how to tailor these approaches to particular groups of students.

Children at risk of reading failure especially require direct and systematic instruction in these skills, and that instruction should be provided as early as possible. Children in kindergarten and in the first grade respond well to instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics, provided the instruction is delivered in a vibrant, imaginative, and entertaining fashion. Children who experience early difficulty in reading respond well to phonics instruction through the late elementary school years.

The Panel also concluded that guided oral reading has been clearly documented by research to be important for developing reading fluency - the ability to read with efficiency and ease. In guided oral reading, students read out loud, to a parent, teacher or other student, who corrects their mistakes and provides them with other feedback. Specifically, guided oral reading helped students across a wide range of grade levels to learn to recognize new words, helped them to read accurately and easily, and helped them to comprehend what they read.

By contrast, the Panel was unable to determine from the research whether reading silently to oneself helped to improve reading fluency. Although it makes sense that silent reading would lead to improvements in fluency, and the Panel members did not discourage the practice, sufficient research to conclusively prove this assumption has not been conducted. Literally hundreds of studies have shown that the best readers read silently to themselves more frequently than do poor readers. However, these studies cannot distinguish whether independent silent reading improves reading skills or that good readers simply prefer to read silently to themselves more than do poor readers.

The Panel concluded that if silent reading is used in the classroom as a method intended to develop reading skills and fluency, it should be combined with other types of reading instruction, such as guided oral reading. The Panel also recommends that substantial additional research be conducted on the effectiveness of silent independent reading and other instructional procedures to enhance fluency and the ability to read with proper expression.

To determine how children best learn to comprehend what they read, the Panel reviewed studies of three areas regarded as essential to developing reading comprehension: vocabulary development, text comprehension instruction, and teacher preparation and comprehension strategies instruction.

Although the best method or combination of methods for teaching vocabulary has not yet been identified, the Panel review uncovered several important implications for teaching reading. First, vocabulary should be taught both directly - apart from a larger narrative or text - and indirectly - as words are encountered in a larger text. Repetition and multiple exposure to vocabulary words will also assist vocabulary development, as will the use of computer technology. The Panel emphasized that instructors should not rely on single methods for teaching vocabulary, but on a combination of methods.

Likewise, the Panel also found that reading comprehension of text is best facilitated by teaching students a variety of techniques and systematic strategies to assist in recall of information, question generation, and summarizing of information. The Panel also found that teachers must be provided with appropriate and intensive training to ensure that they know when and how to teach specific strategies.

With respect to the overall preparation of teachers, the Panel noted that existing studies showed that training both new and established teachers generally produced higher student achievement, but the research in this area is woefully inadequate to draw clear conclusions about what makes training most effective. More quality research on teacher training is one of the major research needs identified by the Panel.

Finally, the Panel examined the use of computer technology to teach reading. The Panel noted that there are too few definitive studies to draw firm conclusions, but that the available information suggests that it is possible to use computer technology to improve reading instruction. For example, the use of computers as word processors may help students learn to read, as reading instruction is most effective when combined with writing instruction.

Teachers are key! They must know how children learn to read, why some children have difficulty learning to read, and how to identify and implement instructional approaches of proven efficacy for different children. They must know how to judge the quality of the reading research literature and to use it to develop curricula and teaching methods based on the soundest and most scientifically rigorous studies. Literacy instruction can and should be provided to all children beginning in kindergarten. In doing so, teachers must understand that such instruction should be integrated with the entire kindergarten experience in order to optimize their students' social and emotional development.
See full report ›

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According to research, some instructional methods for teaching reading are more effective than others. Find out what the National Reading Panel's review of the research revealed about best practices in reading instruction.

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You are welcome to print copies for non-commercial use, or a limited number for educational purposes, as long as credit is given to Reading Rockets and the author(s). For commercial use, please contact the author or publisher listed.

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Dyslexia is a language-based disability that affects both oral and written language. With help, children with dyslexia can become successful readers. Find out the warning signs for dyslexia that preschool and elementary school children might display.

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Xenia Community Schools Structured Literacy

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Xenia Community Schools Structured Literacy

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Xenia Community Schools

Structured Literacy

Xenia Community Schools uses the Acadience Reading K-6 screener to measure students’ foundational reading skills in grades K-3. This provides indicators of how well students understand the sound system of language (phonemic awareness), spelling patterns (phonics), if they read accurately and quickly (fluency), and if they comprehend text adequately. It also serves as a dyslexia screener and can help to identify students who show characteristics that indicate they may be at risk for dyslexia.

Xenia’s reading instruction has made the shift to structured literacy, as is the expectation from the state. The purpose of structured literacy instruction is to teach the foundational skills of language and literacy in an explicit and cumulative way. Structured literacy teaches the alphabetic principle and phonics, which helps children break the ‘code’ of reading and learn to blend sounds to pronounce the words on the page. This emphasis on decoding words builds fluent readers who can apply more attention to comprehending text. Explicit instruction also applies to vocabulary and comprehension skills. Structured literacy is research-based and is appropriate for all students, including those struggling or at-risk for dyslexia.

Xenia schools has implemented a multi-tiered system of supports with reading instruction to ensure that students receive the instruction that is most appropriate for their needs. Tier One (whole class) instructional curriculum in reading is a combination of HMH Into Reading (foundational decoding skills plus comprehension), Wilson Fundations (handwriting and phonics skills), Heggerty (phonemic awareness), and Geodes (decodable text). Decodable text refers to reading passages that contain only the words with spelling patterns a student has been explicitly taught. Tier Two instruction is for students who are not making adequate progress in Tier One. Tier Two is in addition to the required whole group ELA instruction, and is administered in small groups that are geared toward the specific skills in which a child needs improvement. Tier Two usually happens inside the classroom and is taught by the classroom teacher. In some circumstances, Tier Two may be done by an additional teacher in a pull-out situation where more intensive training can be offered.

For more information on structured literacy, please visit the following link:

Structured Literacy Instruction: The Basics | Reading Rockets

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Brady, S. (2011). Efficacy of phonics teaching for reading outcomes: Implications from Post-NRP research. In S. Brady, D. Braze, & C. Fowler (Eds.), Explaining individual differences in reading (pp. 69-96), London: Psychology Press.

Denton, C. A., Fletcher, J. M., Taylor, W. P., Barth, A. E., & Vaughn, S. (2014). An experimental evaluation of Guided Reading and explicit interventions for primary-grade students at-risk for reading difficulties. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 7(3), 268-293.

Ehri, L., Nunes, R. S., Stahl, S., & Willows, D. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel's meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71, 393-447.

Foorman, B., Beyler, N., Borradaile, K., Coyne, M., Denton, C. A., Dimino, J., Furgeson, J., Hayes, L., Henke, J., Justice, L., Keating, B., Lewis, W., Sattar, S., Streke, A., Wagner, R., & Wissel, S. (2016). Foundational skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (NCEE 2016-4008). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from the NCEE website: http://whatworks.ed.gov

Kilpatrick, D. (2015). Essentials of assessing, preventing, and overcoming reading difficulties. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

McCardle, P., & Chhabra, V. (Eds.). (2004). The voice of evidence in reading research. Baltimore, MD, Paul H. Brookes.

National Early Literacy Panel (NELP). (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.

National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Child and Human Development.

Seidenberg, M. (2017). Language at the speed of sight: How we read, why so many can't, and what can be done about it. New York: Basic Books.

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Structured Literacy Instruction: The Basics

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Structured Literacy prepares students to decode words in an explicit and systematic manner. This approach not only helps students with dyslexia, but there is substantial evidence that it is effective for all readers. Get the basics on the six elements of Structured Literacy and how each element is taught.