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Create a book with your information and add to our class library

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In 2014, Bruce Pascoe wrote a book called Dark Emu that challenged the belief that the First Australians were hunter-gatherers.

In researching his book, Bruce examined the journals of the early explorers and found evidence of a complex civilisation that was using sophisticated technologies to live, farm and manage the land.

By looking at scientific research, archival footage and the journals of early explorers, we learn about the vast agricultural fields, ingenious aquaculture systems, sophisticated use of fire and successful industries that existed in Australia prior to colonisation.

Notes for the audience

Since 2019, Pascoe's work has been evaluated differently by some people, who don't agree with his interpretations of historical sources. This resource contains excerpts from the original texts and scientific evidence that Bruce draws on. We encourage you to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of all historical sources.

Many primary sources used in this resource have words to describe Indigenous people that many people find offensive but at the time were widely used and, unfortunately, accepted. Words such as "blacks", "Aborigine" and "natives" were commonly used in colonial Australia to describe Indigenous people, but today they are considered outdated and highly offensive by many people.

Table of contents:

1. Introducing Bruce Pascoe

Bruce Pascoe is a Yuin, Bunurong and Tasmanian man.

He is an award-winning writer who has worked as a teacher, a farmer and an Aboriginal-language researcher. Learn how Bruce's investigation into his own family background led to his discovery of Australia's long agricultural history prior to colonisation.

2. Stone tools

Bruce Pascoe takes us for a walk on Yuin Country, around his farm in far-east Gippsland.

We learn what some of the stones in our natural environment can reveal about Australia's past. We also hear about the different uses for stone tools and how stone was imported from other locations.

3. The explorers' diaries

In their journals, some early explorers of Australia described scenes of large-scale agriculture by Aboriginal people.

Sir Thomas Mitchell rode past 9 miles of harvested grain. Sir George Grey saw miles of deeply tilled gardens used for growing vegetables. Bruce Pascoe explores the reasons why Aboriginal civilisation, economy, agriculture and aquaculture are rarely mentioned in history books.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander viewers are advised that this resource contains images of people who have died.
4. Grain and bread

Bruce Pascoe states that Aboriginal people were the world's first bakers and that they invented bread.

Learn about the archaeological evidence for ancient seed grinding in Australia. Bruce introduces us to a map that shows Aboriginal people were harvesting grain and grinding it into flour in the Australian desert. We also learn about perennial Australian plants adapted to our climate and capable of surviving drought.

4.1 World's first bakers?

When did humans begin grinding seeds to make flour?

Many people believe bread-making began in Egypt or Mesopotamia as long as 17,000 years ago. Archaeologists have recently found evidence that Indigenous Australians were producing flour 65,000 years ago.

Were they the world's first bakers?

4.2 Grain belt and grasses

According to Pascoe, grain that grows in soil with few nutrients and little water will become increasingly significant as agricultural land is exhausted and rainfall patterns shift.

4.3 Baking today

Bruce Pascoe introduces us to a multipurpose stone that was used by the "Old People" for grinding, crushing and hammering.

It remains an important tool in the production of bread using native grasses like panicum and kangaroo grass.

Pascoe explains that native grasses can be grown sustainably and abundantly, and they're good for us!

5. Roast duck and cake in the desert

In his 1849 journal "Narrative of an Expedition into Central Australia", British explorer Charles Sturt writes about being saved by a large group of Aboriginal people in the desert.

He and his party were given water, roasted ducks and cake and provided with a new hut to sleep in.

Bruce Pascoe uses excerpts from Sturt's journal to provide insight into the prosperous lives of the Aboriginal people who lived in Australia's arid interior.

6. Trees and connection

Learn about the importance of trees, their cultural significance and how we can read their histories.

Bruce introduces us to the idea that the Country is our mother and that trees are family.

7. Murnong and tubers

In his 1841 journals, George Augustus Robinson wrote that he saw Aboriginal women harvesting murnong (the yam daisy) across a plain in Victoria "as far as the eye could see".

Murnong is a root vegetable (or tuber) that grows in the south-east of Australia, and it was a staple food for many Aboriginal people. Early explorers recorded observations of large murnong farms. Bruce shows us how murnong is grown.

7.1 Murnong

In the 1830s, Sir Thomas Mitchell saw murnong (the yam daisy) growing to the horizon as he rode near the Grampians in Victoria.

In this video, we hear how murnong fields were destroyed by sheep. The consequence for Indigenous Australians was catastrophic.

Things to think about

1.Why do you think murnong was such an important crop for Aboriginal people?

7.2 Murnong seeds and storage

How do we grow and care for a plant that was a crucial part of the diet of Aboriginal peoples prior to the arrival of Europeans?

Pascoe shows us some murnong seeds in his garage, shares some growing tips and encourages students to try growing it.

Pascoe notes that the plant is "pretty robust" and probably stores well for future use.

7.3 Tuber types and growing tips

Bruce Pascoe gives us tips for growing murnong, an important plant in the diet of Indigenous Australians.

Pascoe also talks about other varieties of tubers that were likely grown and harvested by Aboriginal people before colonisation.

Pascoe emphasises the importance of tilling the soil at the base of the plants.

8. Plants and farming

We take a walk around Bruce Pascoe's farm to look at some plants.

He shows us how to extract starch from bracken to make pancakes and introduces us to a natural insecticide. Bruce also introduces us to a vegetable called cumbungi, used for making flour.

Things to think about

1.Why does Bruce think it's important to farm different varieties of plants?

9. Aquaculture

The ingenuity of Aboriginal people in aquaculture can still be seen by visiting the fish traps in Brewarrina, NSW, and the UNESCO World Heritage-listed eel traps at Lake Condah, Victoria.

The early explorers' journals also give us a great insight into aquaculture technologies used by Aboriginal people.

9.1 Lake Condah aquaculture

In this video, we learn about the network of channels and ponds engineered by the Gunditjmara people to farm eels at Lake Condah. We find out about the way the Gunditjmara people preserved the eels and about the industry this created.

9.2 Aquaculture machine

Bruce Pascoe describes an ingenious way Aboriginal people caught fish without nets, spears or fishing line.

Designed by Aboriginal people along the Murray River, the fishing machine tossed fish from the river onto the bank. All the operator had to do was reset the machine after each catch. Alas, its efficiency provided one English observer with an opportunity to demonstrate how "racism and prejudice can twist your brain into a knot".

10. Nets and rope

Aboriginal people traditionally used bark and other fibres to make rope and nets.

In this clip, Bruce Pascoe demonstrates how rope was made using bark from a stringybark tree on his farm.

11. Housing

In this chapter, we learn about the remains of large villages of stone houses that can still be seen at Lake Condah.

We hear from the early explorers who describe coming across villages of comfortable and well-designed homes.

Aboriginal people were using stone, timber, bark, rope and other technologies to build houses designed for the varying conditions across the country.

12. Birds and totems

We take a walk on Country and learn how birds can signify a change in the seasons.

Bruce introduces us to totems and tells us about the importance of black duck to Yuin people. Totems are part of a complex spiritual system interwoven into some Aboriginal cultures. A totem can be a plant or an animal inherited by a language group or family. Those people then have a responsibility to care for their totems.

13. Fire

Aboriginal people used fire for farming, to manage land and to keep tracks open in the bush.

Sir Thomas Mitchell's 1848 journal notes that fire was used in farming and to create open forests, and that both people and wildlife were dependent on this. Bruce says that wildfires were not as common as they are today due to the way Aboriginal people used fire. He believes the history of fire in Australia can be read by examining the stumps of old trees.

14. Plants and gardening

We have a look at some plants on Bruce's back porch.

Bruce hopes that more young people will become inquisitive about growing indigenous plants and learning the local language names for them.

More resources

Acknowledgement and credits

Copyright
Metadata © Australian Broadcasting Corporation 2020 (except where otherwise indicated). Digital content © Australian Broadcasting Corporation (except where otherwise indicated). Video © Australian Broadcasting Corporation (except where otherwise indicated). All images copyright their respective owners. Text © Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
All videos produced by Tim Purdie for ABC Education.

Researchers continue to discover new evidence of the earliest human occupation of Australia. A recent scientific study in south-west Victoria suggests Aboriginal Australians may have been living on the continent for 120,000 years.

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topic_aboriginal and torres strait islander history and culture

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Bruce Pascoe: Aboriginal Agriculture, Technology and Ingenuity - ABC Education

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In 2014, Bruce Pascoe wrote a book called Dark Emu that challenged the belief that the First Australians were hunter-gatherers. In researching his book, Bruce examined the journals of the early explorers and found evidence of a complex civilisation that was using sophisticated technologies to live, farm and manage the land.

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Another significant marine technology development is the use of rafts, canoes and boats along river systems and on open waters. Historically, dugout and bark canoes were used as transportation devices and as flotation aids while spear-fishing. Today, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people primarily take dinghies out to fish, and use nets, spears and fishing lines with metal hooks rather than kangaroo bones.

Knowing where and when to fish

'I think Aboriginal people have the common knowledge to know where they can fish and can't fish, it's in their blood, it's in their culture, it's been passed down from generations.' - Sue Stewart, Yuin woman, 2016

Over the generations, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples living near the sea have amassed a great deal of traditional knowledge around the best times and places to fish:

'Tides will tell us [when to go out fishing]... the weather will tell us. Those balanda [white people], they've got fish radar but we don't use that one. We know the places to get what we want, it's there. What we don't want, we just leave it.' -Jonathan Yalandhu, Yolŋu man of the Gupapuyŋu clan, 2017

Yolŋu people describe this as seasonal knowledge. They know which season it is from the natural signs around them; different flowers in bloom, changes to the colour of leaves, changes in tides and winds. The signs and seasons tell them which fish and maypal (shellfish) are big and fat, ready to be taken. Changes in the colour and smell of the sea brought by algal blooms tell them when there are yindi maypal (big shellfish).

Wayne Haseldine, a Kookatha/Mirning man, describes knowing which fish species to target on particular days as a 'natural instinct' made up of his ability to read the tide, winds and the moon. This is the knowledge he wishes to teach to the next generation of his family.

With the advent of new technologies, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples' means of engaging in fishing and marine resource management has changed a great deal. But the traditional knowledge of how, where and when to gather marine food resources such as fish and shellfish hasn't changed.

Take only what you need

In coastal Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, cultural rules about fishing are handed down orally through the generations.

'Fishing is actually sacred to us; it's really part of our culture. So if people want to go fishing and if they want to do it our way, then they'll learn the sacredness. You never take more than you need, for a start.' - Sue Haseldine, Kookatha/Mirning woman, 2017

This rule is widespread, and often accompanies two others: don't take undersized or pregnant fish and don't overfish. When fish are allowed to breed and grow, their populations are both sustainable and can sustain a community when taken at the right time.

In Aboriginal communities where cultural fishing practices have been handed down for thousands of years, people express frustration at not seeing commercial and recreational catch and release fishing boats following the same rules, showing respect to the marine environment and improving their efforts at fishing sustainability. When people in these communities see examples of bycatch and discarded dead fish, they see this as disrespectful of their culture and their country.

Many Yolŋu peoples in the Crocodile Islands believe that there are fewer fish in their waters due to commercial fishing. In Ceduna on the Far West Coast of South Australia, people worry about the impact on the local fish populations of the thousands of recreational fishers who visit every year.

In Ceduna, the Aboriginal community would like to see the advent of a sea ranger program, where local Aboriginal people could enforce fisheries regulations in a culturally appropriate way. Sue Haseldine wants to start a cultural eco-tourism business which would teach people respect for the land and the sea. These programs would not only provide employment, they would provide new opportunities for Aboriginal people to explain to outsiders the sacredness of their connection to sea country and the importance of respecting the cultural rules of fishing.
Return to our Living off our waters page

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A brief introduction to Indigenous fishing

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Another significant marine technology development is the use of rafts, canoes and boats along river systems and on open waters. Historically, dugout and bark canoes were used as transportation devices and as flotation aids while spear-fishing. Today, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people primarily take dinghies out to fish, and use nets, spears and fishing lines with metal hooks rather than kangaroo bones.

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In order to aid consultation, the Protected Zone Joint Authority (PZJA) has established a number of committees to provide information and advice to the Protected Zone Joint Authority on scientific, economic and technical matters related to any fishery managed by the PZJA.

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How Native Bush Foods Can Help to Reverse Climate Change — Colournary Magazine

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Wurundjeri Elder Uncle Dave Wandin tells us how Indigenous land management and native bush foods can help to reverse climate change in Australia.

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Wurundjeri History of Yarra | Yarra City Council

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Discover Yarra’s Aboriginal history in thirteen chapters. Starting before settler contact, and covering actions including dispossession, policing, frontier

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Deep Time History of Indigenous Australians - ABC Education

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Explore “deep time” through the traditional, cultural and experiential knowledge that First Nations peoples have amassed over 60,000 years of living spiritually and sustainably with the land.

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Deep Time History of Indigenous Australians - ABC Education

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Explore “deep time” through the traditional, cultural and experiential knowledge that First Nations peoples have amassed over 60,000 years of living spiritually and sustainably with the land.

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Binak | Basket. Coranderrk, Port Phillip, Victoria, Australia. c.1900

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This small oval-shaped binak (basket) was most likely purchased from Coranderrk Aboriginal Station around the 1870s or 1880s. It has been made using the bundle-coil technique, traditionally practised by Aboriginal women of south-eastern Australia and used to make a range of small and large baskets. The basket’s woven light and dark chequer design is very rare. Pre-contact, baskets made by…

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Mabo Day

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Mabo Day: The decision that expelled terra nullius from Australian law | ABC Australia

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Mabo Case Decision & Native Title | Terra Nullius Australia | Australians Together

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Explore the Mabo case decision which acknowledged the dispossession of Indigenous people. Learn about Eddie Mabo and his fight for Indigenous native title land rights that changed the legal understanding of land ownership in Australia. Understand the Mabo case, the fictional legal term “terra nullius”, and its ongoing impact on Indigenous peoples and the nation.

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These our our stories and voices, telling the story of Coranderrk and recalling the people who lived here.

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More information about Coranderrk, our people & our traditional & modern cultural practices.

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Koorie Heritage Trust - Discover Aboriginal Victoria!

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The Koorie Heritage Trust is a 30 year old Aboriginal owned and managed not‐for‐profit organization that supports, promotes and celebrates the living culture of the Indigenous peoples of south-east Australia.

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How have Australia's First Peoples maintained sustainable food systems for over 65,000 years?

Kooyang (eel) diorama, demonstrating how eel traps were used by Indigenous people in Victoria.

Historically, the narrative created by colonial settlers to Australia was that First Peoples were largely hunter/gathers, however, more recent discussions, evidence, and stories have brought to light the structured and seasonal agricultural practices of Indigenous communities.

The use of cultural burning and use of sustainable and seasonal crop species meant that Indigenous communities were food secure and able to support populations for over 65,000 years.

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How have Australia's First Peoples maintained sustainable food systems for over 65,000 years?

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Before colonisation, Aboriginal people were not simply hunters and gatherers as we are taught in school. We had a deep knowledge of the land and knew how to harvest our food sustainably.

We also had ways of manipulating the land to ensure we could get what was needed. We would build dams and wells, we planted and harvested seeds and to preserve the surplus we would store it in houses or sheds.

Fire was used in burning off practices to help nourish the land. When the fire would go through clearings, sweet and fresh grass would grow in its place this would lure animals in to the area making it easier to hunt.

Mob who lived along the coast or along rivers and streams would spear fish and rays in the shallow water or trap them in fishing nets that were woven with reeds or cane. Some of these traps would have a larger opening on one side to allow fish and other marine animals to swim in and a smaller opening on the opposite side so that babies could swim out and reach their full size.

We had canoes made out of trees that we would paddle into deeper waters to fish (a line made out of a plant based material and a hook that may have been made from stone or shell). For larger animals like turtles and dugong we would spear or harpoon them (a harpoon would be a rope attached to the end of a heavy spear). We also had sophisticated fish and eel traps, the most famous being the Budj Bim Eel Trap (which is now world heritage listed as of 2019).

Eel trap. Image source: Culture Victoria.

The traps are made up of a series of canals and graded ponds, water levels would be manipulated to encourage eels to swim into the trap. Baskets would be placed at the entrances to allow smaller/baby eels to escape. Eels could then easily be harvested.

Farming and agriculture

It is often said that before colonisation Aboriginal people only 'hunted and gathered' our food. However, this is not the case as our ancestors had sophisticated farming and agricultural techniques as well. This included planting seeds to create vast farms filled with crops, caring for the soil, harvesting the crops and storing the produce.

In fact, Aboriginal people may be the world's oldest bakers, as we baked bread made from the grains harvested from our farms. Aboriginal farming and agriculture suited the different climates and environment. Food we grew included yams and tubers (like potatoes), grains and grasses including types of rice, fruit and vegetables and much more. We also built dams, trenches and wells so we had sources of water for our crops.

Following colonisation, our farming practices were disrupted and many of our crops were destroyed by sheep and other introduced animals. However, many Mob are looking to revive Aboriginal farming practices as they are better for looking after the environment.

Food that was harvested was also preserved and stored so that our Communities could be fed and healthy all year round. There were many different ways Aboriginal people stored the grains, nuts, fruit and veggies, fish and meat we farmed, including in chambers made from clay and straw, storage units built from wood, in bags and in hollow trees. Having these storage techniques also meant we could feed hundreds of hungry mouths at ceremonies and gatherings.

Native Food

We recognised that the land had limited resources and so when we did farm, cultivate and collect food, we always made sure to only take what we needed and nothing more. We had sophisticated practices to allow the land to replenish itself of what we had taken.

The following is a list of some of common foods eaten before colonisation:

Above-ground plant foods such as fruit (figs, lilly pillies, quandong, bush apples and plums), nuts (macadamia) and seeds of acacias and various grasses which we would ground between two stones to produce flour and make bread.

Below-ground plant foods such as the roots of several of bush potatoes and yams and the bulbs of water lilies.

Insects like the witchetty grub which are found amongst tree roots and beneath the bark, green ants, and some moths such as the Bogong Moth. We also consumed the by-products of insects such as honey (this was produced by honey ants and was found in the honey sack attached to the ant), lerp and other sugary substances deposited on gum leaves.

Animals such as birds (emus, jabirus magpie geese, budgerigars), frogs, reptiles (lizards, snakes, tortoises, turtles, crocodiles) and land animals (kangaroos, wallabies, koalas, possums, etc.)

Marine animals such as sharks, rays, dolphins, dugong, whales, turtles, fish and eels.

Honey Ants. Image Source: ABC News.

This is just a general list of bush tucker. It is important to make sure you know what type of plant or animal it is before you try to eat it as many native plants and animals are poisonous and venomous and can cause severe harm to you if ingested incorrectly.
Image Source: Mount Bogong in Victoria. Taken from Tawonga Gap lookout.
Medicine

Many of the native plants found in this country can be used not only for eating but also as medicine. These plants include:

Eucalyptus oil (Eucalyptus sp.) - Eucalyptus leaves can be infused for body pains and fevers and chills. Today the oil is used commercially in mouthwash, throat lozenges and cough suppressants.

Desert mushrooms (Pycnoporus sp.) - Some Mobs would suck on the bright orange desert mushroom to cure a sore mouth or lips

Emu bush (Eremophila sp.) - Concoctions of emu bush leaves were used by Mobs in the Northern Territory to wash sores and cuts. In the last decade, the leaves from the emu bush were found to have the same strength as some established antibiotics.

Goat's foot (Ipomoea pes-caprae) - Goat's foot plant was used for pain relief from sting ray and stone fish stings, mobs from northern Australia and parts of New South Wales, would crush and heat the leaves of then applied them directly to the skin.

Emu Bush (Eremophila maculata flower).

This is just a small list of bush medicine and there are many other plants that have healing properties. It is important to make sure you know what a plant is before you try to use it for medicine as many native plants are poisonous and can cause more harm to you.

Image Source: Timeout - The rise of bushfood
Recipes - modern take on traditional foods

Flavours Of The Coast: Koorie Cookbook (scroll to the bottom of this page to download)

Businesses

Narana Cultural Centre

Narana is an award winning Aboriginal Cultural Centre. Cafe Narana serves up an extensive breakfast and lunch menu featuring dishes inspired by native ingredients and Indigenous flavours. They also have a retail outlet stocking cultural items including boomerangs, didgeridoos, clothing and fashion accessories, homewares, health and beauty products, bush herbs and spices and souvenirs.
www.narana.com.au
Koori Kulcha

Koori Kulcha is a catering and cultural business based in South East NSW. Their menus specialise in Indigenous dishes.
www.koorikulchaexperience.com.au
Mabu Mabu

Mabu Mabu is an Indigenous hospitality, catering, business and restauraunt located in Federation Square, Melbourne. Mabu Mabu is a saying in the Torres Strait that means 'help yourself.' It's what you say before you dig into a big meal with friends and family. Our food culture is all about sharing, and this experience is fundamental to our business. Whether you are joining us for a meal, an event, or picking up some products at home, we want you to feel part of our village.
www.mabumabu.com.au

Further reading

Dark Emu

Dark Emu is an extremely important book that challenges the colonial idea that Aboriginal people were 'hunter-gatherers.' Bunurong, Punniler panner and Yuin author and historian Uncle Bruce Pascoe lays out the evidence of Aboriginal people across the country using sophisticated farming, food storage and land management techniques to care for Country and sustain healthy populations. He also explains that Aboriginal people were falsely labelled 'hunter-gatherer' and 'primitive' by colonisers to justify land theft and invasion.

Also
Young Dark Emu (for young readers)
Sources

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We also had ways of manipulating the land to ensure we could get what was needed. We would build dams and wells, we planted and harvested seeds and to preserve the surplus we would store it in houses or sheds. Fire was used in burning off practices ...

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Governor Bourke's Proclamation 1835 (UK)

This document implemented the concept now known as terra nullius upon which British settlement was based, reinforcing the notion that the land belonged to no one prior the British Crown taking possession of it. Aboriginal people therefore could not sell or assign the land, nor could an individual person acquire it, other than through distribution by the Crown.

When John Batman, one of the pioneers in the founding of Victoria, first settled at Port Phillip, he made an attempt to buy the land from the Aboriginal people through a ' treaty'. New South Wales Governor, Sir Richard Bourke, effectively quashed the treaty with this Proclamation issued by the Colonial Office and sent to the Governor with Despatch 99 of 10 October 1835. Its publication in the Colony meant that from then, people found in possession of land without the authority of the government would be considered trespassers.

Although many people at the time also recognised that the Aboriginal occupants had rights in the lands (and this was confirmed in a House of Commons report on Aboriginal relations in 1837), the law followed and almost always applied the principles expressed in Bourke's proclamation. This would not change until the Australian High Court's decision in the Mabo Case in 1992.

The document shown is the copy of the Proclamation retained by the Colonial Office; the document despatched to Governor Bourke has not been located.

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Governor Bourke's Proclamation 1835 (UK) This document implemented the concept now known as terra nullius upon which British settlement was based, reinforcing the notion that the land belonged to no one prior the British Crown taking possession of it.