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You have to be there at 7:50 in the morning

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Student centered learning to make a multicultural classroom intercultural

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Student centered learning to make a multicultural classroom intercultural

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Jigsaw Activity “Unlocking Heritage – Teaching Through Ethnographic Artefacts”

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You may have asked yourself a question: Am I culturally intelligent? What does it take to talk about cultural intelligence. According to HBR cultural intelligence (CQ) is the ability to make sense of unfamiliar contexts and then blend. In other words it is to be able to function effectively in culturally diverse situation.

To help you improve your CQ you can consider using the following 4 step method consisting of:

What shall we get when we dig down?

- CQ Drive (motivation), the person's motivation to learn about and respond to a different culture. It is the interest in and confidence at functioning effectively in culturally diverse settings.

- CQ Knowledge (cognition), the person's knowledge of how cultures are similar and different. The point is not to be an expert on every culture but to understand how culture influences behaviors, values, and beliefs.

- CQ Strategy (meta-cognition), how the person makes sense of culturally diverse experiences. The knowledge about cultures enables effective planning in the context of cultural differences and forming cultural sensitive strategies.

- CQ Action (behavior), the person's capability to adapt his or her behavior to different cultures, including handling any difficulties that might arise.

If you want to obtain a better cultural awareness and understanding in your teams or just to learn more: contact us at hr@hrconcept.com.pl.

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What is Cultural Intelligence (CQ)? - HR Concept

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Cultural Intelligence: Definition, Importance, and Tips

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Learn all about cultural intelligence, its importance, and the ways you can improve it.

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What was Diocletian's full name? What was his wife's name?

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Domitian was succeeded by an elderly senator of some distinction, Marcus Cocceius Nerva (96-98). Among the beloved rulers of Rome that succeeded him were Trajan (reigned 98-117), Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161), and Marcus Aurelius (161-180). Together these are known as the Five Good Emperors. Their non-hereditary succession oversaw a golden age, which witnessed a considerable amount of expansion and consolidation. But all the changes that occurred during this era, beneficial as they were, brought with them the attendant evils of excessive centralization. The concentration of an empire in the hands of an emperor like Commodus (180-192)-juvenile, incompetent, and decadent-was enough to steer it toward decline.

The following century was plagued by strife and mismanagement. When the commander of the Danube army, Septimius Severus, was swept to power in 193, he effectively made Rome a military monarchy. The " barbarian invasions " weighed heavily on the empire, as did usurpations and political destabilization. The instability fed on itself and was responsible for heavy expenditure of both life and treasure. Disruptions in commerce, harsh taxation, inflation, and extortion from stationed troops all contributed to perpetual economic hardship for decades.

A period of recovery began with Diocletian (284-305), whose broad reforms renewed the integrity and cohesion of the imperial administration. His most notable adjustment was the reorganization of the empire into a tetrarchy, wherein power was divided among himself, Maximian (who became Augustus, or emperor, in 286), Constantius (who became Caesar, or hereditary prince, in 293), and Galerius (who also became Caesar in 293). The arrangement proved practical in stabilizing the empire for a time against usurpation, and it also promised the rulers legitimacy and regular succession.

The tetrarchy soon led to confusion, however, and by 308 there were seven pretenders to the title of Augustus. Among them was Constantius's eldest son, Constantine, who was passed over for formal succession. As a high-ranking military tribune, however, he had a forceful command and was able to eliminate his rivals successively in the West. He became the uncontested emperor of the West in 312 and, upon the defeat of his co-emperor in the East, he became the sole Augustus of the empire in 324.

Constantine's reign (312-337) saw significant and lasting changes to the Roman Empire. Christians, who had been tolerated at best-but often tortured or killed-found new favour after the Edict of Milan (313) assured toleration for all religions. From about 320 the Roman state no longer persecuted Christians but rather showered Christian institutions with patronage. In 324 Constantine relocated the imperial capital to Byzantium (which was renamed Constantinople), a move whose strategic and economic benefits helped reinvigorate the state for some time. But Constantine failed to save the empire from decline. The last of his line, Theodosius I (379-395), was the last emperor to rule over a unified Roman Empire. The Western Empire, suffering from repeated invasions and the flight of the peasants into the cities, had grown weak compared with the East, where spices and other exports virtually guaranteed wealth and stability. When Theodosius died, in 395, Rome split into Eastern and Western empires.

The West was severely shaken in 410, when the city of Rome was sacked by the Visigoths, a wandering nation of Germanic peoples from the northeast. The fall of Rome was completed in 476, when the German chieftain Odoacer deposed the last Roman emperor of the West, Romulus Augustulus. The East, always richer and stronger, continued as the Byzantine Empire through the European Middle Ages.

Legacy of Rome

During the later republic and most of the empire, Rome was the dominant power in the entire Mediterranean basin, most of western Europe, and large areas of northern Africa. The Romans possessed a powerful army and were gifted in the applied arts of law, government, city planning, and statecraft, but they also acknowledged and adopted contributions of other ancient peoples-most notably, those of the Greeks, much of whose culture was thereby preserved.

The Roman Empire was distinguished not only for its outstanding army-the foundation upon which the whole empire rested-but also for its accomplishments in intellectual endeavours. Roman law, for example, was a considered and complex body of precedents and comments, which were all finally codified in the 6th century ( see Justinian, Code of). Rome's roads were without match in the ancient world, designed for comparatively fast transportation and adapted to a wide variety of functions: commerce, agriculture, mail delivery, pedestrian traffic, and military movements. Roman city planners achieved unprecedented standards of hygiene with their plumbing, sewage disposal, dams, and aqueducts. Roman architecture, though often imitative of Greek styles, was boldly planned and lavishly executed. Triumphal arches commemorated important state occasions, and the famous Roman baths were built to stir the senses as well as to cleanse the body.

Finally, Latin, the language of the Romans, became the medium for a significant body of original works in Western civilization. Cicero's speeches, the histories of Livy and Tacitus, Terence's drama, and above all the poetry of Virgil are all part of the legacy of Rome.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Adam Zeidan.

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Roman Empire - Expansion, Decline, Legacy

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Roman Empire - Expansion, Decline, Legacy: Domitian was succeeded by an elderly senator of some distinction, Marcus Cocceius Nerva (96-98). Among the beloved rulers of Rome that succeeded him were Trajan (reigned 98-117), Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161), and Marcus Aurelius (161-180). Together these are known as the Five Good Emperors.

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Read some interesting facts about Croatia. One fact is not true. Which one?

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Are you looking for facts about Croatia? Here's a list of 20 fun Croatia facts that you probably didn't know.
If you've been reading my blog for a while, you know that I LOVE . This country has the warmest people, beautiful nature, waterfalls that will take your breath away, and the most incredibly delicious food.

Croatia also has some fun and interesting facts, which you can read all about here.

If you're heading to Croatia or just want to know some of Croatia facts, you've come to the right place. In this article, I've covered some of the funniest and most interesting facts about Croatia - from the mummies in Vodnjan to the film locations of one of the world's best TV shows - Game of Thrones.

Did you know that Croatia has an amphitheatre?

Oh, yes.

It's known as Pula Arena and is almost exactly like the Colosseum in Rome. Except this one is way less famous and even more impressive and beautiful! It's in better condition despite being over 2.000 years old (built in the first century BCE).

Back in the day, Pula amphitheatre was used to pit convicted criminals in battle against wild animals. Despite its size and beauty, it's one of the lesser-known facts about Croatia!
Read next: A tale of two ancient cities: Pula and Porec

Oooh, the truffles. They're amazing, and Croatia is home to the largest truffle in the world. At 1.31kg it has a place in the Guinness Book of World Records!

Speaking of truffles - Croatia is also the best place in Europe to go truffle hunting! Istria, Croatia's wine country, is overflowing with truffles, which explains why so many of their traditional foods include truffles! When you visit Buzet in Istria, you can actually organise a tour to go truffle hunting for the day yourself.

One of the most popular facts about Croatia is that King's Landing was filmed in Dubrovnik's old town. But did you know that Split, one of the most up-scale cities in Croatia, was also used as the filming location for Meereen ? Specifically, the amazing Fortress of Klis.

Other famous Game of Thrones Filming locations include the beautiful walled medieval city of Dubrovnik, the island of Lokrum, St. Jacob Cathedral in Sibenik, and Krka National Park.
Read next: Croatia's Game of Thrones locations: Dubrovnik

If you head to the Neanderthal Museum in Krapina, you'll find 900 bones of Neanderthal humans (an extinct subspecies of humans who lives until around 40,000 years ago).

The remains were found in a nearby cave more than 100 years ago amongst the remains of other creatures, such as woolly rhinos and giant deer. There are also tools and other artefacts that show how Neanderthal humans lived.

The Croatian currency, the kuna, is named after the marten, a ferret-like little animal known for its luxurious fur. And while we're at it - the coins are named after a lime tree. The kuna is divided into 100 lipa, which is the Croatian name of the linden lime tree.

The world's smallest town is actually located in Croatia. It's named Hum and has its own city walls, a church two small roads and a mayor. He's elected once a year by all the men in the parish who carve their votes into a wooden stick.
Read next: 4 hill towns in Istria you should visit

You know Cruella del Ville, right? Well, as you know, the movie 101 Dalmatian is about Dalmatians... which funny enough originates from Dalmatia in Croatia.

One of the most amazing facts about Croatia is that its wild and rugged landscape is peppered with wonderful . From the town of Vrsar, which Casanova himself described as "a place of good wine and beautiful women" to Vodnjan, a town of Gothic and Renaissance architecture where you can find no less than six

You can find them inside the town's parish church of St. Blaise, which is the largest church in Istria.
Read next: 12 must-see places in Istria

9. More than 2715 hours of sunshine per year

Croatia is a sunny country. Very sunny. In fact, it has more than 2715 hours of sunshine every year, which is more than Australia!

The oldest inhabited city in Europe is the Croatian city of Vinkovci. People have lived here for the past 8,000 years.

This is a modern art installation in Zadar. It was designed by a local architect named Nikola Bašić. It's not the kind of thing you'd expect to find in a Croatian town, but it is very cool! The Sun Salutation is a 22m-wide circle on the ground that lights up in neon colours. All through the day in collects light and then it lights up the world through the night!
Read next: How to spend one day in Zadar

Famous father of the Tesla car was born and raised in Smiljan, Croatia. In his home city, you can find his rebuilt house (blown up twice by the Croats in 1942 and 1992), a very small exhibition centre and short movie about Tesla.

And while we're at it... The Maglite flashlight which was designed by Croatian Anthony 'Tony' Maglica.

This is a super cool fact: The beautiful beach, Zlatni rat, changes shape when winds are strong enough . Zlatni beach (the most beautiful in Croatia) is shaped in a triangular shape and located on the island of Brac.

One of the unique language facts about Croatia is that its colours blend together in strange ways. This is because of how there were once far fewer words for certain colours. Just like how, in Ancient Greece, blue and bronze were described using the same word, and in Japan blue and green are often interchangeable, in Croatia blonde people are described as having blue hair!
Read next: Basic Croatian phrases you need to know
Off the coast of Croatia, you'll find a massive total of 1244 islands, islets, and reefs!

Island hopping is a big thing in Croatia, and it's clear to see why when there are so many! The interesting thing is that less than 50 are inhabited by people!

Despite some arguing that Croatian isn't even a language in its own right, it has a dizzying number of dialects which change from town to town. They change so much, in fact, that Croatians from a big city like may have serious trouble understanding Croatians from, say a .

This is one of the more amazing facts about Croatia. The seaside town of Zadar, which is found in Dalmatia, is considered to have the best sunsets in the entire world! Can you even imagine holding a title like that? Even Alfred Hitchcock saw it for himself and said as much.

So, if you're looking for the world's best sunset, head to Croatia!

This is one of those facts about Croatia that you'll either find fascinating or gross.
Read next: 10 awesome things to do in Dubrovnik
The Croatians built such a flawless sewage system 800 years ago that they're still using it today! It's also a testament to how untouched the city of Dubrovnik is that they not only have the same forts, walls, and buildings, but also the same unseen underground sewage system.

Read next: What to see at Plitvice Lakes
That's a crazy percentage when you think about it! 1/10 of the landmass of this beautiful country is national parks! Within those national parks, you've got the incredible Plitvice Lakes, which is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site that consists of lakes, waterfalls, valleys, and hills. The water is shimmering turquoise and the area stretches on for miles in every direction.

As well as Plitvice Lakes, you've also got Krka and Paklenica. Krka follows the Krka River and is most famous for its seven unique and beautiful waterfalls! Paklenica is less water and more land, with dense forests and deep valleys.

While it's nothing to worry about, there are actually still active landmines left over from the war, scattered around the landscape. But again, nothing to worry about.

Any area that's at risk of having live landmines is cordoned off, signposted, and you're unlikely to suddenly find yourself in landmine territory.

More stuff you'll love:

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20 fun facts about Croatia you didn't know - Adventurous Miriam

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Are you looking for facts about Croatia? Here's a list of 20 fun Croatia facts that you probably didn't know. If you've been reading my blog for a while, you know that I LOVE . This country has the warmest people, beautiful nature, waterfalls that will take your breath away, and the most incredibly delicious food .

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What is your favourite Croatian dish or which one would you like to try?

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6. Kulen sausage

Slavonian kulen is made by hand from special cuts of top quality pork sourced from mature pigs, and takes nine months to cure naturally. It's dry, spicy and when sliced has the same saturated colour and distinctive texture throughout - the only additives are salt, garlic and red paprika. At summer's kulen festivals, kulenijada, notably in Vinkovci, the previous year's batch reaches perfection.

13. Pljeskavica

Given the current global trend for hamburgers, their Balkan cousin, pljeskavica, has become popular in European cities as a more appetising curiosity. Essentially a large patty of minced meat, a slightly spicy mix of beef and lamb, pljeskavica is served similarly to ćevapčići, with large dollops of ajvar pepper relish and a small mound of chopped raw onion. In local restaurants, it also comes with lepinja flatbread though tourists are usually happier to see a side of chips instead.

19. Burek

Let's be honest - the best burek in the region is usually found in Bosnia rather than Croatia, where a lot of what you find is greasy and disappointing. But many bakeries take the time and trouble to prepare it well, filling these flaky, layered pastries with cheese, apple or meat. Cheese-and-spinach is also popular. If breakfast isn't a part of the deal in the hotel or hostel where you're staying, burek is the ideal cheap filler to take you through from mid-morning to early evening.

20. Ćevapčići

...or ćevapi for short, fat little sausages of minced meat - ideally a beef/lamb mix - are a Balkan stable, either eaten as street food or in standard domestic restaurants. Usually ordered in portions of three (if you're feeling frugal), five (standard), seven (hefty) or ten (pushing the boat out), these savoury favourites always come with a blanket-sized helping of flatbread, lepinje, served on the side in eateries or wrapped around the meat if you're taking away. Equally de rigueur are copped onions and ajvar, the fire-red condiment of peppers and aubergine.

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20 dishes you absolutely have to try | Croatian Food | Time Out Croatia

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6. Kulen sausage Slavonian kulen is made by hand from special cuts of top quality pork sourced from mature pigs, and takes nine months to cure naturally. It's dry, spicy and when sliced has the same saturated colour and distinctive texture throughout - the only additives are salt, garlic and red paprika.

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Students post a photo from their culture and write a question so somebody else in the classroom can explore it and find an answer.

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Tradicionalna izrada i prodaja Poljičkog soparnika s komina. Usluge koje nudimo su soparnik TO GO, kušaonica soparnika i dostava soparnika.

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What is klapa?

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Klapa music is a form of traditional a cappella singing with origins in Dalmatia, Croatia. The word klapa translates as "a group of friends" and traces its roots to littoral church singing. The motifs in general celebrate love, wine (grapes), country (homeland) and sea. Main elements of the music are harmony and melody, with rhythm very rarely being very important. In 2012 klapa was inscribed in UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

A klapa group consists of a first tenor, a second tenor, a baritone, and a bass. It is possible to double all the voices apart from the first tenor. It is usually composed of up to a dozen male singers. In recent times, female vocal groups have been quite popular, but in general male and female groups do not mix.

Although klapa is a cappella music, on occasion it is possible to add a gentle guitar and a mandolin (instrument similar in appearance and sound to tamburitzas). Klapa can also be accompanied with synthesizer keyboards, usually simulating percussion instruments.

Klapa s Mora performing their song "Mižerja" in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 in Malmö

The klapa tradition is still very much alive, with new songs composed and festivals held. The Festival of the Dalmatian Klapas in Omiš is the best known music festival and has a long tradition in Klapa music. One of the most successful groups there in recent times is Klapa Šufit, who won the festival for three years in a row 2006-2008. Many young people from Dalmatia treasure klapa and sing it regularly when going out eating or drinking. It is not unusual to hear amateur klapa singing on the streets in the evenings over some food and wine.

In 2013, Croatia chose a klapa group to represent the country at the Eurovision Song Contest 2013. The klapa group was called Klapa s Mora, with the entry " Mižerja". Klapa s Mora is a "super klapa ensemble" of six performers chosen by Maestro Mojmir Čačija from five existing klapa groups, namely two from Kampanel, and one each from Sinj, Crikvenica, Šibenik and Grdelin.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Klapa music is a form of traditional a cappella singing with origins in Dalmatia, Croatia. The word klapa translates as "a group of friends" and traces its roots to littoral church singing. The motifs in general celebrate love, wine (grapes), country (homeland) and sea.

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The danger of a single story | Chimamanda Adichie 2020

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Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory (1980) examined people's values in the workplace and created differentiation along three dimensions: small/large power distance, strong/weak uncertainty avoidance, masculinity/femininity, and individualism/collectivism.

Power-Distance Index

The power distance index describes the extent to which the less powerful members of an organization or institution - such as a family - accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.

Although there is a certain degree of inequality in all societies, Hofstede notes that there is relatively more equality in some societies than in others.

Individuals in societies that have a high degree of power distance accept hierarchies where everyone has a place in a ranking without the need for justification.

Meanwhile, societies with low power distance seek to have an equal distribution of power. The implication of this is that cultures endorse and expect relations that are more consultative, democratic, or egalitarian.

In countries with low power distance index values, there tends to be more equality between parents and children, with parents more likely to accept it if children argue or "talk back" to authority.

In low power distance index workplaces, employers and managers are more likely to ask employees for input; in fact, those at the lower ends of the hierarchy expect to be asked for their input (Hofstede, 1980).

Meanwhile, in countries with high power distance, parents may expect children to obey without questioning their authority. Those of higher status may also regularly experience obvious displays of subordination and respect from subordinates.

Superiors and subordinates are unlikely to see each other as equals in the workplace, and employees assume that higher-ups will make decisions without asking them for input.

These major differences in how institutions operate make status more important in high power distance countries than low power distance ones (Hofstede, 1980).

Collectivism vs. Individualism

Individualism and collectivism, respectively, refer to the integration of individuals into groups.

Individualistic societies stress achievement and individual rights, focusing on the needs of oneself and one's immediate family.

A person's self-image in this category is defined as "I."

In contrast, collectivist societies place greater importance on the goals and well-being of the group, with a person's self-image in this category being more similar to a "We."

Those from collectivist cultures tend to emphasize relationships and loyalty more than those from individualistic cultures.

They tend to belong to fewer groups but are defined more by their membership in them. Lastly, communication tends to be more direct in individualistic societies but more indirect in collectivistic ones (Hofstede, 1980).

Uncertainty Avoidance Index

The uncertainty avoidance dimension of Hofstede's cultural dimensions addresses a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity.

This dimension reflects the extent to which members of a society attempt to cope with their anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. In its most simplified form, uncertainty avoidance refers to how threatening change is to a culture (Hofstede, 1980).

A high uncertainty avoidance index indicates a low tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity, and risk-taking. Both the institutions and individuals within these societies seek to minimize the unknown through strict rules, regulations, and so forth.

People within these cultures also tend to be more emotional.

In contrast, those in low uncertainty avoidance cultures accept and feel comfortable in unstructured situations or changeable environments and try to have as few rules as possible. This means that people within these cultures tend to be more tolerant of change.

The unknown is more openly accepted, and less strict rules and regulations may ensue.

For example, a student may be more accepting of a teacher saying they do not know the answer to a question in a low uncertainty avoidance culture than in a high uncertainty avoidance one (Hofstede, 1980).

Femininity vs. Masculinity

Femininity vs. masculinity, also known as gender role differentiation, is yet another one of Hofstede's six dimensions of national culture. This dimension looks at how much a society values traditional masculine and feminine roles.

A masculine society values assertiveness, courage, strength, and competition; a feminine society values cooperation, nurturing, and quality of life (Hofstede, 1980).

A high femininity score indicates that traditionally feminine gender roles are more important in that society; a low femininity score indicates that those roles are less important.

For example, a country with a high femininity score is likely to have better maternity leave policies and more affordable child care.

Meanwhile, a country with a low femininity score is likely to have more women in leadership positions and higher rates of female entrepreneurship (Hofstede, 1980).

Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation

The long-term and short-term orientation dimension refers to the degree to which cultures encourage delaying gratification or the material, social, and emotional needs of their members (Hofstede, 1980).

Societies with long-term orientations tend to focus on the future in a way that delays short-term success in favor of success in the long term.

These societies emphasize traits such as persistence, perseverance, thrift, saving, long-term growth, and the capacity for adaptation.

Short-term orientation in a society, in contrast, indicates a focus on the near future, involves delivering short-term success or gratification, and places a stronger emphasis on the present than the future.

The end result of this is an emphasis on quick results and respect for tradition. The values of a short-term society are related to the past and the present and can result in unrestrained spending, often in response to social or ecological pressure (Hofstede, 1980).

Restraint vs. Indulgence

Finally, the restraint and indulgence dimension considers the extent and tendency of a society to fulfill its desires.

That is to say, this dimension is a measure of societal impulse and desire control. High levels of indulgence indicate that society allows relatively free gratification and high levels of bon de vivre.

Meanwhile, restraint indicates that society tends to suppress the gratification of needs and regulate them through social norms.

For example, in a highly indulgent society, people may tend to spend more money on luxuries and enjoy more freedom when it comes to leisure time activities. In a restrained society, people are more likely to save money and focus on practical needs (Hofstede, 2011).

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Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory & Examples

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Hofstede's cultural values or dimensions provide a framework through which sociologists can describe the effects of culture on the values of its members and how these values relate to the behavior of people who live within a culture.

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Cultures around the world are getting more and more interconnected and the business world is becoming increasingly global. For managers this means that they should be able to work with a large variety of people from different countries and cultural backgrounds. However, since most people are so strongly immersed in their own culture, they often fail to see how it affects their patterns of thinking or their behavior. To overcome this, researchers suggest some kind of tools or mechanisms with which to compare countries on cultural similarities and differences. A number of attempts have been made to combine these cultural differences across borders (e.g. the GLOBE study, Trompenaars' cultural dimensions and Hall's cultural dimensions). However, the most-used and best-known framework for cultural differences is Geert Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions. Over the years, his study led to six cultural dimensions on which countries can be ranked: Power Distance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Uncertainty Avoidance, Long-term/Short-term Orientation and Restraint/Indulgence. Each dimension will be elaborated on below:

Figure 1: Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions

This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally: beliefs about the appropriate distribution of power in society. The fundamental issue here is how a society handles inequalities among people. People in societies exhibiting a large degree of Power Distance accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. In societies with low Power Distance, people strive to equalise the distribution of power and demand justification for inequalities of power. China and Saudi Arabia are countries with a high Power Distance index.

The Individualism/Collectivism dimension is about the relative importance of individual versus group interests. The high side of this dimension, called individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families. Its opposite, collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society's position on this dimension is reflected in whether people's self-image is defined in terms of "I" or "we." The USA is considered as one of the most individualistic countries in the world.

The Masculinity/Femininity dimension is about what values are considered more important in a society. The Masculine side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its opposite, femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-oriented. In the business context Masculinity versus Femininity is sometimes also related to as "tough versus tender" cultures. Japan is considered to be a very masculine country, whereas Scandinavian countries such as Norway and Sweden are considered highly feminine.

Uncertainty Avoidance

The Uncertainty Avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. In addition its impact on rule making is taken into account. The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen? Countries exhibiting a high Uncertainty Avoidance maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas. These countries often need many rules to constrain uncertainty. Countries with a low Uncertainty Avoidance index maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles, tolerance for ambiguity is accepted and the need for rules to constrain uncertainty is minimal. South American countries such as Chile, Peru and Argentina are highly uncertainty avoiding countries.

Every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and the future. Societies prioritize these two existential goals differently. Countries that score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion. They are past and present oriented and value traditions and social obligations. Countries with cultures that scores high on this dimension on the other hand take a more pragmatic approach: they are future oriented and encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future. Asian countries such as China and Japan are known for their long term orientation. Morocco is a short term oriented country.

The Indulgence dimension is a relatively new dimension to the model. This dimension is defined as the extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses, based on the way they were raised. Relatively weak control is called Indulgence and relatively strong control is called Restraint. Cultures can, therefore, be described as Indulgent or Restrained. Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

Figure 2: Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Framework

Further Reading:

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations. Second Edition, Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications.

Steers, R.M. et al. (2013). Management Across Cultures: Developing Global Competencies. Cambridge University Press.

Geert Hofstede Country Comparison Tool: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/

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Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions EXPLAINED with EXAMPLES | B2U

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Geert Hofstede's Cultural DImensions are used to compare countries based on national cultural differences and similarities. The six dimensions are Power

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Introduction

In order to do well in an increasingly globalised world, managers need to be able to navigate different cultural waters. But what does that mean, exactly? What are the key things you need to know about intercultural management? This article seeks to answer those questions and provide a basic foundation for those looking to improve their skills in this area.

1. What do we mean by "Culture"?

When it comes to understanding and managing culture in the workplace, there's a lot of confusion about what we're even talking about. Is cultural diversity something different from culture? How do beliefs and behaviours play into this? In this , we take a closer look at culture and discuss some of the key concepts around it. By comprehending what culture is and how it works, we can better understand why it's so important for workplace dynamics and how best manage it.

Culture is often described through Professor Geert Hofstede's definition: The programming of the human mind by which one group of people distinguishes itself from another group - the set of shared beliefs, values, and norms that distinguish one group of people from another. As global organisations become increasingly diverse, understanding and managing cultural differences has become a critical competency for business leaders.

When it comes to managing cultural differences in the workplace, it can be helpful to think of culture as an onion, with various layers.

On the outer layer of the onion, you'll have symbols, such as food, logos, colours or monuments. The next layer consists of heroes, and can include public figures, like statesmen, athletes or company founders, or pop-culture figures such as Superman. On the third layer, closest to the core, you'll find rituals, such as sauna, karaoke or meetings.

2. What is Intercultural Management

When most people think about management, they think about things like productivity, efficiency, and goal-setting. And while those are all important aspects of effective management, a growing body of research suggests that cultural competency is just as critical.

Furthermore, understanding culture, and cultural differences, can affect all those other areas. For instance, you can't assess the productivity of two teams if they are located in two different countries and if they understand the goal you gave them in a fundamentally different way.

In other words, in order to be an effective manager today, you need to be able to navigate the unique cultural challenges and complexities that can come with working with people from different backgrounds or teams located in different countries.

Intercultural management is the process of managing people from different cultures in a way that minimises misunderstanding and conflict, while maximising communication and collaboration. In today's increasingly globalised world, organisations of all sizes are increasingly likely to have employees from a wide range of cultural backgrounds. While this can bring many benefits, it can also create challenges if the diversity is not managed effectively. Without proper management, cultural differences can lead to miscommunication, conflict and even outright hostility. Conversely, with effective intercultural management, these same differences can be used to create a more innovative and productive workforce. Intercultural management is therefore essential for any organisation that wants to make the most of The Culture Factor.

3. What is National Culture and how does it differ from Organisational Culture?

Culture is often seen as an intangible and nebulous concept, but it is one of the most important factors in determining organisational success. Culture can be described as the shared values and behaviours that exist within a group of people, and it plays a huge role in shaping how an organisation functions.

In order to properly manage intercultural relationships within organisations, it is important to be able to distinguish between National Culture and Organisational Culture.

National Culture is the overarching culture that exists within a country, while Organisational Culture can be described as "the way we do things around here" within an organisation, and how that differs from other organisations. While National Culture is based on values, Organisational Culture is based on practices.

For management purposes perhaps most notably, National Culture is largely determined by historical factors, whereas Organisational Culture can be shaped by the leadership team to reflect the organisation's values and goals.

Intercultural Management must take both into account in order to be effective. Promoting diversity and cultural awareness is great, but it has little effect if organisational practices - what actually happens in every day life of the company - don't do anything to address them.

4. How to Implement Intercultural Management in your Business

Intercultural management is essential for today's businesses, which are increasingly working with customers and employees from all over the world. T his Mars success story makes an excellent example of an already diverse organisation genuinely trying to do their best, but still (at first) struggling to get it right.

With employees from 18 different nationalities, speaking 25 languages, and working in 10 different locations, they were already a diverse group of people. They had already been celebrating their diversity but found they still weren't making diversity their competitive advantage.

While we whole-heartedly recommend reading the article in full, below you will find some key findings on how this project became an excellent example of Intercultural Management in practice, a perfect mix of Organisational Culture practices supporting the goal of leveraging their diversity.

Bas Bredenoord, the HR Director at Mars International Travel Retail at the time, joined the Certification programme in Intercultural Management in order to get a more comprehensive understanding of culture, and how it works.

Together with The Culture Factor Group (at the time known as Hofstede Insights), Mars conducted an Organisational Culture Scan to find out how the strong Mars culture could support their transformation project.

Mars Cultural Ambassador programme was launched to start implementing the changes Mars wanted to make into practice.

Mars created a cultural onboarding training for all associates that would join the business.

Trainings were used as well but, instead of one-off workshops, they were designed specifically with a follow-up refresher.

They did bias training to raise awareness of the unconscious biases everyone has.

One example of a practical approach was effective meetings. They realised that in order to have successful meetings, it is important to prepare for them in advance, also from the point of view of understanding the culture of the people who will be attending the meeting. The team would look at the goal of the meeting, the nationalities and the titles of the participants and identify the common factors among the participants.

Advances in the project were constantly communicated, tools and case studies were made available not only for the internal team of 60 people but all of Mars.

Intercultural management is essential for businesses today, which are increasingly working with customers and employees from all over the world. As Mars International Travel Retail can attest to, implementing Intercultural Management practices can be a challenge but it's well worth the effort.

5. Benefits of Intercultural Management

When people from different cultures work together, they can create incredible synergies. However, when cultural clashes occur, they can lead to communication breakdowns and conflict. Intercultural management is the process of understanding and managing the dynamics between people from different cultures in order to achieve the positive outcomes. It is a crucial element of leveraging The Culture Factor.

A key part of Intercultural management is understanding and valuing diversity. When managed appropriately, diversity brings different perspectives, experiences, and skills to the workplace, which can lead to increased innovation and creativity.

A number of studies have found that companies successfully leveraging their diversity tend to be more profitable for a number of reasons (outside the academic field, see for example or ).

Diversity can also help create a better customer experience by allowing businesses to better understand and serve customers from different cultural backgrounds.

However these are the benefits of diversity itself. What about Intercultural Management? Successful diversity doesn't just happen on its own . As mentioned in the opening, in order to leverage Your Culture Factor, it is absolutely essential to manage your cultural diversity.

6. Challenges of Intercultural Management

As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, businesses are finding that they must operate in an increasingly multicultural environment. This can present a number of challenges, from communicating with a diverse workforce to understanding the customs and values of customers in other countries. In order to be successful in Intercultural Management, businesses need to be aware of these challenges and know how to overcome them. Never forget that diversity can be your competitive advantage, but if left unmanaged it can also result in a lot of challenges and misunderstandings.

One of the challenges of Intercultural Management is communication. When employees come from different cultures, they usually have different ways of communicating. For example, some cultures can be very direct while others almost never say directly what they mean or want. This can obviously lead to huge misunderstandings.

Different cultures also have different values and customs. For instance, some cultures value success and competition almost above everything else whereas others prioritize leisure time and emotional well-being. Obviously, it can be difficult for people from these two different types of cultures to work together if they don't understand and respect each other's values, especially if it is the manager that comes from one of these cultures and the employees that come from the other.

However, these are all challenges one can overcome, just like any other challenges in management. It simply requires special care, appropriate training and organisational practices that support your goals.

7. What is the Hofstede model of National Culture?

If you're a manager who oversees employees in different countries, runs a multicultural team or if you're simply interested in Intercultural Management, then you've likely heard of the Hofstede model. But what is it?

The Hofstede model, or the 6-D Model of National Culture, is a way of understanding the culture of a country based on its cultural values. Developed by Professor Geert Hofstede, the model has been used to help organisations improve communication and cooperation between people from different cultures. The model can provide a useful framework for understanding how cultural differences can affect business dealings.

The consists of six dimensions:

Power Distance (PDI)

This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.

Individualism (IDV)

The high side of this dimension, called Individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families.

Masculinity vs Femininity (MAS)

The Masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-oriented.

Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI)

The Uncertainty Avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen?

Long Term Orientation (LTO)

Every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and the future. Societies prioritise these two existential goals differently.

Societies that score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion.

Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future.

Indulgence (IVR)

Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

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In order to do well in an increasingly globalised world, managers need to be able to navigate different cultural waters. But what does that mean, exactly? What are the key things you need to know about intercultural management?

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You are here because one of your friends linked you to their Cultural Dimensions Test result:

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Your friend prefers:

A low power distance.

Individualism over collectivism.

Femininity over masculinity.

Low uncertainty avoidance.

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Your friend's cultural dimensions are the most like those of United Kingdom.
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Explanation of Cultural Dimensions:

High vs. Low Power Distance: Refers to the beliefs regarding the proper distribution of power in a society. It expresses how much less powerful members of a community should accept that power is allocated unequally. How a society deals with social inequality is the main concern in this dimension. People in civilizations with high power distance accept hierarchical structures where everyone has a place, and no further reasoning is necessary to justify that hierarchy. In comparison, societies with low levels of power distance work to equalize power distribution and demand tangible reasons for power inequalities in the government of their countries.

Individualism vs. Collectivism: Indicates how the interests of the individual are weighed against the interest of the community. A loosely-knit social structure in which people are expected to look out for and check in primarily with themselves denotes a high level of individualism. By contrast, cultures with low levels of individualism are attuned toward the group and typically feature a closely-knit social structure in which people look to their relatives, countrymen, coworkers, and other members of their communities when determining what course of action they will take.

Masculinity vs. Femininity: Cultures high in masculinity tend to revolve around success, competition, and rewards. By contrast, cultures low in masculinity concentrate on values like nurture, modesty, and empathy. High-masculinity cultures often produce more assertive and decisive leaders, whereas low-masculinity cultures tend to produce more agreeable, inclusive, and compassionate leaders.

High vs. Low Uncertainty Avoidance: Measures how comfortable a culture is with ambiguity and uncertainty. High uncertainty avoidance cultures uphold strict moral and behavioral standards and tend to frown on unconventional behavior and ideas. They want the future taken care of and planned for according to what has been proven to work in the past. By contrast, low uncertainty avoidance cultures are more tolerant of unusual ways of doing things and are not as disapproving of ambiguity.

Long vs. Short-term Orientation: Measures whether a culture aims for long-term goals on the basis of how the world is projected to change or prefers to achieve short-term goals using how things have been up till now as a guide. Cultures with a long-term orientation are future-focused and promote thrift and investments that take a long time to come to fruition. In contrast, cultures with short-term orientation uphold long-standing traditions as a way of ensuring stability and tempering the speed of social change.

Indulgence vs. Restraint: Measures the degree to which cultures attempt to regulate their impulses toward gratification. Cultures high in indulgence encourage pleasure and enjoyment as innate human desires associated with taking pleasure in life and having fun, whereas cultures with a restraint orientation frown on the satisfaction of desires and attempt to control enjoyment through social rules and taboos.

References

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations. Second Edition, Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications.

House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004.), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, SAGE Publications.

Steers, R.M. et al. (2013). Management Across Cultures: Developing Global Competencies. Cambridge University Press.

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My cultural dimensions are the most like those of United Kingdom.

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Cultural Dimensions Test, measuring dimensions of cultural features.

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Are you good at pattern recognition? Look around: there are cultural patterns everywhere! Two people strolling down the street, hand in hand. An old man walking his dog. An old lady feeding the pigeons. In the distance, shouting at a sporting match. The cultural patterns that surround us are like a kaleidoscope of the human experience. Let's take a look.

Cultural Patterns Definition

Patterns are, in a way, the architecture of culture.

Cultural Patterns: Structures that are common to all similar cultures.

Different Cultural Patterns

Human cultures come in many shapes and forms. There are thousands of ethnic cultures alone and a nearly uncountable number of sub-cultures. Culture is always changing. New cultures emerge; old ones die out or change form.

Among this diversity and flux, certain patterns stand out. They range from the family, if we are talking about ethnic cultures, to a holy text, when we invoke religion, and even to shoe types in sports subcultures.

Generally, the broader the category of cultural trait (dress, cuisine, belief, language), the more likely it is to be found as a pattern across most cultures. More specific traits, such as types of shoes or what you eat on December 31, may be a quite limited pattern.

In this explanation, we are concerned with a representative sample of the broad patterns of culture.

The Family

Every ethnic culture and subculture ever has had a distinct definition of "family." This is because the family unit has been the basic means whereby humanity reproduces itself, both biologically and culturally.

In the West, the "nuclear family" refers to the household comprised of Mom, Dad, and the kids. Because of the dominance of Western culture through globalisation, this image is widespread worldwide. However, Western culture, not to mention other cultures, have numerous other ways of defining what a family is and what it isn't.

Extended Family

In many cultures, "family" means grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins, and others in addition to the nuclear family unit. Households may be comprised of some of these relatives (from the paternal or maternal side, or both). "Family" may mean something much bigger and more extensive than whoever resides in your home.

In traditional societies, for example among Australian Aboriginal people, relationships with people who are your kin are incredibly complex and also centrally important to cultural preservation. From an early age, one must learn the correct things to say and how to act around each and every type of relative, including in-laws and extending out to second-degree cousins and beyond.

In some Western societies, "family" means more than the nuclear family, though they may not be carefully defined kinship networks.

In Spanish-speaking Latin America, "mi familia" is likely to signify your close kin, or your blood relations in general, rather than just who lives in your household.

Post-Nuclear Family

There are many other ways of defining who your family is and what it is for. In the West, it may consist of one rather than two parents, guardians, or caregivers; no children; pets; it may include a heterosexual couple or a homosexual couple; etc.

Part of this is affirmative: traditional or "conservative" definitions of what a family is, or should be, have given way in many sectors of society to broader definitions.

However, another element involves the so-called "breakdown" of the nuclear family. Single-parent homes exist where one partner has abandoned the other and their children.

Age-based Rituals

Ethnic cultures (and other types of cultures as well) typically have different roles for people depending on their ages. As will become a familiar theme, religion often has a lot to say in how these are defined and how you transition from one stage to the next.

Pregnancy, Birth, and Childhood

Many patterns exist in the way mothers, infants and children (and fathers) are expected to behave from conception and pregnancy through birth and all the way to adulthood. Each culture has expected norms as well as punishments for transgressing those norms.

Many cultures carefully proscribe the lives of pregnant women. In the West, this is typically cast in terms of suggested diet, exercise, and related "health of the child" concerns. However, some cultures limit what and whom pregnant women can see and interact with, everything that is eaten and drunk, and on through the intricate details of everyday life. The well-being of the mother and the child are typically of concern, though the wider strength of the culture is also sometimes important.

Coming of Age

Most societies that are not Western or "modern" in a broad sense have a clearly defined boundary between childhood and adulthood. This frequently involves coming-of-age ceremonies that include physical and mental challenges. These can be extraordinarily painful and even dangerous because they are meant to separate the "men from the boys" and the "women from the girls." They may include scarring, genital mutilation, combat events, tests of endurance, or other types of trials.

Successfully becoming an adult, in traditional societies, typically involves induction into a secret or secretive society with various grades, levels, or positions. These secretive inner groups usually help to preserve cultural traditions well-hidden from outsiders, and otherwise work to maintain internal order within the culture as well as protect it from external influences where necessary.

If one is unable or unwilling to successfully come of age, banishment or marginalization can occur. Sometimes, people who are neither female nor male (i.e., third gender) are relegated to defined cultural roles; in other cases, "failures" become perpetual "children" but are still tolerated.

In modern societies, coming-of-age rituals sometimes also exist.

Quinceañera culture surrounds the event of a girl turning 15 in Hispanic Catholic societies. Traditionally, it meant the girl became a woman and, as such, was eligible for courtship and marriage. Today, q uinceañera celebrations, thrown by parents and with generous financial help from patrons, involve a special Roman Catholic Mass as well a lavish celebration costing up to tens of thousands of US dollars with hundreds of guests.

Even in societies where formal rituals don't exist, graduating from school, getting a full-time job, driving a car, drinking alcohol, or joining a certain club may signify that one has become an adult.

Marriage

Marriages that include weddings are common to most ethnic cultures, though no longer strict norms in some. In some societies, weddings are events costing a year's salary; in others, they are simple affairs before a judge. Religion, as you might guess, has a lot to say about what marriage is, who can do it, and when they can do it.

Senescence and Death

In Western society, old age may mean elderly retirees spending their pensions in Florida, or people living on fixed wages, shut into their homes and abandoned by their kin, and everything in between.

In traditional societies, "elders" are seen as people who are wise and to be respected. They often retain considerable cultural and political power.

Death as a cultural pattern involves not just the event of dying but also the entire process of "laying the person to rest," as it is often called. Beyond that, it may or may not involve veneration of ancestors, which, while not universal, has a centrally important cultural role in cultures as distinct as Mexican and Han Chinese. At the very least, most cultures bury their dead in certain places such as cemeteries.

Cultural Patterns and Processes

Every cultural pattern includes numerous constituent processes. These are sequences of events defined by cultural mores. Let's see how this works for marriage.

The cultural pattern of marriage takes many forms in many cultures. Each culture has a different set of processes leading up to the unification ("wedding"). You could (and many do!) write extensive rulebooks for this.

None of these processes are universal. Courtship? You have probably heard it called "dating." You might think that getting to know your partner comes prior to the mutual decision to get married.

But in many cultures across time, the survival of the culture itself was not left up to the decisions of love-struck youngsters! Indeed, the entire concept of romantic love might not have been recognized or seen as important. Marriage was (and still is, in many cultures) seen as primarily a means to strengthen the bonds between extended family networks. It might even have involved the unification of two royal families! Not uncommonly, the partners did not even meet for the first time until their wedding night.

Types of Cultural Patterns

Above, we looked at cultural patterns that involve the human life cycle. There are many other types of patterns. Here are just a few:

Time. Each culture defines and subdivides time differently, from the things one should do during the day, to the calendars that may stretch over eons; time may be seen as linear, cyclical, both, or something else.

Meals. What, when, where, and how people eat is of fundamental importance.

Work. What constitutes "work"? Some cultures do not even have the concept. Others carefully define what type of people can do what jobs.

Play. Children, and adults as well, engage in play. This ranges from board games in the home, to telling jokes, to the Summer Olympics. Recreation, sports, fitness, gaming: whatever you want to call it, every culture has and does it.

Gender roles. Most cultures align biological sex to gender identification and have male and female genders. Some cultures include these and many others as well.

Universal Cultural Patterns

The anthropologist Ruth Benedict, in Patterns of Culture,became famous for championing cultural relativism almost a century ago. Seeing the incredible varieties of patterns across the world, she made famous the notion that Western cultural values weren't the ONLY worthwhile values and that non-Western cultural mores needed to be understood on their own terms and respected.

Today, the "culture wars" rage on, pitting (broadly speaking) cultural relativists against cultural absolutists. In other words, at the extremes, some relativists, it is said, believe that "anything goes," while conservative absolutists claim there are certain fixed cultural patterns that are the norm. They typically argue that these norms are biological imperatives or else mandated by a deity (or sometimes both). The nuclear family comprised of a biological woman and a biological man, with children, is a common example.

So where is the truth about all this? Probably somewhere in between, and it depends which pattern you are talking about.

Incest Taboo

An oft-cited truly universal cultural pattern is the incest taboo. This means all ethnic cultures prohibit and penalize reproductive relationships between close-blood kin. This is an example of a biological imperative: the in-breeding of close kin produces genetic defects, which has many disadvantages.

However, the universality of this trait does not mean it isn't tolerated or even encouraged in some societies (the same goes for other "extreme" practices, such as cannibalism: you can always find some culture somewhere that engages in it). Indeed, the first thing popping into many people's minds is historical inbreeding among members of royal families. Widely reputed to have occurred in Europe, it was also practised among the ruling class of the Inca Empire (the leader married his sister).

Cultural Patterns - Key takeaways

Cultural patterns are common structures of culture found, with variations, across similar cultures.

A universal cultural pattern is the family.

The human life-cycle involves many cultural patterns, from pregnancy, birth, and infancy to childhood, adulthood, old age, death, and ancestor worship.

Cultural relativism asserts that no universal cultural patterns are unchangeable, whereas cultural absolutism asserts the opposite.

The incest taboo is an example of a universal cultural pattern that exists as a biological imperative.

References

1. Benedict, R. Patterns of Culture. Routledge. 2019.

2. Fig. 1 Bullet ants (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Luva_do_Ritual_da_Tucandeira_Povo_Sater%C3%A9-Maw%C3%A9_AM.jpg) by Joelma Monteiro de Carvalho is licensed by CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en)

3. Fig. 2 Hindu wedding (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hindu_traditional_marriage_at_Kannur,_Kerala.jpg) by Jinoytommanjaly is licensed by CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en)

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Cultural Patterns: ✓ Different ✓ Examples ✓ Processes ✓ Universal ✓ Types ✓ Definition ✓ StudySmarter Original

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