# data[].attributes.body
Latin America = Mexico, Central America, Caribbean, south America

Latin = language of ancient Rome

culture region = same languages & region

Spanish and Portuguese are spoken → Linguistic and cultural similarities

# data[].attributes.body
Location: Mexico is the southernmost country in North America.

Topography: It features a central plateau situated between two major mountain ranges: the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra Madre Occidental.

Mexico City:

Located on a plateau.

Air Pollution: Surrounded by mountains, trapping automobile exhaust and leading to severe air pollution.

Earthquake: Built on a weak lakebed, making it susceptible to severe damage during earthquakes.

# data[].attributes.body
Geography: A narrow strip of land connecting Mexico and South America.

Terrain: Mostly mountainous with over 40 volcanoes. The Pacific coast is volcanically active.

Seismic Activity: Frequent earthquakes cause significant damage to cities, roads, and buildings.

Vegetation: Coniferous trees in mountains, tropical rainforests in lowlands.

Climate: Warm, humid, and rainy.

# data[].attributes.body
Islands located east of Central America

Some islands were formed by volcanic activity

Some islands were formed by coral reefs

Coral reefs serve as a habitat for a variety of marine life

# data[].attributes.body
The Andes stretches along the west (the longest mountain range in the world)

It passes through several countries, forming highlands and basins

To the east of the mountain range is the Pampas

Aconcagua mountain in Argentina is the highest peak in the Western Hemisphere

Atlantic oceans (the Orinoco, the a Parana-Paraguay-Plata, and Amazon)

# data[].attributes.body
The Amazon is the largest river in the world, with thousands of tributaries

Before the 2000s, we didn't know that the source of the Amazon was a small stream that started in Peru

deforestation

Cutting down trees and burning land to use for farming and livestock

Decreased carbon dioxide absorption, increased carbon in the air → Climate change

Animals lose their habitats, and indigenous people lose their places to live

# data[].attributes.body
The tropical zone is a warm climate zone near the equator

Located between 23.5 degrees north and 23.5 degrees south

Most of Latin America falls into this zone

Temperatures are high, and there is more or less rain depending on the altitude

Alpine areas have lower temperatures, but are generally warm all year round

# data[].attributes.body
Anomalous rise in sea surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific

As trade winds weaken, warm waters move eastward

Warm waters that would normally go to Asia move toward South America

Anomalous weather events:

South America: floods, storms, heavy rainfall

Other regions: droughts, wildfires, crop damage

Fish move away from warm waters → damage to fishing industry

# data[].attributes.body
The Maya civilization developed in the jungles of Mexico and Central America

It flourished between A.D. 250 to A.D. 900

They developed terraced agriculture, hilltop cities, writing (hieroglyphs), and calendars

They carved hieroglyphs on stone, most of which have been deciphered

City construction stopped around A.D. 900, but the Maya people did not completely disappear, but dispersed

hieroglyphs is basic writing system

# data[].attributes.body
The capital, Tenochtitlan, was built on an island in the middle of a lake

Chinampas: Farming on artificial islands made of dirt and plants on the lake

A military-oriented society, with men serving as soldiers

Prospered until the Spanish invasion

# data[].attributes.body
Empire Growth: Originated in their capital, Cuzco, and expanded to encompass most of western South America.

Adaptation to Terrain: Utilized terraced farming to adapt to mountainous environments.

Record Keeping: Used Quipu (knotted strings) for records instead of written language.

Communication: Maintained a network of roads with runners for relaying messages.

Stone Building Technology: Renowned for their advanced stone construction, using large stones up to 200 tons, moved with wooden rollers.

Machu Picchu: Their most famous stone structure, located at approximately 8,000 feet above sea level. Its walls were designed to appear as if naturally emerging from the mountain, and it features terraced (stairway) fields connected by stairs.

# data[].attributes.body
About 500 years ago, the Spanish conquered the Aztecs and Incas

European diseases and weapons caused mass deaths of indigenous people

Colombian Exchange: exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between Europe and the Americas

This changed the lifestyles and demographics of the Americas

# data[].attributes.body
The Spanish leader Hernán Cortés arrived in Mexico in 1519 with about 500 soldiers.

He wanted gold and land for Spain.

He quickly claimed land for the king and queen of Spain.

The Aztec Empire was ruled by Emperor Montezuma II.

Many Native Americans helped Cortés because they wanted to be free from Aztec rule.

The Spanish conquered the Aztecs and became the new rulers.

# data[].attributes.body
Aztec emperor Montezuma II welcomed Cortés, but was soon taken prisoner. The Spanish took control of the Aztec Empire

Other Aztec leaders pushed the Spanish out, but the Spanish returned and retook the city with help from Native American allies

The Spanish had stronger weapons (steel swords, armor, guns, cannons) and horses, while the Aztecs had war clubs, spears, and arrows

# data[].attributes.body
In 1521, the Aztec Empire fell. The Spanish began ruling and created an empire called New Spain, with Mexico City as its capital

Spanish rule lasted 300 years, introducing new animals (horses, pigs, cattle), new trades (iron working, shipbuilding), and Christianity

Native Americans sometimes accepted Christianity, but some were forced to convert

# data[].attributes.body
Land Conflicts: Mexico had disputes with the U.S. over land after gaining independence.

Cultural Blend: Native and Spanish cultures merged, forming a new Mexican identity.

Peninsulares: Born in Spain, top of society.

Criollos: Spaniards born in Mexico, wealthy but below peninsulares.

Mestizos: Mixed Spanish and Native American, third class.

Natives: Lower class.

Blacks: African slaves, considered property.

Spanish rulers gave Native villages to Spanish men.

Villagers paid tribute (goods, money, labor) and were treated like slaves.

Their labor enriched Spain, but they lived in poverty.

# data[].attributes.body
1808: France conquering Spain fueled Mexican demands for independence.

September 16, 1810: Father Miguel Hidalgo - cries of Dolores

Dolores: call to change (reform)

Hidalgo's army grew but he was eventually captured and executed.

1821: Mexico achieved independence from Spain.

Post-independence: Power remained with peninsulares and criollos; Native Americans and mestizos saw little benefit.

# data[].attributes.body
1821: Mexico was much larger, including much of the present-day U.S. Southwest.

This northern land was dry and sparsely populated by Mexicans.

The Mexican government invited foreigners (especially from the U.S.) to settle there.

By the 1830s, most Texas settlers were U.S. citizens and felt loyal to the U.S., not Mexico.

# data[].attributes.body
1835: Texas settlers revolted against Mexico for independence.

1836: They established the Republic of Texas after various battles.

1845: Texas was annexed by the United States.

1846: A border dispute escalated into war between Mexico and the U.S.

1848: U.S. forces secured northern Mexico, leading to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, where Mexico ceded significant land to the U.S.

1853: The Gadsden Purchase further expanded U.S. territory in northern Mexico.

Since then, minor border adjustments have occurred, but no further wars.

President James K. Polk, a key figure in U.S. expansion, oversaw the annexation of Texas in 1845.

# data[].attributes.body
1917 Constitution: Created to address a century of conflict.

1821: Mexico gained independence from Spain.

Mexico lost land to the U.S. (e.g., Texas, California) after war.

Army leaders frequently seized control.

Mexico faced widespread poverty and unequal wealth distribution.

# data[].attributes.body
1850s: Many Mexicans desired reform, with Benito Juárez emerging as a key figure.

Juárez's Rise: He became minister of justice in 1855 and then president in 1858.

1857 Constitution: Key reforms included:

A Bill of Rights guaranteeing freedom of speech and equality under the law.

Abolition of slavery and forced labor.

No official religion (which angered the Catholic Church).

Reduction of the army's power in government.

# data[].attributes.body
Reforms sparked outrage among the Church, army, and wealthy.

The War of Reform (1858–1860) ensued.

Weakened Mexico faced invasion by Spain, Britain, and France.

1863: France installed Maximilian as emperor.

1867: Mexican forces overthrew and executed Maximilian.

Juárez returned to power until his death in 1872.

Later leaders neglected reform, leading to continued poverty and inequality.

# data[].attributes.body
By 1910, most of Mexico’s land was owned by a small number of wealthy families.

Out of 15 million people, 10 million had no land.

People demanded reform, and violent revolution began.

Francisco Madero led one rebel group and became president in 1911.

He wanted fair elections.

Others focused more on land reform.

# data[].attributes.body
Poor farmers wanted the government to break up giant haciendas and give land to each family.

A law in 1883 helped ranchers take land from villages.

During the 1880s–1890s, millions of acres were taken from village farmers.

Emiliano Zapata became a key figure fighting for farmers' rights.

His motto: "Land and Liberty!"

He led an army in southern Mexico urging peasants to join him.

# data[].attributes.body
Over 1 million died; leaders like Madero and Zapata were killed.

Fighting ended in 1920, with ongoing reform efforts.

1917 Constitution:

Promised land redistribution to lessen inequality.

1920–1940: Large estates were broken up into ejidos (land for small farmers/community farms).

The revolution led to the PRI party, which governed Mexico peacefully from 1929 to 2000.

# data[].attributes.body
Democratic Republic: Mexico operates as a democracy and republic, similar to the U.S.

Three Branches: It has executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

Vicente Fox's Election (Dec 1, 2000):

The first non-PRI president in 70 years.

Marked a new era of democratic change.

States & Voting:

Composed of 31 states with their own governments and laws.

Citizens 18 and older can vote in national elections.

Official Name: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (United Mexican States).