# data[].attributes.headline
Powerpoint for medieval medicine secondary

# data[].attributes.subject
Powerpoint for medieval medicine secondary

# data[].attributes.body
We are able to visit your school for a classroom session based around Medieval Medicine. This includes a presentation followed by practical activities such as making a cough medicine, a dandelion salve and four thieves oil.

The session would last approx. 45mins-1 hour and is aimed at secondary school students.

Simply contact education@jerseyheritage.org for booking and more information.

# data[].attributes.body
Schools can borrow a Museum in Schools box on Health. These are real museum collection items displayed in the case.

Email education@jerseyheritage.org to organise this.

# data[].attributes.body
Flu outbreaks happen every year and vary in severity, depending in part on what type of virus is spreading.

However there have been famous cases where it is severe and fatal- notably in 1918-1919.

# data[].attributes.body
Influenza pandemic of 1918–19, also called Spanish influenza pandemic, was the most severe influenza outbreak of the 20th century and, in terms of total numbers of deaths, among the most devastating pandemics in human history. Despite the fact that the 1918 flu wasn’t isolated to one place, it became known around the world as the Spanish flu, as Spain was hit hard by the disease and was not subject to the wartime news blackouts that affected other European countries.

An influenza virus called influenza type A subtype H1N1 is now known to have been the cause of the extreme mortality of this pandemic, which resulted in an estimated 25 million deaths.

This influenza started during WWI, and spread around the world, in 3 waves.

In the two later waves about half the deaths were among 20- to 40-year-olds, an unusual mortality age pattern for influenza. This was also known for impacting and being spread in part due to the Great War. More U.S. soldiers died from the 1918 flu than were killed in battle during the war.

# data[].attributes.body
This may seem familiar- there were encouraged to wear masks, cove/direct your mouth when coughing, avoid sharing cups, avoid crowds and avoid people with the cold.

# data[].attributes.body
Before COVID-19, the most severe pandemic in recent history was the 1918 influenza virus, often called “the Spanish Flu.” The virus infected roughly 500 million people—one-third of the world’s population—and caused  50 million deaths worldwide (double the number of deaths in World War I). In the United States, a quarter of the population caught the virus, 675,000 died, and life expectancy dropped by 12 years. With no vaccine to protect against the virus, people were urged to isolate, quarantine, practice good personal hygiene, and limit social interaction.

Until February 2020, the 1918 epidemic was largely overlooked, despite the ample documentation at the National Archives and elsewhere of the disease and its devastation. The 100-year-old pictures from 1918 that just months ago seemed quaint and dated now seem oddly prescient.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Red Cross workers make anti-influenza masks for soldiers, Boston, Massachusetts. (National Archives Identifier 45499341)

Online Exhibit
The Deadly Virus: The Influenza Epidemic of 1918
A selection of photographs and documents from the National Archives' nationwide holdings tell the story of the 1918 influenza pandemic.

Photographs

(Click image to view gallery)

Additional Photographs

Author Lecture

Dr. Jeremy Brown, Director of Emergency Care Research, National Institutes of Health, spoke about his book Influenza: The Hundred-Year Hunt to Cure the Deadliest Disease in History, at the National Archives in Washington, DC, on March 5, 2019.

Archival Film

Nurses make bandages for flu epidemic (stock newsreel footage from CBS)

Blogs and Social Media Posts

Forward with Roosevelt: One of the Millions: FDR and the Flu Pandemic of 1918-1920

Text Message: The "Spanish Flu" Pandemic of 1918-1919: A Death in Philadelphia

Pieces of History: Influenza Epidemic 1918-"Wear a mask and save your life"

Pieces of History: Gesundheit!

Unwritten Record: The 1918 Influenza Pandemic

Today's Document: Precautions Against Influenza

Tumblr: 1918 to COVID-19

Tumblr: Influenza Epidemic 1918-"Wear a mask and save your life"

For Educators

Influenza Directive from DC re: treatment and procedures , 9/26/1918

Influenza Prophylaxis Memo from Third Naval District Medical Officer

Documents Related to the Flu Pandemic of 1918

Memo Re: Sanitary Precautions, 9/12/1918

Additional primary sources and educational resources from DocsTeach

At the Presidential Libraries

Truman Library: Letter from Harry to Bess, referencing the influenza epidemic, and expressing relief that Bess has recovered from it.

Ford Library: Remarks Upon the Signing of National Swine Flu Immunization Program of 1976

Ford Library: President Asks Congress for $135 Million for Swine Flu VaccineFord Library: Fact Sheet on Swine Influenza Immunization Program

George W. Bush Library: Pandemic Flu: Preparing and Protecting against Avian Influenza

Barack Obama Library: Declaration of Nat'l Emergency - 2009 H1N1 Influenza Pandemic

Barack Obama Library: Press Briefing On Swine Influenza
National Archives COVID-19 Updates
Posts Related to COVID-19

AOTUS Blog: National Archives Operations During COVID-19: Mission Critical Functions Continue

AOTUS Blog: National Archives Donates Protective Gear for COVID-19 Response

National Archives News: National Personnel Records Center Continues Serving Veterans During COVID-19 Pandemic

National Archives News: National Archives Donates Protective Gear for COVID-19 Response

Office of the Federal Register: COVID-19 Procedures

Press Release: Information on NHPRC and COVID-19

Records Management: Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Records Management During the COVID-19 Pandemic

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Red Cross workers make anti-influenza masks for soldiers, Boston, Massachusetts. (National Archives Identifier 45499341) Before COVID-19, the most severe pandemic in recent history was the 1918 influenza virus, often called "the Spanish Flu." The virus infected roughly 500 million people-one-third of the world's population-and caused 50 million deaths worldwide (double the number of deaths in World War I).

# data[].attributes.body
‘If you were accused then you would have two options,’ says Linda. ‘Either you could confess, and some people were kept in prison at Mont Orgueil for up to a year in order to get them to confess, although obviously it wouldn’t generally end well for you if you did. Otherwise there would basically be a parish indictment. When you think of a stereotypical witch trial, it is very much neighbours doing the accusing, and those who were accused of witchcraft were often slightly on the fringes of society. They would be elderly ladies living on their own, or healers who were doing things outside of the normal medical procedures. And then all it takes for a little bit of hysteria is for someone to say: “Well, I went to her and she gave me this and then this happened and it caused me to do this”.’

Assuming the accused pleaded not guilty, there would then be an official inquiry, albeit one in which those deciding the fate of the accused were exclusively male.

‘There would be a jury of 24 men and there would have to be a five-sixth majority for a guilty conviction, which would be punishable by death,’ says Linda. ‘There was a legal process behind it but, of course, it was all effectively dependent on your neighbours being witnesses.’

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
'A lot of folklore has built up around what was a very real part of Jersey society'

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Jersey Heritage archives and collections director Linda Romeril spoke to Tom Ogg about the history of witches and witchcraft in Jersey and the witch trials that took place in the Island in the 16th and 17th centuriesTHERE were several reasons why it ...

# data[].attributes.headline
Table of infection and death in each parish 1832

# data[].attributes.subject
Table of infection and death in each parish 1832

# data[].attributes.body
St Helier is divided into 4 sections due to its large population size.

From a demographic viewpoint, just over 2% of the island population suffered from the disease and nearly 1% died - 43% of the cases proved fatal. However we can discover from the figures given by Hooper that the disease was fairly evenly distributed: of the cases listed 356 were women, 316 were men, and 134 were children below 14 (respectively 44%, 39% and 17% ). The percentages for fatalities are almost identical - women 152 (44%), men 138 (40%), and children 58 (16%).

It would seem that though the epidemic of 1832 was serious its effects on the population were not catastrophic. In 1849 nearly 300 people died, but no statistics appear to be available for 1867; however the pattern of the earlier epidemic was repeated, most of the cases and fatalities being in the poorer districts of St Helier, with only a few cases in the rural areas.

16 years later, the disease was to return again with some ferocity. It was not until it was recognised that cholera was a disease caused by a bacterium spread chiefly by polluted water supplies that real steps forward in its control and final eradication.

# data[].attributes.body
This article by Brian Blench was first published in the 1966 Annual Bulletin of La Société Jersiaise- with the above map showing 1832 spread. C S Hooper's account of the cholera outbreak in Jersey in 1832 enables us to study the contrast between the spread of the disease in urban and rural areas, and also sheds some interesting light on the social geography of the island at the time.

# data[].attributes.body
Detailing precautions to help stop the 1848 outbreak

# data[].attributes.body
John Foote, a surgeon from a hospital caring for cholera patients in London, wrote about the outbreak in Jersey in 1832 in the London Medical and Surgical Journal.

Sir John Foote was scathing about the conditions of some areas of the town. ‘There were parts of St Helier which were extremely filthy and thickly inhabited, especially with the lower classes,’ he wrote. He described part of the town around Parade Place as ‘irregular, close, dirty and ill-ventilated and he compared Parade Place itself to the squalor of St Giles in London, a notoriously poor part of the capital known for its criminals, overcrowding and disease.

To try to contain it, the authorities decided to deport the poor who were not native-born while the poorest of the Islanders were despatched to tents at Gallow’s Hill.

There was considerable criticism of these actions and petitions presented to the British government against the ‘extreme injustice’ of the policy, but Foote defended the Jersey authorities in his report, suggesting it had been vital to try to curtail the disease among the narrow, densely inhabited streets of the town.

# data[].attributes.body
During the second outbreak, tourism was starting to develop as an important part of the island’s economy, and the local authorities tried to keep the scale of the disease quiet from Jersey’s neighbours.

This plan backfired when leading UK politician Sir John Hobhouse decided to spend his holidays in Jersey. As luck would have it, he was chairman of the Board of Control in England had had responsibility for the cholera outbreak there.

He found to his horror that ‘the disease was everywhere in St Helier … with 13 out of the 16 inhabitants of a nearby house dying within its walls’ two days after his arrival and ‘all the remaining residents in the street having retreated to a hilltop refuge’.

# data[].attributes.body
Cholera was rife in Europe in the first half of the 19th century and Jersey suffered two major outbreaks, one in 1832 and one in 1848

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
A record of the trial of Marie Esnouf from Jersey Archive

# data[].attributes.body
During the early 1580s the plague spread to Jersey. On 25 September 1584 Jersey’s Island Church Assembly noted that persons who were ill, or had an illness in the family, who resorted to consulting with witches should be called before the parish church court to be censured.

The Church Assembly were effectively putting in place a mechanism to punish those who consulted people seeking a cure for their friends or family using non-conventional means.

It is clear that there was a link between outbreaks of plague in Jersey and witch trials. In late 1585 we see a cluster of executions in Jersey with 4 women and one man executed for witchcraft in November and December of that year.

The link between those who were seen as potential witches at the time and who we might now see as healers is shown in the trial of Jeanne Le Vesconte who was accused of the diabolical crime of witchcraft. They claimed that she was

‘infecting some and curing others.’

Jeanne was tried in November 1585 and was executed at St Ouen. Jeanne’s trial is the first entry that we see in the books of the Cour de Cattel in which the accused was condemned to death. The extract from the court books shows that she had been accused of the diabolical art of witchcraft, always carrying out evil spells and employing her arts towards both people and their property.

The next outbreak of plague in Jersey took place in 1591 and again Jersey’s Church Assembly resolved that any of those who were sick or had family who were sick and resorted to consulting witches should be excommunicated.

# data[].attributes.body
In 1518 during an outbreak, the Royal Court moved to Grouville, as shown by a stained glass window in St Ouens Manor. Through the open door, there is a glimpse of Grouville Parish Church viewed from Grouville Court reminding us that the Court was sitting in that Parish because the plague was raging in St Helier.

In 1563 the Royal Court met in St Saviour's Church owing to an outbreak of the plague in town and in 1592 both the Court and the market were transferred outside St Helier.

# data[].attributes.body
A JÈRRIAIS POET IS LOST

In 1918, Edwin John Luce (pen-name: Elie) – probably the most read and recited Jèrriais poet – died at the age of 37, a victim of the flu pandemic.

A journalist and newspaper editor, he wrote reportage, satire, poetry and plays, and encouraged other writers in Jèrriais. He organised theatre and concerts in Jèrriais, especially for fundraising during the First World War and was a passionate promoter of Jersey’s own language, including being one of the founders of the Jèrriais section of the Jersey Eisteddfod, where his well-loved poems are still regularly performed today.

# data[].attributes.body
Flu vaccines prevent about 7.5 million illnesses, 3.7 million doctor visits, 105,000 hospital stays and 6,300 deaths.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
History of Flu (Influenza): Outbreaks and Vaccine Timeline

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learn about flu pandemics, the flu (influenza) vaccine and its impact.

# data[].attributes.body
- First introduced as a healing remedy by Galen and Hippocrates.
- During the 19th century, the use of bloodletting increased due to 'leech mania' (a time where leeching was considered a cure for almost every ailment)
- Bloodletting was used during the time periods where the 4 humour theory was believed in and used for all diagnoses.
- Alongside bloodletting, purdging was also used, these methods of treating patients is what's believed to have killed King Charles II

# data[].attributes.body
- Sealed wounds with a red-hot poker that would additionally be stuffed into the location of the wound to cauterize even the inside of the wound to cauterize even the inside.
- There is no doubt the patient had to be held down
- It was a dangerous procedure as if not done properly, cauterizing could lead to the inside of the injured tissue to get infected

# data[].attributes.body
- The medical practice of trephinatin which dates back to Neolithic and was due to the belief of if there was pressure in the body, drill a hold where the pressure is and release it.

# data[].attributes.body
- Kings were believed to be blessed by God with the 'Divine right to rule' therefore it was believed that touching the king would be enough to cure some illnesses - a main one being scrofula

# data[].attributes.headline
Staying completely still for 24 hours - Tudor

# data[].attributes.subject
Staying completely still for 24 hours - Tudor

# data[].attributes.body
- The Tudor period saw a unique illness that seemingly only affected England. It was called 'Sweating Sickness' or later 'The English Sweat' there were later affected cases in Ireland and France.
- The disease was highly deadly and lasted 24 hours, in just a day someone infected with English sweat would either recover after 24 hours or die of the disease.
- The recommended cure was to lie in bed completely still for the entire 24 hours, you were advised not to even eat or drink.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The story of Hippocrates and the theory of the four humors dates back to almost four centuries before the birth of Christ. Many consider it to be one of the first attempts to create the science that would become psychology 2,000 years later.

Historians call Hippocrates the "father of medicine" because he was the first person in Europe to make a system on what was known about disease and health at the time. Not only that, but he also posited explanations for these phenomena and therapeutic guidelines to deal with them.

"Make a habit of two things: to help; or at least to do no harm."
-Hippocrates-

Hippocrates' theory of the four humors was used by most physicians (and people in similar professions) up until middle 1900s. This shows just how strongly the ancient Greek established his ideas. In fact, you can still hear people citing some aspects of this theory to this day.

The theory of the four humors

Hippocrates' theory of the four humors basically states that the human body is made up of four substances. The theory refers to these substances as "humors." For ideal health, they have to be in perfect balance. When this balance is lost, it leads to sickness.

Any disability or sickness only meant that the humors weren't balanced appropriately. As such, the way to treat these diseases was to regain that balance.

According to the theory of the four humors, the substances that make up the human body are: black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm. Hippocrates linked each of these humors to an element in the universe and atmospheric conditions:

Black bile: related to earth, with cold and dry properties.

Yellow bile: related to fire, with dry and warm properties.

Blood: related to air, with moist and warm qualities.

Phlegm: related to water, with moist and cold qualities.

The humors and personality

Hippocrates and his followers never saw disease as a solely organic matter. They believed that the mind and the body were a single entity. As such, during disease, the mind had certain effects on the physical body and vice versa.

Members of the Peripatetic school added another idea to the theory of the four humors. They postulated that an excess of one of the humors brought about a specific temperament in people. Later on, Galen elaborated on this. He stated that a lack of balance between the four humors affected people's way of acting, feeling, and thinking.

Galen ended up outlining the existence of four temperaments:

Melancholic: In these people, black bile predominates. They have a melancholic temperament, are very sensitive, and enjoy artistic pursuits.

Choleric: People in this category have a higher amount of yellow bile, which is the source of their passionate temperament. They have enormous vitality and get angry quickly.

Sanguine: Blood is the predominant humor in these people. They're confident, joyful, optimistic, expressive, and sociable.

Phlegmatic: The phlegmatic have a high amount of phlegm in their systems. They're deep thinkers, fair, calm, willing to compromise, and hard workers.

The Hippocratic theory today

Both Hippocrates and Galen, as well as all of their followers, designed and complemented the theory of the four humors based on observations. However, they didn't use the scientific method. That's why it has fallen into disuse. Today, people don't consider it to be scientifically viable.

Nevertheless, the theory of the four humors was the first serious attempt to classify different personality types. It's also very interesting that these thinkers were able to link emotions to physiological issues.

Actually, Hippocrates' and Galen's theories inspired the first psychologists. These thinkers were very intuitive. Their classifications approximated the different personality types that researchers would identify almost 2,000 years later. This means that these ancient Greeks were the precursors of modern health sciences.
It might interest you...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Hippocrates and the Theory of the Four Humors

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The theory of the four humors tried to explain human personality and was one of the precursors of modern psychology. Learn about this theory here!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This article was most recently revised and updated by

The sudden death of Pierre Curie (April 19, 1906) was a bitter blow to Marie Curie, but it was also a decisive turning point in her career: henceforth she was to devote all her energy to completing alone the scientific work that they had undertaken. On May 13, 1906, she was appointed to the professorship that had been left vacant on her husband's death; she was the first woman to teach in the Sorbonne. In 1908 she became titular professor, and in 1910 her fundamental treatise on radioactivity was published. In 1911 she was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry, for the isolation of pure radium. In 1914 she saw the completion of the building of the laboratories of the Radium Institute (Institut du Radium) at the University of Paris.

Throughout World War I, Marie Curie, with the help of her daughter Irène, devoted herself to the development of the use of X-radiography. In 1918 the Radium Institute, the staff of which Irène had joined, began to operate in earnest, and it was to become a universal centre for nuclear physics and chemistry. Marie Curie, now at the highest point of her fame and, from 1922, a member of the Academy of Medicine, devoted her researches to the study of the chemistry of radioactive substances and the medical applications of these substances.

Later work

In 1921, accompanied by her two daughters, Marie Curie made a triumphant journey to the United States, where President Warren G. Harding presented her with a gram of radium bought as the result of a collection among American women. She gave lectures, especially in Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and Czechoslovakia. She was made a member of the International Commission on Intellectual Co-operation by the Council of the League of Nations. In addition, she had the satisfaction of seeing the development of the Curie Foundation in Paris and the inauguration in 1932 in Warsaw of the Radium Institute, of which her sister Bronisława became director.

One of Marie Curie's outstanding achievements was to have understood the need to accumulate intense radioactive sources, not only to treat illness but also to maintain an abundant supply for research in nuclear physics; the resultant stockpile was an unrivaled instrument until the appearance after 1930 of particle accelerators. The existence in Paris at the Radium Institute of a stock of 1.5 grams of radium in which, over a period of several years, radium D and polonium had accumulated made a decisive contribution to the success of the experiments undertaken in the years around 1930 and in particular of those performed by Irène Curie in conjunction with Frédéric Joliot, whom she had married in 1926 ( see Joliot-Curie, Frédéric and Irène). This work prepared the way for the discovery of the neutron by Sir James Chadwick and, above all, for the discovery in 1934 by Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie of artificial radioactivity.

A few months after this discovery, Marie Curie died as a result of leukemia caused by the action of radiation. Her contribution to physics had been immense, not only in her own work, the importance of which had been demonstrated by the award to her of two Nobel Prizes, but because of her influence on subsequent generations of nuclear physicists and chemists. Marie Curie, together with Irène Joliot-Curie, wrote the entry on radium for the 13th edition (1926) of the Encyclopædia Britannica.

In 1995 Marie Curie's ashes were enshrined in the Panthéon in Paris; she was the first woman to receive this honour for her own achievements. Her office and laboratory in the Curie Pavilion of the Radium Institute are preserved as the Curie Museum.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Erik Gregersen, Senior Editor.

Learn More in these related Britannica articles:

atom: Discovery of radioactivity

physicists Pierre and Marie Curie discovered the strongly radioactive elements polonium and radium, which occur naturally in uranium minerals. Marie coined the term radioactivity for the spontaneous emission of ionizing, penetrating rays by certain atoms....

Women in Science: The growth of women's higher education in the 19th and early 20th centuries

...partnership between Polish-born French physicist Marie Curie and her husband Pierre Curie led them to share the 1903 Nobel Prize for Physics (it was only the third year the prizes were awarded). Her discovery of new radioactive elements, including polonium and radium, won her the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in...

radium: Occurrence, properties, and uses

by Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and an assistant, G. Bémont, after Marie Curie observed that the radioactivity of pitchblende was four or five times greater than that of the uranium it contained and was not fully explained on the basis of radioactive polonium, which she had just discovered...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Marie Curie - Death of Pierre and second Nobel Prize

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Marie Curie - Marie Curie - Death of Pierre and second Nobel Prize: The sudden death of Pierre Curie (April 19, 1906) was a bitter blow to Marie Curie, but it was also a decisive turning point in her career: henceforth she was to devote all her energy to completing alone the scientific work that they had undertaken.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The genius of Marie Curie - Shohini Ghose

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Fleming, Florey and Chain | Secondary History - Medicine Through Time

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mary Seacole Song | Vile Victorians | Horrible Histories

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mary Seacole VS Florence Nightingale | Vile Victorians | Horrible Histories

# data[].attributes.body
- Discovered circulation
- He was able to prove Galen's theory that blood new blood was made in the liver wrong by constructing multiple experiments to prove the heart pumped the blood instead of it new blood being made.
- He additionally wrote a book which was published in 1628 called 'Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals'

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How a few scientists transformed the way we think about disease - Tien Nguyen

# data[].attributes.body
- Lister recommended that doctors use carbolic acid as a chemical barrier against those microbes.
- By rubbing it onto their hands, and soaking surgery equipment and wounds in the acid
- Infection rates in surgery dropped from 50% to 15%

# data[].attributes.body
- First person to demonstrate the anaesthetic properties of chloroform (Much more effective than anything before)
- During one of his many chemical experiments, it's said that Simpson knocked over a jar of chloroform and was later found in a deep sleep.
- The church attempted to meddle with this by saying that pain during childbirth was punishment from God to sinful women.
- However there were rational arguments such as - it could be dangerous.
- Despite that, Queen Victoria went on to endorse it and so - normalised its use as an anaesthetic.
- She used it during the birth of her 8th and youngest child.

# data[].attributes.body
- Florence went to Germany to study Nursing.
- She was put in charge of nursing British and allied soldiers in Turkey during the Crimean war.
- She spent her time in the wards, and her night rounds giving personal care to the wounded established her image as the "Lady with the Lamp"
- Her efforts to formalise nursing education led her to establish the first scientifically based nursing school - Nightingale School of Nursing.
- Due to her efforts, she was able to improve hospitals hygiene (e.g. separating wards for infectious to those non-infectious.)

# data[].attributes.body
- While studying the disease, he noticed that milkmaids who previously had cowpox never seemed to go on to catch the much deadlier smallpox.
- Jenner discovered that by injecting someone with a small dose of cowpox, you could make them immune to smallpox.
- He tested his prediction on 25 people - including a small boy and his own son.
- He faced opposition from the Royal Society through to the Church.

# data[].attributes.body
- Discovered and developed Germ theory
- Able to identify the many types of bacteria/germs
- More on [Theories]

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Pasteur and Koch | Secondary History - Medicine Through Time

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Pasteur and Koch | Secondary History - Medicine Through Time

# data[].attributes.body
- Founded by Louis Pasteur (Developed by Robert Koch)
- The theory that believed that certain diseases are caused by invasion of the body by micro-organisms - micro-organisms too small to be seen except through a microscope.
- Pasteur was a chemist.
- Mid 19th century Pasteur showed that fermentation and putrefaction are caused by organisms in the air.

# data[].attributes.body
- Theory created by Hippocrates
- Used by Physicians (however stopped during 1990s)
- Hippocrates' theory of the four humours states that the human body is made up of four substances - the theory refers to these substances as 'Humours'
- For ideal health, they have to be in perfect balance. When this balance is lost - it leads into sickness.

Black bile: related to earth, with cold and dry properties.

Yellow bile: related to fire, with dry and warm properties.

Blood: related to air, with moist and warm qualities.

Phlegm: related to water, with moist and cold qualities.

# data[].attributes.headline
Smelly Thames (The great stink) - Horrible Histories

# data[].attributes.subject
Smelly Thames (The great stink) - Horrible Histories

# data[].attributes.body
- Snow removed the handle of the pump, making it unusable and the number of deaths declined rapidly.
- Later discovered that the drinking water supply had been polluted by a leaking cesspit. Snow proved that unclean water led to cholera.
- General Board of Health acted on Snow's information about the polluted water supply but refused to accept Snow's claim that cholera was spread by water.

# data[].attributes.body
- In 1854, during the third outbreak in London Snow set out to prove his theory that unclean water caused the spread of Cholera.
- He used a map to plot where cholera deaths occurred in the area.
- The deaths seemed to happen within one concentrated area - resulting in him being able to find the source of the outbreak.
- The source proved itself to be a contaminated water pump in broad street in the Soho area of London.

# data[].attributes.body
- In 1848, another outbreak of Cholera occurred.
- Dr John Snow - A physician and specialist in medical hygiene, doubted bad air caused the disease.
- He proceeded to carry out and investigation and published his findings in a paper entitled 'On the Mode of Communication of Cholera' in 1849
- In said paper he theorised that cholera wasn't transmitted by bad air but through tainted water supplies

# data[].attributes.body
- Many believed in the theory of bad air (Miasma)
- Edwin Chadwick also believed in said theory when evaluating the sanitation in Britain and the first P.H. Act in 1848. Which lead to another outbreak when people began dumping their rubbish (and faeces) into the river Thames

# data[].attributes.body
- First struck Britain in 1831 during the second pandemic of the 1800s.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Chadwick and Snow | Secondary History - Medicine Through Time

# data[].attributes.body
- Trade suffered for a time
- Wars were temporarily abandoned
- Many labourers died - devastated families who relied on the labourers (both the labourers' families and the landowners)
- Labour shortage caused landowners to substitute wages or money rents in place of labour services in an effort to keep their tenants. (Benefiting those surviving tenants)
- Art in the wake of Black Death became more preoccupied with morality and the afterlife.
- Anti-Semitism greatly intensified throughout Europe, as Jews were blamed for the spread of the Black Death, and many were killed by mobs or burned at the stake.

# data[].attributes.body
- Infection of the blood
- Fatigue
- Fever
- Internal bleeding

# data[].attributes.body
- Fever

- Weakness

- Shortness of breath

- Fluid fills the lungs and can cause death if untreated

- Insomnia

- Staggering gait

- Speech disorder

- Memory loss

# data[].attributes.body
- Fevers
- Fatigue
- Shivering
- Vomiting
- Headaches
- Giddiness
- Intolerance to light
- Pain in the back and limbs
- Sleeplessness
- Buboes (usually in groin or armpits)
- Apathy
- Delirium

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The past, present, and future of the bubonic plague - Sharon N. DeWitte

# data[].attributes.body
It's believed/estimated that over 25 million people have died in Europe due to the Plague outbreak.

# data[].attributes.body
The Black Death is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis.
Which was likely transmitted from rodents such as rats to humans - by the bite of infected fleas.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Horrible Histories - The Plague Song | Horrible Songs | Measly Middle Ages

# data[].attributes.body
The government issues annual reports.

After very limited influenza activity during 2020 and 2021 when the COVID-19 pandemic was at its peak, the 2022-2023 winter period saw Jersey experience a return of more typical influenza activity.