# data[].attributes.body
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moog_Music
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_United_States_of_America_(band)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocryphon_of_John
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarot
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nexus_for_Exoplanet_System_Science
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_Based_Lifeforms
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protracker
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Eno
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxy_Music
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblique_Strategies
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Peppermint_Tree_and_Seeds_of_Superconsciousness
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_in_Ultraland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boards_of_Canada
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroponic_Garden_(album)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_of_Sleepers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interloper_(album)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derelicts_(album)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oh-My-God_particle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1130
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo_11_photo_map.svg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Room_(The_Orb_song)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_rock
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedean_spiral
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darmstadt
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_row
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_notation_(music)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_images_on_the_cover_of_Sgt._Pepper%27s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_the_Garden_(Eurythmics_album)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Constraints_on_Compositional_Systems
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_point
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_music
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallic_mean
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_exposure
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sacrament_of_the_Last_Supper
Waldfriedhof, Kürten
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittwoch_aus_Licht
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klavierst%C3%BCcke_(Stockhausen)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zyklus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_number
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_spiral
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenghuang

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Moog Music Inc. () is an American synthesizer company based in Asheville, North Carolina. It was founded in 1953 as R. A. Moog Co. by Robert Moog and his father and was renamed Moog Music in 1972. Its early instruments included the Moog synthesizer (the first commercial synthesizer), followed by the Minimoog in 1970, two of the most influential electronic instruments of all time.

In 1971, following a recession, Robert Moog sold Moog Music to Norlin Musical Instruments, where he remained employed as a designer until 1977. In 1978, he founded a new company, Big Briar. Moog Music filed for bankruptcy in 1987 and the Moog Music trademark was returned to Robert Moog in 2002, when Big Briar resumed operations under the name Moog Music.

Moog Music also manages Moogfest, a pioneering electronic music and music technology festival in Durham, NC.

Robert Moog founded R. A. Moog Co. with his father in 1953 at the age of 19 in Trumansburg, New York, selling theremin kits to finance his education. In 1963, Moog met experimental composer Herbert Deutsch at a music education conference in Rochester, New York, after Deutsch had built a theremin following Moog's design. With assistance and suggestions from Deutsch and other musicians, Moog built the Moog synthesizer, the first voltage-controlled synthesizer utilizing a keyboard.

By 1967, R. A. Moog, Co. had become a larger enterprise, continuing to sell theremin kits but with sales mainly focused on the commercial Moog synthesizer. Though the Moog synthesizer's sound had rapidly become iconic with the success of Wendy Carlos's Switched-On Bach, the instrument nonetheless did not sell well due to its size and impracticality. The company ran deep into debt, turning a profit only one year of its existence - 1969, following the 'Switched-On' sensation ignited by Carlos.

In November 1971, rival company muSonics bought R. A. Moog, Inc. and relocated the company to Williamsville, New York. An old factory at the north end of Academy Street was purchased. The company was renamed Moog Musonics, then Moog Music, Inc.

In 1972, former televangelist and successful salesman David VanKouvering joined the company as VP of Marketing, creating a network of retail stores throughout the United States and then the entire world. Despite the increased commercial success the company saw with the introduction of the Minimoog than with previous products, competition with contemporary manufacturers such as ARP Instruments, Oberheim Electronics, and Electronic Music Studios drove the company steadily deeper into debt. Moog Music, Inc. was ultimately sold to Norlin Industries in 1973. At this point, rival companies such as the aforementioned ARP Instruments were producing both monophonic and polyphonic synthesizers that rapidly outpaced the Moog in popularity. By 1975, ARP owned 40% of the synthesizer market share, effectively boxing out Moog Music, Inc.

In 1976, Norlin moved the company to a facility on Walden Avenue in Cheektowaga. In 1977, once his contract with Norlin expired, Robert Moog officially left the company to pursue his own ventures, founding the firm Big Briar.

By 1978, Moog Music, Inc. had released a number of products after the success of the Minimoog, including the Vocoder, the Multimoog, the Polymoog, and a series of Taurus bass pedals. Despite numerous artists taking up these products, none of these synthesizers ever achieved the same success. Moog's problems were compounded by competition from Japanese manufacturers such as Roland, Korg and Yamaha, who by the late 1970s, were producing analog synthesizers of comparable ability but at a lower price point.

The company began contract manufacturing in 1981 in various other industries, including subway system repairs and air conditioning systems.

Around the same time, digital synthesis was becoming a viable alternative to analog synthesizers. The Fairlight CMI, released 1979, was an expensive though fully formed digital synthesizer and sampler; in 1983, the introduction of the MIDI interface allowed rival Yamaha to release the world's first commercially successful digital synthesizer, the DX7. Moog Music attempted to pivot to produce digital synthesizers, but declared bankruptcy in 1987.

As digital synthesizers rapidly became ubiquitous, the 1990s saw a rise in nostalgia for the iconic analog sound of Moog and Minimoog synthesizers, with musicians like David Foster continuing to use them. Minimoogs began fetching high prices as collector's items. In 1994, the Moog Music trademark expired and was purchased by Don Martin; a legal battle ensued in 2000 over ownership of the name, and it was returned to Robert Moog in 2002.

Moog Music moved to Asheville, North Carolina, and continued its development of products created under Robert Moog's former company Big Briar, such as the Moogerfooger pedals and theremins, as well as introducing numerous new products such as the Minimoog Voyager, Little Phatty, Sub 37, and Mother 32 some of which continue to be produced and sold today. The company has seen fiscal growth and increased interest due in part to the analog revival, evidenced by the introduction of so many new analog synthesizers being released by companies such as Moog, Korg, Arturia, and Dave Smith Instruments, that has continued climbing to reach a high point in the 2010s.

After Robert Moog died in 2005 due to complications arising from brain cancer, his collaborator Michael Adams took over the company as president. The company has since shifted to being largely employee owned, with its 62 employees owning 49% of the company's shares in 2015. The company has in recent years seen the results of a strong incentive to introduce new products to meet the demands generated by today's market and have also produced limited edition reissues of historic Moog synthesizers as well as reaching out into the emerging Eurorack synthesizer market with instruments such as semi-modular synthesizers, the Mother 32, DFAM, Grandmother, Matriarch, and Subharmonicon.

On 1 June 2022, the employees, as "Moog Workers Unite", launched a union drive with IBEW.

In June 2023, inMusic acquired Moog Music.

At the prompting of composer Herbert Deutsch, Moog invented the Moog synthesizer in 1964. Defined by its use of modules, or independent circuits that performed distinctive tasks - oscillators, filters, amplifiers, envelope generators - the Moog synthesizer allowed users to connect different modules in arbitrary configurations to create remarkably complex sounds. Famously, it also employed a keyboard interface, as opposed to contemporary synthesizer manufacturer Buchla Electronic Musical Instruments who chose to explore alternative control methods instead of using the immediately familiar piano-like interface.

Moog went on to present the synthesizer at the 1964 Audio Engineering Society conference, where it rapidly gained notoriety. The Moog saw some measure of success as experimental artists as Paul Beaver, Suzanne Ciani, and David Borden began to employ it in their work, and the rise of psychedelic rock in the 1960s saw numerous commercial artists employ the Moog in their music, including the Byrds, the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and the Doors.

Perhaps the greatest commercial success for the Moog synthesizer arrived in 1968 with Wendy Carlos's seminal album Switched-On Bach selling over a million copies and winning three Grammy Awards. The success of that album prompted a brief fad of 'Switched-On' music that faded away by 1970.

Despite the success of the Moog, its relatively large size made it impractical for general use. Together with engineers Jim Scott and Bill Hemsath, Moog built the Minimoog. The Minimoog employed the minimal number of modules possible and did away with patch cords, instead hardwiring the various modules together. Furthermore, the Minimoog introduced the pitch wheel, enabling vibrato and pitch-bending an interval of a perfect fifth above or below the note played on the keyboard. Its compact size and range of available sounds allowed the Minimoog to be a comparative success, selling over 13,000 units over the next decade. Pink Floyd, Stevie Wonder, Herbie Hancock, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, and Tangerine Dream were among the numerous musicians who used the Minimoog.

Other variations on the Minimoog continued to be produced, until the company simply decided to re-release the Minimoog in 2016.

The first true Moog bass instrument was the Moog Taurus, a pedal-operated analog synthesizer. Like the Moog, it remained a monophonic analog subtractive synthesizer, initially with 13 pedals in its first model. The Taurus II was expanded to include 18 pedals, and the Taurus III returned to 13.

The Taurus was picked up by various progressive rock bands, including Led Zeppelin, Rush, Yes, Genesis, and Dream Theater.

Though Moog had developed his own vocoder in 1968, Moog Music's commercial product was not released until 1978 and was based almost entirely on Harald Bode's design. Many other companies already were releasing their own vocoders, including Korg, Roland, Electronic Music Studios, and more. Its lack of support for MIDI has made it less enduringly popular than its counterparts. Musicians who used the Moog Vocoder include Saga (band), Wendy Carlos, The Moog Cookbook, and filmmaker/composer John Carpenter.

The Moogerfooger, introduced under Big Briar, is an analog effects pedal that essentially allowed users to apply the modules that constituted the original Moog design to arbitrary sound inputs. Some of the effects included ring modulation, low-pass filtration, ladder filtration, and flanging. The Moogerfooger was successful, and saw a variety of models produced. It was discontinued in 2018, after 20 years of production.

In 2002, on reacquiring the Moog Music trademark, the company began to produce the Minimoog Voyager, effectively an updated version of the iconic Minimoog. The Voyager famously featured a true analog signal path from oscillators to output, but integrated digital controls that made storing presets, along with many other features, available to the Minimoog family.

The Little Phatty, introduced in 2006, was Moog Music's answer to demand for a portable, affordable analog signal path synthesizer. It was the last instrument that Robert Moog participated in the design of and was released by the company shortly after Robert's death in 2005.

With the release of the Sub Phatty in 2013, Moog Music introduced the first synthesizer with an entirely new circuitry schematic since Robert Moog's death in 2005. This new synthesizer featured a new oscillator design with an updated analog sound and increased panel dive edit-ability. This popularity of this instrument inspired multiple subsequent versions from the company with the release of the Sub 37 and Subsequent 37. These synthesizers introduced additional features such as a sequencer and brought edit-ability up from the dive format to the immediate accessibility of the front panel.

Embracing renewed interest in modular synthesis and the ever growing Eurorack synthesizer standard's popularity, Moog Music introduced the Mother-32 as a Eurorack compatible synthesizer featuring Moog circuitry and sound. They have since released a number of modules as well as modular and semi-modular synthesizers.

In 2017, Moog Music unveiled the DFAM at Moogfest as a successor to the Mother-32 series of Eurorack-friendly semi-modular synthesizers. DFAM is a percussive synthesizer with the ability to create "dirty and punchy" drum sounds.

Following in the footsteps of the early modular synthesizer reissues the company introduced in the 2010s and the Mother-32 and other Eurorack friendly options of the same decade, Moog Music introduced the semi-modular Moog Grandmother synthesizer, offering buyers of Moog instruments the freedom of modular patchability combined with the immediate accessibility of a fixed path synthesizer.

As a bigger brother to the Grandmother, Moog Music introduced the Matriarch in 2019. Adding a wider fatar keybed, more modules and patchpoints, and replacing the internal spring-reverb in Grandmother with an analog delay in the Matriarch

Continuing on the Mother ecosystem, Moog Music introduced the Subharmonicon, a Eurorack compatible semi-modular table-top synthesizer designed on the principles of subharmonics and polyrhythms.

Moogfest is the name of a festival started in 2004 in New York City that was founded to honor the work of Robert Moog, better known to the electronic music community as Bob Moog, as well as electronic music and, eventually, technology and development. It eventually moved to Asheville, NC in 2010 and ended its affiliation with AC Entertainment in 2012. The festival, which, after its first relocation, brought a boom to Moog Music Inc.'s corporate home in downtown Asheville in part thanks to the festival's sizable attendance, eventually relocated to Durham, NC due to an increased desire to bolster the tech and development arms of the festival, taking into consideration Durham's status as an up-and-coming tech center.

The festival has attracted high-profile acts such as Keith Emerson, Laurie Anderson, Brian Eno, and Jónsi of Sigur Rós as well as numerous emerging and experimental groups and artists. Additionally, the festival features workshops and presentations that focus on instrument development and building (for instance the Moog Werkstatt-Ø1 was initially offered as a festival-build activity), music tech, and research.

However, the festival and parent company Moog Music Inc. has been the subject of several lawsuits, for complaints including breach of contract, non-payment, and fraud, including a 2019 lawsuit filed by Q Level LLC and another lawsuit filed in 2021 by Moogfest LLC and UG Strategies LLC, as well as a 2020 sexual discrimination lawsuit filed by former employee Hannah Green.

1. Menoche, Charles (December 2005). "Reviewed Work: Analog Days: The Invention and Impact of the Moog Synthesizer by Trevor Pinch, Frank Trocco". Notes. 62 (2): 404-406. doi:10.1353/not.2005.0141. JSTOR 4487592. S2CID 192074445.

2. ^ Pinch, Trevor, 1952- (2002). Analog days : the invention and impact of the Moog synthesizer. Trocco, Frank. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674008898. OCLC 50115753.

3. ^ Porcaro, Mark D. (2013). "Moog, Robert A(rthur) | Grove Music". www.oxfordmusiconline.com. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.A2250264. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0.

4. ^ Jenkins, Mark. Analog synthesizers : understanding, performing, buying from the legacy of Moog to software synthesis. ISBN 9780429844386. OCLC 1079414202.

5. ^ Kozinn, Allan (August 23, 2005). "Robert Moog, Creator of Music Synthesizer, Dies at 71". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331.

6. ^ "Moog Music joins Akai Pro, Alesis and M-Audio in the inMusic family in a bid to "overcome long-standing challenges and strengthen the company"". MusicRadar.com. Future plc. June 13, 2023.

7. ^ Reid, Gordon. "The Rebirth Of Keith Emerson's Moog Modular - Second Coming". Sound on Sound (July 2014). Archived from the original on March 25, 2015. The stuff of synthesizer legend, Keith Emerson's megalithic modular system hasn't just been restored ? it's also been completely recreated.

8. ^ "INTRODUCING MOTHER-32 - Moog Music Inc". www.moogmusic.com. Archived from the original on July 7, 2017.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Moog Music Inc. () is an American synthesizer company based in Asheville, North Carolina. It was founded in 1953 as R. A. Moog Co. by Robert Moog and his father and was renamed Moog Music in 1972.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
(マイマイ新子と千年の魔法 , Mai Mai Miracle Maimai Shinko to Sen-nen no Mahō, lit. Mai Mai Shinko and the Millennium-Old Magic) is a Japanese animated film based on Nobuko Takagi's novelization of her autobiography, Maimai Shinko. It was produced by the animation studio Madhouse, distributed by Shochiku, and directed by Sunao Katabuchi.

The film debuted at the Locarno International Film Festival in Switzerland on August 15, 2009. The movie's plot is partially based on research on Sei Shōnagon's The Pillow Book.

It's the spring of 1955 in Mitajiri (in the countryside around then small-town Hōfu) in Yamaguchi Prefecture, southwestern Japan. A nine-year-old girl named Shinko Aoki grew up hearing her grandfather's tales of life a thousand years ago, and is able to vividly see the past. Back then, a princess named Nagiko Kiyohara lived in the same village, at a time when the area was known as the province of Suō and its capital Kokuga. Shinko claims that her ability to see the past is a gift from the single cowlick on her forehead, which she calls her "mai mai". Shinko invites Kiiko Shimazu, a new student who has recently transferred to her school, with her to her vivid imaginings of the past. Despite the girls' quite different characters - Shinko is an outgoing, exuberant tomboy, while the shy and city-raised Kiiko still mourns her deceased mother - they get along surprisingly well and end up learning from each other's differences.

Along with the local village boys, Shinko and Kiiko form a group known as the Destiny Squad, whose leader is 14 year-old Tatsuyoshi. The group explores the village, including building a dam for a fish in the creek, which seemingly represents their bond and hopes for the future. At the same time, Shinko and Kiiko can "see" that Princess Nagiko is lonely and yearns for friendship.

Shinko dreams one night that the Princess Nagiko is barred from friendship with the village girls. The next morning, the fish they built the dam for is found dead in the creek. The Destiny Squad vows that tomorrow will be a better day, one in which they all laugh.

Shortly afterward, Tatsuyoshi's father, a police officer, hangs himself after gambling away a neighbor's money with a woman. Shinko and Tatsuyoshi go off late at night to find the woman and punish her, ending up in the village's dark side riddled with crime. Tatsuyoshi attempts to hit the woman, but gives up at the sight of the grief ravaged woman and breaks down when remembering his father. At the same time, Kiiko goes back in time and becomes Princess Nagiko, and is able to help a local girl and befriend her. Tatsuyoshi and Shinko return home, with Tatsuyoshi announcing that he is moving away the following day. He vows to be a good father one day, with Shinko advising him to have as much fun as he can before becoming an adult.

Shinko and Kiiko spend a bit more time imagining the past and learning about the village with Shinko's grandfather. At the end of the winter, Shinko's grandfather passes away, and Shinko moves away to the city with her family to be closer to her father's university. In the distance, Princess Nagiko and her friend sit on a stone, enjoying the friendship that Shinko and Kiiko helped them create.

A 3rd grade girl with a strong will, imaginative and often unafraid of standing out through odd behaviour.

Reserved 3rd grade girl and new classmate to Shinko. She moved to the area with her father (from Tokyo) and in the film starts out mourning the loss of her mother.

Kotaro is Shinko's grandfather. He is also a major inspiration for Shinko with his stories about life in the past.

Nagako Aoki (voiced by: Manami Honjou)

Shinko's mother, generally clueless when it comes to dealing with Shinko's often unpredictable behaviour.

Shinko's little sister, she suffers at times from her older sister's careless handling of things. She has just as strong of a personality though, and likes cats.

Shinko's father, who works at the University of Yamaguchi.

In Lille, France in November 2007 Katabuchi showed extracts of the film without naming it. The film was announced by Madhouse at the 2008 Tokyo International Anime Fair as a new project of director Sunao Katabuchi. While Katabuchi had served as a scriptwriter Hayao Miyazaki's Sherlock Hound, as an assistant director on Kiki's Delivery Service, and had directed his own film Princess Arete in 2001 at Studio 4°C, this was his first feature film since joining Madhouse. To create the film, he assembled his crew from Madhouse's staff animators and artists, as well as associates from Studio 4 °C. Shigeto Tsuji, previously an assistant animation supervisor on Metropolis, designed the characters, while Kazutaka Ozaki and Studio 4 °C artist Chie Uratani served as animation directors. Both had previously worked on Princess Arete with Katabuchi. Shinichi Uehara, a veteran background painter at Madhouse, acted as art director.

Shochiku promoted the film online, aiming at international as well as domestic fans. A short English-subtitled trailer was posted on the studio's website in June. Additionally, Avex Network also promoted the film through their YouTube channel. A 31-second trailer was released on August 28, followed by a 100-second trailer on September 16.

The film debuted at the Locarno International Film Festival in Switzerland on August 15, 2009. It was released in Japan on November 21, and ultimately had a rare seven-month run at the cinemas. Following 2010, though, it ended up in the category of films receiving a box office receipt of less than 300 million ¥.

The film opened on the December 11-13 weekend in South Korea, where it debuted in 13th place and grossed the equivalent of US$ 61,370 on 39 screens.

Besides this, the films has had various international festival screenings, including France's Val-de-Marne/Paris (February 2010), Brussels, Belgium (February 2010), Edinburgh, UK (June 2010), San Francisco, USA (2010), Montréal, Canada (July 2010), and (during the summer of 2011) Melbourne, Australia.

In March 2012, the company All the Anime which is based in Glasgow, UK, initiated the Kickstarter project to fund the DVD and/or Blu-ray release of Mai Mai Miracle in English subtitle and/or English dub in US and UK. Initial goal was $30,000, and the project was successfully funded with $107,153.

On February 5, 2014, Anime Limited launched the Kickstarter campaign for the film on February 6, until March 7, 2014, the campaign has set a US$30,000 goal for an English-subtitled release of the film in the United States and United Kingdom. As of February 6, 2014, 11:00 a.m. ET, the campaign has raised over $33,700. On February 24, 2014, the Ask me Anything session was announced by his director, and began on February 27, 2014.

The film has been released on DVD in Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Germany (where it is called Das Mädchen mit dem Zauberhaar), Italy (where it is called Shinko Ghiribizzo e la magia millenaria) and France. In France, Mai Mai Miracle enjoyed a release on Blu-ray Disc. The film was released by Right Stuf Inc. via its licensing and production studio Nozomi Entertainment on Blu-ray December 3, 2019.

Themes and critical response

The story revolves around a 3rd grade schoolgirl, living with her parents and little sister in the countryside of 1950s Japan. Thus Mai Mai Miracle has things in common with Hayao Miyazaki's My Neighbor Totoro, enhanced by the animation of Madhouse (having collaborated on many Studio Ghibli productions). Alexandre Fontaine Rousseau of the French-language online magazine Panorama-cinéma said, "Both films chronicle childhood adventures and the "magic" that resides in this naive outlook. In the former film, nature becomes fantastic; in this film it is the story that resides beneath the surface that has a life of its own as it is so aptly represented using animation." San Francisco International Animation Festival programmer Sean Uyehara said (interviewed by Elisabeth Bartlett of Fest21.com) mentioned this film in the light of Miyazaki's oft used focus upon pre-adolescence, "that moment when kids are figuring out their personality, how they fit in socially, feelings of empathy, how to deal with anger and disappointment...They are starting to understand how they affect others and others affect them." Uyehara also pointed out one difference between Miyazaki's work (where "usually the spiritual or dream world is as real as the actual world") and that of Katabuchi (where there is more distinction between the two and "it's more about imagination than it is about mysticism").

The Variety review appreciated on the director's complex cross-cutting technique, when presenting two worlds a thousand years apart. In the film, the princess of the Heian era, "a girl their age whose face they cannot yet visualize, remains isolated in her parallel universe as Katabuchi inventively leaps timeframes." This ancient world at first only spring forward in the mind of Shinko, who believes her mai mai (the cowlick in the middle of her forehead) is the reason for her unusual ability. Both the Variety review and independent film reviewer Chris Knipp elaborated upon the fact that this "children's story" has a darker side, that is cleverly mixed in to bring a realistic perspective. "Shadowing this enchanted cross-temporal childhood ether is a half-glimpsed adult world," where the dark and complex parts of adult life opens up new discoveries for the kids in the form of "tragedy but also accommodation." And the children realise that "good and evil are not so comfortingly distinct." With this added perspective, Katabuchi's storytelling skills enable him "to layer an aura of postwar disillusionment without disturbing the pic's well-sustained innocent tone."

Shinko's opening up to the realities of life comes both as a shock and a disappointment, but it also causes her to "realize that her magic may not be real." Through the depth of this story-telling, neither " Mai Mai Miracle nor the screenplay talks down to anybody, even though the playfulness and the ability to laugh are never lost." Chris Knipp thought the most appealing and fascinating about the film was "the way it oscillates between the real and the imaginary, the upbeat and the sad, while maintaining the deceptively simple surface of childhood." On the large scale, Katabuchi's film depicts Japan of the '50s, "caught between an imperial past of rigid class distinction and its Western-influenced, caste-loose future," and it presents "two sides of an ambivalent East/West fusion, conveyed with surprising clarity." And on the personal level, we find that nothing is cast in stone forever, as real-life events affect the main characters right up to the end. Those events seem "both surprising and inevitable". In the end, we as viewers learn that life goes on, just as in the real world, which in the case of this film happens to be the booming economy of Japan, ten years after a world war and a thousand years after the Heian era.

Awards and nominations

The film was nominated for the 4th Asia Pacific Screen Award for Best Animated Feature Film. Mai Mai Miracle won the 2010 Audience Award for the Best Animated Feature for adults at Anima, the Brussels Animation Film Festival. It won the BETV Award for Best Animated Feature at the same festival. It won the Best Animated Feature Film award in the Jury Prize categories at the Fantasia Film Festival in Montréal, Canada. It also won the Excellence Award for animation in the 14th Japan Media Arts Festival.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
(マイマイ新子と千年の魔法 , Mai Mai Miracle Maimai Shinko to Sen-nen no Mahō, lit. Mai Mai Shinko and the Millennium-Old Magic) is a Japanese animated film based on Nobuko Takagi's novelization of her autobiography, Maimai Shinko. It was produced by the animation studio Madhouse, distributed by Shochiku, and directed by Sunao Katabuchi.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Jefferson Airplane, a rock band based in San Francisco, California, was one of the pioneering bands of psychedelic rock. Formed in 1965, the group defined the San Francisco Sound and was the first from the Bay Area to achieve international commercial success.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire. His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. Subsequently, Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths. The praetorian prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the Iberian Peninsula, establishing the province of Spania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empire's annual revenue by over a million solidi. During his reign, Justinian also subdued the , a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before. He engaged the Sasanian Empire in the east during Kavad I's reign, and later again during Khosrow I's reign; this second conflict was partially initiated due to his ambitions in the west.

A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states. His reign also marked a blossoming of Eastern Roman (Byzantine) culture, and his building program yielded works such as the Hagia Sophia.

Justinian was born in Tauresium, Dardania, probably in 482. A native speaker of Latin (possibly the last Roman emperor to be one), he came from a peasant family thought to have been of either of Illyro-Roman or Thraco-Roman origin. The name Iustinianus, which he took later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin. During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birthplace. His mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was commander of one of the imperial guard units (the Excubitors) before he became emperor, adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople, and ensured the boy's education. As a result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence, theology, and Roman history. Justinian served as a candidatus, one of 40 men selected from the scholae palatinae to serve as the emperor's personal bodyguard. The chronicler John Malalas, who lived during the reign of Justinian, describes his appearance as short, fair-skinned, curly-haired, round-faced, and handsome. Another contemporary historian, Procopius, compares Justinian's appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian, although this is probably slander.

When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor with significant help from Justinian. Justinian showed a lot of ambition, and several sources claim that he was functioning as virtual regent long before Justin made him associate emperor, although there is no conclusive evidence of this. As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the de facto ruler. Following the general Vitalian's assassination in 520 (orchestrated by Justinian and Justin), Justinian was appointed consul and commander of the army of the east. Justinian remained Justin's close confidant, and in 525 was granted the titles of nobilissimus and (heir-apparent). He was crowned co-emperor on 1 April 527, and became sole ruler after Justin's death on 1 August 527.

As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as "the emperor who never sleeps" for his work habits. Nevertheless, he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach. Around 525, he married his mistress, Theodora, in Constantinople. She was by profession an actress and some twenty years his junior. In earlier times, Justinian could not have married her owing to her class, but his uncle, Emperor Justin I, had passed a law lifting restrictions on marriages with ex-actresses. Though the marriage caused a scandal, Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire. Other talented individuals included Tribonian, his legal adviser; Peter the Patrician, the diplomat and long-time head of the palace bureaucracy; Justinian's finance ministers John the Cappadocian and Peter Barsymes, who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented generals, Belisarius and Narses.

Justinian's rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he nearly lost his throne during the Nika riots, and a conspiracy against the emperor's life by dissatisfied entrepreneurs was discovered as late as 562. Justinian was struck by the plague in the early 540s but recovered. Theodora died in 548 at a relatively young age, possibly of cancer; Justinian outlived her by nearly twenty years. Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine, became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life. He died on 14 November 565, childless. He was succeeded by Justin II, who was the son of his sister Vigilantia and married to Sophia, the niece of Theodora. Justinian's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles until it was desecrated and robbed during the pillage of the city in 1204 by the Latin States of the Fourth Crusade.

Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete revision of all Roman law, something that had not previously been attempted. The total of Justinian's legislation is known today as the Corpus juris civilis. It consists of the Codex Justinianeus, the Digesta or , the Institutiones, and the .

Early in his reign, Justinian had appointed the Tribonian to oversee this task. The first draft of the Codex Justinianeus, a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on 7 April 529. (The final version appeared in 534.) It was followed by the Digesta (or ), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by the Institutiones, a textbook explaining the principles of law. The , a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign, supplements the Corpus. As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the Novellae appeared in Greek, the common language of the Eastern Empire.

The Corpus forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical Canon Law) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the leges (laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws, senatorial consults ( senatusconsulta), imperial decrees, case law, and jurists' opinions and interpretations ( responsa prudentium). Tribonian's code ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in the of Basil I and Leo VI the Wise. The only western province where the Justinianic code was introduced was Italy (after the conquest by the so-called Pragmatic Sanction of 554), from where it was to pass to Western Europe in the 12th century and become the basis of much Continental European law code, which was eventually spread by European empires to the Americas and beyond in the Age of Discovery. It eventually passed to Eastern Europe where it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on to Russia. It remains influential to this day.

Family legislation also revealed a greater concern for the interests of children. This was particularly so with respect to children born out of wedlock. The law under Justinian also reveals a striking interest in child neglect issues. Justinian protected the rights of children whose parents remarried and produced more offspring, or who simply separated and abandoned their offspring, forcing them to beg.

In Constantinople, under Justinian, hospitals were built and free medical care provided to the many poor residents of the city. In addition, public baths were free for all residents and 20 state bakeries provided free bread to those who needed it. According to one study, "The empire's social welfare programs ensured that no one went hungry."

Justinian's habit of choosing efficient but unpopular advisers nearly cost him his throne early in his reign. In January 532, partisans of the chariot racing factions in Constantinople, normally rivals, united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as the Nika riots. They forced him to dismiss Tribonian and two of his other ministers, and then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself and replace him with the senator Hypatius, who was a nephew of the late emperor Anastasius. While the crowd was rioting in the streets, Justinian considered fleeing the capital by sea, but eventually decided to stay, apparently on the prompting of his wife Theodora, who refused to leave. In the next two days, he ordered the brutal suppression of the riots by his generals Belisarius and Mundus. Procopius relates that 30,000 unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome. On Theodora's insistence, and apparently against his own judgment, Justinian had Anastasius' nephews executed.

The destruction that took place during the revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings, most notably the architectural innovation of the domed Hagia Sophia.

One of the most spectacular features of Justinian's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin that had slipped out of Imperial control in the 5th century. As a Christian Roman emperor, Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore the Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries. Although he never personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art. The re-conquests were in large part carried out by his general Belisarius.

From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the Sassanid Empire. In 530 the Persian forces suffered a double defeat at Dara and Satala, but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near Callinicum. Justinian then tried to make alliance with the Axumites of Ethiopia and the Himyarites of Yemen against the Persians, but this failed. When king Kavadh I of Persia died (September 531), Justinian concluded an " Eternal Peace" (which cost him 11,000 pounds of gold) with his successor Khosrau I (532). Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his attention to the West, where Germanic kingdoms had been established in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire.

The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the Vandals in North Africa. King Hilderic, who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African Catholic clergy, had been overthrown by his cousin Gelimer in 530 AD. Imprisoned, the deposed king appealed to Justinian. Justinian protested Gelimer's actions, demanding that Gelimer return the kingdom to Hilderic. Gelimer replied, in effect, that Justinian had no authority to make these demands. Angered at this response, Justinian quickly concluded his ongoing war with the Sassanian Empire and prepared an expedition against the Vandals in 533.

In 533, Belisarius sailed to Africa with a fleet of 92 dromons, escorting 500 transports carrying an army of about 15,000 men, as well as a number of barbarian troops. They landed at Caput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia) in modern Tunisia. They defeated the Vandals, who were caught completely off guard, at Ad Decimum on 14 September 533 and Tricamarum in December; Belisarius took Carthage. King Gelimer fled to Mount Pappua in Numidia, but surrendered the next spring. He was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in a triumph. Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, and the stronghold Septem Fratres near Mons Calpe (later named Gibraltar) were recovered in the same campaign.

An African prefecture, centered in Carthage, was established in April 534, but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst warfare with the Moors and military mutinies. The area was not completely pacified until 548, but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperity. The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100,000 pounds of gold.

Justinian's conquests

As in Africa, dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an opportunity for intervention. The young king Athalaric had died on 2 October 534, and a usurper, Theodahad, had imprisoned queen Amalasuintha, Theodoric's daughter and mother of Athalaric, on the island of Martana in Lake Bolsena, where he had her assassinated in 535. Thereupon Belisarius, with 7,500 men, invaded Sicily (535) and advanced into Italy, sacking Naples and capturing Rome on 9 December 536. By that time Theodahad had been deposed by the Ostrogothic army, who had elected Vitigis as their new king. He gathered a large army and besieged Rome from February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city.

Justinian sent another general, Narses, to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign. Milan was taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths. Justinian recalled Narses in 539. By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans, and in 540 Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna. There he was offered the title of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace that would leave the region north of the Po River in Gothic hands. Belisarius feigned acceptance of the offer, entered the city in May 540, and reclaimed it for the Empire. Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to Constantinople, taking the captured Vitigis and his wife Matasuntha with him.

Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the Persians. Following a revolt against the Empire in Armenia in the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic ambassadors, King Khosrau I broke the "Eternal Peace" and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540. He first sacked Beroea and then Antioch (allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave the city), besieged Daras, and then went on to attack the Byzantine base in the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom of Lazica near the Black Sea as requested by its discontented king Gubazes, exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way. He forced Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year.

Belisarius arrived in the East in 541, but after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople in 542. The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours of his disloyalty reaching the court. The outbreak of the plague coupled with a rebellion in Persia brought Khosrow I's offensives to a halt. Exploiting this, Justinian ordered all the forces in the East to invade Persian Armenia, but the 30,000-strong Byzantine force was defeated by a small force at Anglon. The next year, Khosrau unsuccessfully besieged the major city of Edessa. Both parties made little headway, and in 545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier. After that, the Lazic War in the North continued for several years: the Lazic king switched to the Byzantine side, and in 549 Justinian sent Dagisthaeus to recapture Petra, but he faced heavy resistance and the siege was relieved by Sasanian reinforcements. Justinian replaced him with Bessas, who was under a cloud after the loss of Rome in 546, but he managed to capture and dismantle Petra in 551. The war continued for several years until a second truce in 557, followed by a fifty years' peace in 562. Under its terms, the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold (30,000 solidi) to be paid by the Romans.

Spanish Visigothic gold Tremissis in the name of emperor Justinian I, 7th century. The Christian cross on the breast defines the Visigothic attribution. British Museum.

While military efforts were directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse. Under their respective kings Ildibad and Eraric (both murdered in 541) and especially Totila, the Ostrogoths made quick gains. After a victory at Faenza in 542, they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire Italian Peninsula. Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in 544 but lacked sufficient troops and supplies. Making no headway, he was relieved of his command in 548. Belisarius succeeded in defeating a Gothic fleet of 200 ships. During this period the city of Rome changed hands three more times, first taken and depopulated by the Ostrogoths in December 546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547, and then again by the Goths in January 550. Totila also plundered Sicily and attacked Greek coastlines.

Finally, Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35,000 men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southern Visigothic Hispania) under the command of Narses. The army reached Ravenna in June 552 and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the battle of Busta Gallorum in the Apennines, where Totila was slain. After a second battle at Mons Lactarius in October that year, the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken. In 554, a large-scale Frankish invasion was defeated at Casilinum, and Italy was secured for the Empire, though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds. At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16,000 men. The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of gold. Procopius estimated 15,000,000 Goths died.

Emperor Justinian reconquered many former territories of the Western Roman Empire, including Italia, Dalmatia, Africa, and southern Hispania.

In addition to the other conquests, the Empire established a presence in Visigothic Hispania, when the usurper Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against King Agila I. In 552, Justinian dispatched a force of 2,000 men; according to the historian Jordanes, this army was led by the octogenarian Liberius. The Byzantines took Cartagena and other cities on the southeastern coast and founded the new province of Spania before being checked by their former ally Athanagild, who had by now become king. This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine expansion.

During Justinian's reign, the Balkans suffered from several incursions by the Turkic and Slavic peoples who lived north of the Danube. Here, Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works. In 559 a particularly dangerous invasion of Sklavinoi and Kutrigurs under their khan Zabergan threatened Constantinople, but they were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius.

The final victory in Italy and the conquest of Africa and the coast of southern Hispania significantly enlarged the area of Byzantine influence and eliminated all naval threats to the empire, which in 555 reached its territorial zenith. Despite losing much of Italy soon after Justinian's death, the empire retained several important cities, including Rome, Naples, and Ravenna, leaving the Lombards as a regional threat. The newly founded province of Spania kept the Visigoths as a threat to Hispania alone and not to the western Mediterranean and Africa.

Events of the later years of his reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historian Menander Protector felt the need to attribute the Emperor's failure to protect the capital to the weakness of his body in his old age. In his efforts to renew the Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched its resources while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe.

A mosaic showing Justinian with the bishop of Ravenna (Italy), bodyguards, and courtiers[77]

Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents, especially monophysitism, which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt. Monophysite doctrine, which maintains that Jesus Christ had one divine nature rather than a synthesis of divine and human nature, had been condemned as a heresy by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, and the tolerant policies towards Monophysitism of Zeno and Anastasius I had been a source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome.

Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the Monophysites. Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy that proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them.

As in his secular administration, despotism appeared also in the Emperor's ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything, both in religion and in law. At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church's belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation, and to threaten all heretics with the appropriate penalties, whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by due process of law. He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church and accorded legal force to the canons of the four ecumenical councils. The bishops in attendance at the Council of Constantinople (536) recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor's will and command, while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of the Patriarch Anthimus, reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription. Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics. He neglected no opportunity to secure the rights of the Church and clergy, and to protect and extend monasticism. He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and the right to receive solemnia, or annual gifts, from the Imperial treasury or from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation of monastic estates.

Mosaic from Our Lady of Saidnaya Monastery depicting the Virgin Mary holding the Child Christ on her lap. On her right side stands Justinian. On her left side stands Theodora. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, the gold background was replaced with a plain white one and the Greek text was modified into Arabic.

Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities, he was a "nursing father" of the Church. Both the Codex and the Novellae contain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church of Hagia Sophia (which cost 20,000 pounds of gold), the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, and mosaics, became the centre and most visible monument of Eastern Orthodoxy in Constantinople.

From the middle of the 5th century onward, increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters. Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to the Acacian schism. Previous Emperors had tried to alleviate theological conflicts by declarations that deemphasized the Council of Chalcedon, which had condemned monophysitism, which had strongholds in Egypt and Syria, and by tolerating the appointment of Monophysites to church offices. The Popes reacted by severing ties with the Patriarch of Constantinople who supported these policies. Emperors Justin I (and later Justinian himself) rescinded these policies and reestablished the union between Constantinople and Rome. After this, Justinian also felt entitled to settle disputes in papal elections, as he did when he favored Vigilius and had his rival Silverius deported.

This new-found unity between East and West did not, however, solve the ongoing disputes in the east. Justinian's policies switched between attempts to force Monophysites and Miaphysites (who were mistaken to be adherers of Monophysitism) to accept the Chalcedonian creed by persecuting their bishops and monks - thereby embittering their sympathizers in Egypt and other provinces - and attempts at a compromise that would win over the Monophysites without surrendering the Chalcedonian faith. Such an approach was supported by the Empress Theodora, who favoured the Miaphysites unreservedly. In the condemnation of the Three Chapters, three theologians that had opposed Monophysitism before and after the Council of Chalcedon, Justinian tried to win over the opposition. At the Fifth Ecumenical Council, most of the Eastern church yielded to the Emperor's demands, and Pope Vigilius, who was forcibly brought to Constantinople and besieged at a chapel, finally also gave his assent. However, the condemnation was received unfavourably in the west, where it led to new (albeit temporal) schism, and failed to reach its goal in the east, as the Monophysites remained unsatisfied - all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters.

Justinian's religious policy reflected the Imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith, and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could only be the orthodoxy (Chalcedonian). Those of a different belief were subjected to persecution, which imperial legislation had effected from the time of Constantius II and which would now vigorously continue. The Codex contained two statutes that decreed the total destruction of paganism, even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced. Contemporary sources (John Malalas, Theophanes, and John of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men in high position.[dubious ]

The original Academy of Plato had been destroyed by the Roman dictator Sulla in 86 BC. Several centuries later, in 410 AD, a Neoplatonic Academy was established that had no institutional continuity with Plato's Academy, and which served as a center for Neoplatonism and mysticism. It persisted until 529 AD when it was finally closed by Justinian I. Other schools in Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, which were the centers of Justinian's empire, continued.

In Asia Minor alone, John of Ephesus was reported to have converted 70,000 pagans, which was probably an exaggerated number. Other peoples also accepted Christianity: the Heruli, the Huns dwelling near the Don, the Abasgi, and the Tzanni in Caucasia.

The worship of Amun at the oasis of Awjila in the Libyan desert was abolished, and so were the remnants of the worship of Isis on the island of Philae, at the first cataract of the Nile. The Presbyter Julian and the Bishop Longinus conducted a mission among the Nabataeans, and Justinian attempted to strengthen Christianity in Yemen by dispatching a bishop from Egypt.

The civil rights of Jews were restricted and their religious privileges threatened. Justinian also interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue and encouraged the Jews to use the Greek Septuagint in their synagogues in Constantinople.

The Emperor faced significant opposition from the Samaritans, who resisted conversion to Christianity and were repeatedly in insurrection. He persecuted them with rigorous edicts, but could not prevent reprisals towards Christians from taking place in Samaria toward the close of his reign. The consistency of Justinian's policy meant that the Manicheans too suffered persecution, experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment. At Constantinople, on one occasion, not a few Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed in the emperor's very presence: some by burning, others by drowning.

Architecture, learning, art and literature

Justinian was a prolific builder; the historian Procopius bears witness to his activities in this area. Under Justinian's reign, the San Vitale in Ravenna, which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora, was completed under the sponsorship of Julius Argentarius. Most notably, he had the Hagia Sophia, originally a basilica-style church that had been burnt down during the Nika riots, splendidly rebuilt according to a completely different ground plan, under the architectural supervision of Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. On 26 December 537, according to Pseudo-Codinus, Justinian stated at the completion of this edifice: "Solomon, I have outdone thee" (in reference to the first Jewish temple). The church had a second inauguration on 24 December 562, after several reworks made by Isidore the Younger. This new cathedral, with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics, remained the centre of eastern Christianity for centuries.

Another prominent church in the capital, the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century, was likewise rebuilt. The Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, later renamed Little Hagia Sophia, was also built between 532 and 536 by the imperial couple. Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone: excavations at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople have yielded several high-quality mosaics dating from Justinian's reign, and a column topped by a bronze statue of Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was erected in the Augustaeum in Constantinople in 543. Rivalry with other, more established patrons from the Constantinopolitan and exiled Roman aristocracy might have enforced Justinian's building activities in the capital as a means of strengthening his dynasty's prestige.

Justinian also strengthened the borders of the Empire from Africa to the East through the construction of fortifications and ensured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of underground cisterns (see Basilica Cistern). To prevent floods from damaging the strategically important border town Dara, an advanced arch dam was built. During his reign the large Sangarius Bridge was built in Bithynia, securing a major military supply route to the east. Furthermore, Justinian restored cities damaged by earthquake or war and built a new city near his place of birth called Justiniana Prima, which was intended to replace Thessalonica as the political and religious centre of Illyricum.

In Justinian's reign, and partly under his patronage, Byzantine culture produced noteworthy historians, including Procopius and Agathias, and poets such as Paul the Silentiary and Romanus the Melodist flourished. On the other hand, centres of learning such as the Neoplatonic Academy in Athens and the famous Law School of Berytus lost their importance during his reign.

As was the case under Justinian's predecessors, the Empire's economic health rested primarily on agriculture. In addition, long-distance trade flourished, reaching as far north as Cornwall where tin was exchanged for Roman wheat. Within the Empire, convoys sailing from Alexandria provided Constantinople with wheat and grains. Justinian made the traffic more efficient by building a large granary on the island of Tenedos for storage and further transport to Constantinople. Justinian also tried to find new routes for the eastern trade, which was suffering badly from the wars with the Persians.

One important luxury product was silk, which was imported and then processed in the Empire. In order to protect the manufacture of silk products, Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial factories in 541. In order to bypass the Persian landroute, Justinian established friendly relations with the Abyssinians, whom he wanted to act as trade mediators by transporting Indian silk to the Empire; the Abyssinians, however, were unable to compete with the Persian merchants in India. Then, in the early 550s, two monks succeeded in smuggling eggs of silk worms from Central Asia back to Constantinople, and silk became an indigenous product.

Gold and silver were mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia, Cyprus, Egypt and Nubia.

At the start of Justinian I's reign he had inherited a surplus 28,800,000 solidi (400,000 pounds of gold) in the imperial treasury from Anastasius I and Justin I. Under Justinian's rule, measures were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make tax collection more efficient. Greater administrative power was given to both the leaders of the prefectures and of the provinces, while power was taken away from the vicariates of the dioceses, of which a number were abolished. The overall trend was towards a simplification of administrative infrastructure. According to Brown (1971), the increased professionalization of tax collection did much to destroy the traditional structures of provincial life, as it weakened the autonomy of the town councils in the Greek towns. It has been estimated that before Justinian I's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5,000,000 solidi in AD 530, but after his reconquests, the annual revenue was increased to 6,000,000 solidi in AD 550.

Despite all these measures, the Empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the 6th century. The first one was the plague, which lasted from 541 to 543 and, by decimating the Empire's population, probably created a scarcity of labor and a rising of wages. The lack of manpower also led to a significant increase in the number of "barbarians" in the Byzantine armies after the early 540s. The protracted war in Italy and the wars with the Persians themselves laid a heavy burden on the Empire's resources, and Justinian was criticized for curtailing the government-run post service, which he limited to only one eastern route of military importance.

During the 530s, it seemed to many that God had abandoned the Christian Roman Empire. There were noxious fumes in the air and the Sun, while still providing daylight, refused to give much heat. The extreme weather events of 535-536 led to a famine such as had not been recorded before, affecting both Europe and the Middle East. These events may have been caused by an atmospheric dust veil resulting from a large volcanic eruption.

The historian Procopius recorded in 536 in his work on the Vandalic War "during this year a most dread portent took place. For the sun gave forth its light without brightness ... and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear".

The causes of these disasters are not precisely known, but volcanoes at the Rabaul caldera, Lake Ilopango, Krakatoa, or, according to a recent finding, in Iceland are suspected.

Seven years later in 542, a devastating outbreak of Bubonic Plague, known as the Plague of Justinian and second only to Black Death of the 14th century, killed tens of millions. Justinian and members of his court, physically unaffected by the previous 535-536 famine, were afflicted, with Justinian himself contracting and surviving the pestilence. The impact of this outbreak of plague has recently been disputed, since evidence for tens of millions dying is uncertain.

Emperor Justinian in Council (1886), by Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant, prior to restoration in 2020.

In the section of the Divine Comedy, Canto (chapter) VI, by Dante Alighieri, Justinian I is prominently featured as a spirit residing on the sphere of Mercury. The latter holds in Heaven the souls of those whose acts were righteous, yet meant to achieve fame and honor. Justinian's legacy is elaborated on, and he is portrayed as a defender of the Christian faith and the restorer of Rome to the Empire. Justinian confesses that he was partially motivated by fame rather than duty to God, which tainted the justice of his rule in spite of his proud accomplishments. In his introduction, "Cesare fui e son Iustinïano" ("Caesar I was, and am Justinian"), his mortal title is contrasted with his immortal soul, to emphasize that "glory in life is ephemeral, while contributing to God's glory is eternal", according to Dorothy L. Sayers. Dante also uses Justinian to criticize the factious politics of his 14th-century Italy, divided between Ghibellines and Guelphs, in contrast to the unified Italy of the Roman Empire.

Justinian is a major character in the 1938 novel Count Belisarius, by Robert Graves. He is depicted as a jealous and conniving Emperor obsessed with creating and maintaining his own historical legacy.

Justinian appears as a character in the 1939 time-travel novel Lest Darkness Fall, by L. Sprague de Camp.

The Glittering Horn: Secret Memoirs of the Court of Justinian was a novel written by Pierson Dixon in 1958 about the court of Justinian.

Justinian is a chief protagonist of Belisarius in "Empire in Apocalypse" by Robert Bruton (Legend Books 2023). The emperor's jealousy and envy of Belisarius eventually prompt him to undermine his best general.

Justinian occasionally appears in the comic strip Prince Valiant, usually as a nemesis of the title character.

Justinian is played by Innokenty Smoktunovsky in the 1985 Soviet film Primary Russia.

Justinian's Crown is a historical artifact claimed by the Byzantine Empire in the popular 2020 computer strategy game Crusader Kings 3, by Paradox Development Studio.

Procopius provides the primary source for the history of Justinian's reign, but his opinion is tainted by a feeling of betrayal when Justinian became more pragmatic and less idealistic (Justinian and the Later Roman Empire by John W. Barker). He became very bitter towards Justinian and his empress, Theodora. In various Eastern Orthodox Churches, including the Orthodox Church in America, Justinian and his empress Theodora are commemorated on the anniversary of his death, 14 November. Some denominations translate the Julian calendar date to 27 November on the Gregorian calendar. The Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Church-Canada also remember Justinian on 14 November.

Barker, John W. (1966). Justinian and the Later Roman Empire. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0299039448.

Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Bury, J. B. (1958). History of the later Roman Empire. Vol. 2. New York (reprint).

Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. Vol. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3.

Cameron, Averil; et al., eds. (2000). "Justinian Era". The Cambridge Ancient History. 14 (Second ed.). Cambridge.

Cumberland Jacobsen, Torsten (2009). The Gothic War. Westholme.

Dixon, Pierson (1958). The Glittering Horn: Secret Memoirs of the Court of Justinian.

Evans, James Allan (2005). The Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32582-3.

Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine empresses: women and power in Byzantium, AD 527-1204. London: Routledge.

Martindale, J.R., ed. (1980). "Fl. Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus 7". Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Vol. II. pp. 645-648.

Meier, Mischa (2003). Das andere Zeitalter Justinians. Kontingenz Erfahrung und Kontingenzbewältigung im 6. Jahrhundert n. Chr (in German). Gottingen.

Rosen, William (2007). Justinian's Flea: Plague, Empire, and the Birth of Europe. Viking Adult. ISBN 978-0-670-03855-8.

Ure, PN (1951). Justinian and his Age. Penguin, Harmondsworth.

Vasiliev, A. A. (1952). History of the Byzantine Empire (Second ed.). Madison.

Sidney Dean; Duncan B. Campbell; Ian Hughes; Ross Cowan; Raffaele D'Amato; Christopher Lillington-Martin, eds. (June-July 2010). "Justinian's fireman: Belisarius and the Byzantine empire". Ancient Warfare. IV (3).

Turlej, Stanisław (2016). Justiniana Prima: An Underestimated Aspect of Justinian's Church Policy. Krakow: Jagiellonian University Press. ISBN 978-8323395560.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii , or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire. His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Lovebites (stylized as LOVEBITES) is a Japanese power metal band, formed in 2016 by former Destrose members Miho and Haruna. Its lineup currently consists of Haruna on drums, Midori and Miyako on guitar, Asami on vocals, and Fami on bass. After signing to Victor Entertainment, the group released both their debut EP and their first album in 2017, The Lovebites EP and Awakening from Abyss, before performing their first overseas concerts at the end of the year. With another EP and album released in 2018, Battle Against Damnation and Clockwork Immortality, Lovebites quickly garnered international attention and won that year's Metal Hammer Golden Gods Award for Best New Band. Following the releases of Electric Pentagram (2020) and Glory, Glory, to the World (2021), bassist Miho left the band in August 2021. After a year-long hiatus, Lovebites recruited Fami on bass and released Judgement Day, their fourth album, in February 2023. It is their highest-charting record to date, reaching number 5 on both the Oricon and Billboard Japan charts.

Formation and first album (2016-2017)

Lovebites was formed in Tokyo in 2016 by bassist Miho and drummer Haruna. The two met while members of Destrose, another all-female metal band that disbanded in 2015. After recruiting guitarist Midori and support guitarist and keyboardist Miyako (then known as Mi-Ya), the four chose vocalist Asami based on a demo she made. Midori was in the band Gekijo Metalicche, Miyako was a member of A Drop of Joker and 21g, while Asami was a backup singer for Vamps and Uverworld. During one rehearsal, the musicians performed " Love Bites (So Do I)" by Halestorm. Feeling that the song fit well with Asami's voice, it left an impression on all of the members and they chose Lovebites as the name for their new band. They had their first concert on November 18, 2016, at Tsutaya O-West as part of the Girls Band Next Generation event. For the show, they were supported by third guitarist Sena.

Lovebites released their debut EP, The Lovebites EP, in May 2017 via Victor Entertainment. Miho explained that it was more of a demo to get the band signed, but the label liked it so much they had it properly mastered and released. It was mixed by Mikko Karmila and mastered by Mika Jussila, who have worked with acts like Nightwish, Children of Bodom, and Stratovarius, at Finnvox Studios in Helsinki, Finland. The EP was released in the United Kingdom on August 25 by JPU Records and in North America by Sliptrick Records on August 31.

Support member Miyako became a full member of the band in August 2017. Their first full-length album Awakening from Abyss was released in Japan and North America on October 25, and in the UK two days later. It was again mixed and mastered by Karmila and Jussila and includes re-recordings of the four tracks from their debut EP. The album was supported by the sold out three-date Awakening from Abyss Tour 2017 from November 17 to December 7. In between, the group played their first gigs outside Japan: two nights at Hyper Japan Christmas and one show at Camden Underworld, both in London at the end of November 2017.

International recognition and Miho's departure (2018-2021)

On February 23, 2018, Lovebites played a concert titled Re-Awakening from Abyss at Duo Music Exchange. They then performed on the Japanese leg of Warped Tour on April 1 and released their second EP Battle Against Damnation on June 6. Days later, they won the 2018 Metal Hammer Golden Gods Award for Best New Band. They performed at Wacken Open Air on August 4, becoming the first Japanese all-female metal band to appear at the German festival. They also performed on the main stage at Bloodstock Open Air on August 10, 2018. In November, Lovebites held their first European tour that saw them visit the Netherlands, Germany, France and the UK. The band released their second album Clockwork Immortality on December 5 in Japan. Limited editions of the album include a DVD or Blu-ray of the concert video Battle in the East, which was recorded on June 28, 2018, at Tsutaya O-East. It was released in Europe, Australia, and New Zealand two days later by Arising Empire, and in the UK by JPU Records on January 18, 2019.

Lovebites was the opening act for Arch Enemy at two shows in Shanghai and Beijing, China on March 23 and 24, 2019. In June, they performed at the Download Festival in both Donington, UK and Madrid, Spain and at the Graspop Metal Meeting in Dessel, Belgium. Their set at Donington was cited by its organizers and Metal Hammer as one of the festival's highlight performances, including when Asami joined Halestorm on stage to sing her band's namesake song, which she had also done earlier at Download Festival Japan on March 21.

On July 10, Lovebites released their first standalone concert video and live album, Daughters of the Dawn - Live in Tokyo, recorded on January 27, 2019, at Mynavi Blitz Akasaka. The three-date Daughters of the Dawn Tour took place between July 12 and August 9. They were a support act on DragonForce's UK tour throughout the first half of November, and opened for Halestorm in Tokyo on December 2. The band's third studio album, Electric Pentagram, was released on January 29, 2020. It was set to be supported by a seven-date Japanese tour from February 14 to April 12, but the last three concerts were postponed until June due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan. On July 22, Lovebites released their second standalone concert video and live album, Five of a Kind - Live in Tokyo 2020, recorded on February 21, 2020, at Zepp DiverCity. To celebrate the third anniversary of Awakening from Abyss, the band streamed a live studio performance titled Awake Again, where they played the album in its entirety on October 25.

Lovebites wrote the song "Winds of Transylvania" to be used as the opening theme of the anime series and were named an official ambassador for the series. Its director, Mamoru Oshii, commented that "I could immediately see parallels between the five members and the main character of Vlad Love. They are like a heretic of heavy metal, wearing bright white outfits while playing intense music, they are the perfect choice to take charge of a theme song to an anime not bound by convention or common sense. And above all, their name couldn't be more fitting!" The band members appear in the anime's opening credits, which also features Vlad Love's fictional characters performing the song in a sequence that the animators based on the band's. A CD including "Winds of Transylvania" and the three other themes of the anime was released at Ichigo Animation's CulZone stores on January 9, 2021.

Lovebites released their third EP Glory, Glory, to the World, which they recorded during the COVID-19 pandemic, on March 10, 2021. The sold out national Ride for Vengeance Tour was originally set to take place between January 24 and March 5, but was rescheduled to between March 12 and April 6 following the Japanese government's declaration of a second state of emergency due to the pandemic and its extension. The March 26 performance at Tokyo Dome City Hall was filmed and recorded for release as the Heavy Metal Never Dies - Live in Tokyo 2021 concert video and live album on September 29, 2021.

On August 17, 2021, bassist Miho announced her departure from the band. The other members and their staff had held "countless meetings to find a way for her to stay," but ultimately decided to respect her decision. As a result, Lovebites temporarily suspended all activities, but assured fans that they would return. Between September 10-26, the band accepted votes via social media to help decide the tracklist of their first "best of" album. In the Beginning - The Best of 2017-2021 was released on December 22, 2021. The two-disc compilation features remastered versions of 21 songs, an additional disc containing all of their music videos, and the new track "Nameless Warrior", which was the last song recorded before Miho left the band.

Fami joins and Judgement Day (2022-present)

Between April 2 and May 24, 2022, Lovebites accepted auditions for a new bass player. Applicants had to create their own bassline to a track the band created for the occasion and submit a video of them performing it. On October 21, Lovebites revealed 20-year-old Fami as their new bassist via a full-band performance video on YouTube. An active musician since high school, Fami has produced her own solo album and has nearly 650,000 subscribers on her own YouTube channel. Lovebites released their fourth studio album, Judgement Day, on February 22, 2023. The limited editions of the album include footage of the bassist audition process, including the three songs Fami played with the band during the final selection. Their first concerts with the new lineup were held at Ex Theater Roppongi on March 11 and 12, while the tour for the album will run from August 26 to September 24.

Although hailing from Tokyo, Lovebites' music is influenced by the new wave of British heavy metal, which led Sophie Maughan of Metal Hammer to compare their music to Iron Maiden and Rage. Miho said she always wanted to play a combination of power metal and "a little bit of old school [heavy metal]", as well as fast thrash metal. According to Asami, the thrash element is an indispensable part of the band's sound. Miho noted that their decision to wear all-white clothing, as opposed to the genre's stereotypical black, was made to contrast with their old school sound and have them stand out. Their lyrics are in English even though the musicians do not speak the language fluently. They are usually written in Japanese before being translated into English. An exception is the Haruna-penned song "Bravehearted" on their debut EP, which was intended for Destrose and sung in Japanese.

The group frequently collaborates with former Light Bringer keyboardist Mao on composing and arranging songs. All of their releases have been mixed and mastered by Finnish audio engineers Mikko Karmila and Mika Jussila, and all of their album cover illustrations since Awakening from Abyss have been created by Spanish artists David López Gómez and Carlos Vincente León. These album covers all feature a wolf to symbolize that, by playing the non-mainstream genre of heavy metal, Lovebites are a "lone wolf" in the music scene. The wolf is a mascot to represent the band, like Eddie for Iron Maiden or Vic Rattlehead for Megadeth.

Miho has been strongly into hard rock and heavy metal since junior high, and started playing bass in high school. Her favorite bands are Iron Maiden, Pantera, Mötley Crüe and Anthrax. She referred to her playing as more showmanship than technical, and cited Steve Harris as a strong influence alongside the style of Nikki Sixx.

Haruna has played drums since she was thirteen years old, and began writing songs on a keyboard at fourteen. From elementary school up to high school her favorite band was B'z, but she became interested in heavy metal after hearing Helloween's Master of the Rings. As a result, she stated her basic drumming style is that of Uli Kusch.

Midori started to learn piano at around two years of age and electric organ at eight, but gave up both upon entering university and started to learn guitar at 20. She is a graduate of Musicians Institute Japan in Osaka, and listed Kiko Loureiro, Nuno Bettencourt and Yngwie Malmsteen as her biggest guitar influences. Generally speaking, Midori said that she plays the "flashy and aggressive" guitar solos in the band, while Miyako plays the "slower, more melodic" ones.

Miyako has played classical piano since she was three and guitar since high school. Having grown up listening to classic rock bands like Deep Purple and Rainbow with her mother, Miyako ended up being very influenced by Ritchie Blackmore. But she has also been influenced by more modern guitarists, such as Timothy Henson and Scott LePage from Polyphia. It was Disarmonia Mundi's Ettore Rigotti who inspired Miyako to start composing and arranging songs.

Asami comes from a R&B and soul music background and likes artists such as Alicia Keys and Aretha Franklin. Starting at the age of two, she performed classical ballet for about 16 years before moving to America after high school to study jazz and hip-hop dance.

Haruna - drums (2016-present)

Midori - guitars, backing vocals (2016-present)

Miyako - guitars, keyboards, backing vocals (2017-present) as a support musician (2016-2017)

Asami - lead vocals (2016-present)

Fami - bass guitar (2022-present)

Former members

Miho - bass guitar, backing vocals, bandleader (2016-2021)

Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Lovebites (stylized as LOVEBITES) is a Japanese power metal band, formed in 2016 by former Destrose members Miho and Haruna. Its lineup currently consists of Haruna on drums, Midori and Miyako on guitar, Asami on vocals, and Fami on bass.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
℗ & © 2008
© Tezuka Productions

All tracks mixed at A Wave Studio, Notting Hill, London in July 2007; apart from track 7 mixed at High Hat Studio, Malmo, Sweden, in June 2007.

Contains a bonus video as an MPEG-1 file.

Barcode (Text): 5 060016 708128

Barcode: 5060016708128

Matrix / Runout: www.docdata.co.uk ECH AAWCD12

Mastering SID Code: IFPI LP76

Mould SID Code: IFPI 7311

Add Review

This was a pleasant surprise. Ever since the very poor Seventh Wave, System 7 has pursued a path of "power trance" that emphasised mindless beats over the synth atmospherics, leads and fantastical "spaces" that Steve was always so fond of.

Phoenix still has heavy trance / techno beats in abundance, but there's a touch more melodics present here than the last few albums and it works wonders. Sometimes.

Hinotori starts things off very well, that rising arpeggio and very simple but effective guitar riffs (when was the last time Hillage tried to write a RIFF on a System 7 tune? Far too damned long ago.) above some spacey trance. The video is gorgeous anime art that works perfectly with it. Chihiro is a touch overlong but a powerful slow-burning trance piece that has some beautiful rises and synthery that falls away in a very blissful way.

I shouldn't like Space Bird, but damn it has one hell of a perfect minimalistic groove. Subtle guitar flecks pepper the tune, and rises and drops are so strong that I'm left feeling its lack of real melodic composition isn't missed all that much in this case. However the best track has to be the absolutely astonishing big-beat piece MakaiMura Space Pilot. Again, more guitar riffs! Very memorable ones too, some great soloing, and some powerful beats and synth work make it immediately the best tune on the album.

The problem is, that's only about a half of Phoenix. The rest of it, Scramble, Wolf Head and the rather poor Strange Beings (Daevid Allen sounds very off the boil here), are undercomposed trance pieces that don't really go anywhere or do much beyond the usual mix tricks and sfx. Song For The Phoenix is a pleasant enough ambient piece though, and any more guitar presence is appreciated amongst all the endless boom boom.

Overall good, a welcome comeback. Occasionally too club-friendly and undercomposed, but worth hunting down. Listening to Up, though, somewhat cements the idea that System 7's best years are well past them, so this was a short-lived return to form at best.

Steagle's Condensed Review (click "More" for the full one): Like a fine wine, System 7 keeps getting better with age. Phoenix takes the best elements from their last two studio albums - Encantado and Seventh Wave - and adds an even cleaner production quality and increased dancefloor sensibility. Creating music together for almost two decades now, it's clear that these two know exactly what buttons to push (no pun intended). There is a high degree of energy and detail to these tracks and it's hard to sit still during the journey. Like they have always done, Steve & Miquette bring on some new collaborators that compliment their style wonderfully, including the venerable artists Jam El Mar & Eat Static, so as you can expect Phoenix ends up weaving a beautifully diverse tapestry that ranks right up there as one of the best and most complete System 7 releases yet.

Like a fine wine, System 7 keeps getting better with age. Phoenix takes the best elements from their last two studio albums - Encantado and Seventh Wave - and adds an even cleaner production quality and increased dancefloor sensibility. Creating music together for almost two decades now, it's clear that these two know exactly what buttons to push (no pun intended). There is a high degree of energy and detail to these tracks and it's hard to sit still during the journey. Like they have always done, Steve & Miquette bring on some new collaborators that compliment their style wonderfully, including the venerable artists Jam El Mar & Eat Static, so as you can expect Phoenix ends up weaving a beautifully diverse tapestry that ranks right up there as one of the best and most complete System 7 releases yet.

The opener "Hinotori" will get any jaded techno or trance fan off their ass and back onto the dancefloor. I don't know how you couldn't dance to this. A perfectly killer opening track, just like how they opened Encantado, with that thick atmospheric techno knocking you right in the face. "Space Bird" keeps the pace going and explores an even richer collage of sounds and directions, thanks to the contributions of Jam El Mar. What can I say except this will probably go down as the most accessible track on the album, which is definitely not a bad thing. Completing the trio of peak hour opening tracks, "Scramble" employs the skills of Slackbaba, an artist relatively new to the psychedelic downtempo scene but with a lot of talent to offer. Although a little more formulaic than typical System 7, it is still a great slab of dark crunchy psytrance and would be killer on a nice outdoor sound system.

Then we get a nice change of scenery as Jam El Mar returns with his second contribution on "Masato Eternity." Leaving behind the peak hour sound, the trio of artists embark on a decidedly ambient trip. Deep pad backdrops and nostalgic synth patterns of the '90s return for a classic System 7 track. But it's a very new sound for System 7 at the same time, which is why I have to say again that the band is still maturing and not repeating themselves. "Song For The Phoenix" follows with some truly mindbending effects layered over deep, slow breakbeats & glissando guitar. Once again we are treated to another "new classic" System 7 track. What a joy to hear this music in 2008 when everything seems so stale and digital. This track is one of the strongest on the release and just goes to show how accomplished Steve & Miquette have come in their old age ;)

But as we have come to expect with the duo, you can only sit there nodding away to the dubby ambient rhythms for so long. "Strange Beings" brings us right back to dancefloor territory. The intro with the vocal sample build and ensuing techno crash is pure bliss. I encourage any techno or tribal DJ out there (not of the minimal breed, mind you) to drop this track in your next set. The crowd reaction can only be full adoration. "Chihiro 61298" starts slow, building up intensity as Steve's guitar and loop layering start working in tandem. The dominant synth sound, courtesy of contributor Son Kite I'd imagine, is a bit tough on the ears and will certainly make you think "electro-clash." To me, it is the only element in the whole album that seems out of place and kind of disrupts the flow in the track. There are still some interesting moments, so it's not altogether a bad thing.

The last two tracks deserve their own paragraph as they are so unlike each other, and unlike most of the other tracks on the album. "Makimura - Space Pilot" is one of the few System 7 tracks I can think of that combines an electric guitar playing rhythm sections and a bass guitar. The structure is definitely rock-oriented but I enjoyed it for being quite different than typcial System 7. Steve's guitar takes center stage after the intro and it's great to hear him in the spotlight. I think Miquette backed off a little on this one ;) While not one of my favorites, it's a well produced track with a happy vibe to it that will please many listeners. Finally, we close the disc with "Wolf-Head" which features one of my all-time favorite acts, Eat Static. These two acts overlap in so many ways, it's inevitable that they end up contributing to each others' releases. "Wolf-Head" is psytrance in the most classic meaning of the word - dark, otherworldly intro, sound effects from the deepest reaches of the studio, heavy duty drums optimized for physical impact, and unrelenting energy. It's no surprise this is the closer of the album, with two of the scene's most influential and important artists joining forces to finish Phoenix with a flourish. It's actually surprisingly noisy and hard, much more so than any of the previous tracks, or perhaps any System 7 track to date. Yes, Eat Static seemed to take over the reigns in the studio and we have Steve and Miquette struggling to keep up with the pace ;) Just kidding guys, this is a nice balance of both bands and a treat for the hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of fans around the world. It begs the question - when will there be a REAL collaboration between System 7 and Eat Static?

All in all, Phoenix is one of the strongest System 7 releases yet and although fans of their more dubby, ambient sound may not find as much to like here, it is an undeniably strong album from one of the scene's longest lasting and most important contributors.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
View credits, reviews, tracks and shop for the 2008 CD release of "Phoenix" on Discogs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Phoenix

Genre

Manga

Published by

Various

Magazine
Manga Shōnen (1954-1955, 1973-1981)
Shōjo Club (1956-1957)
COM (1967-1973)
Yasei Jidai (1986-1988)

English magazine

Original run

July 1954 - February 1988

Volumes

12

Live-action film

Produced by

Kunihiko Murai
Kon Ichikawa

Written by

Shuntaro Tanigawa

Music by
Michel Legrand
Jun Fukamachi

Released

August 19, 1978

Runtime

138 minutes

Anime film

Directed by

Osamu Tezuka[a]

Taku Sugiyama

Music by

Yasuo Higuchi

Released

March 15, 1980

Runtime

121 minutes

Anime film

Produced by

Music by

Fumio Miyashita

Studio

Released

December 20, 1986

Runtime

60 minutes

Original video animation

Directed by

Toshio Hirata ( Yamato)
Yoshiaki Kawajiri ( Space)

Music by

Fumio Miyashita

Released

August 1, 1987 - December 21, 1987

Runtime

48 minutes (each)

Episodes

2

Anime television series

Written by

Fuyunori Gobu (eps 1-4)
Keiichi Hasegawa (eps 5-6)
Gisaburō Sugii (ep 7)
Toru Nozaki (eps 8-11)
Hirotoshi Kobayashi (eps 12-13)

Music by

Studio

Tezuka Productions

Licensed by

English network

Original run

April 4, 2004 - June 27, 2004

Episodes

13 ( List of episodes)

Anime film

Directed by

Masayoshi Nishida

Studio

Tezuka Productions

Released

July 17, 2004

Runtime

21 minutes

Original net animation

Directed by

Fumihiro Yoshimura

Produced by

Ryoutarou Hayashi (2)

Gorou Kumatani (2-3)

Hirotoshi Nonaka (3)

Music by

Yuji Nomi

Studio

Tezuka Productions

Released

May 24, 2019 - November 20, 2020

Episodes

3

Original net animation

Directed by

Shōjirō Nishimi

Released

2023 - scheduled

Phoenix is an unfinished manga series written and illustrated by Osamu Tezuka. Tezuka considered Phoenix his "life's work"; it consists of 12 books, each of which tells a separate, self-contained story and takes place in a different era. The plots go back and forth from the remote future to prehistoric times. The story was never completed, having been cut short by Tezuka's death in 1989.

Several of the stories have been adapted into anime series and OVAs, and a live-action film. As of 2008, the entire manga series is available in English-language translations.

Phoenix is about reincarnation. Each story generally involves a search for immortality, embodied by the blood of the eponymous bird of fire, which, as drawn by Tezuka, resembles the . The blood is believed to grant eternal life, but immortality in Phoenix is either unobtainable or a terrible curse, whereas Buddhist-style reincarnation is presented as the natural path of life. The stories spring back and forth through time; the first, Dawn, takes place in ancient times, and the second, Future, takes place in the far future. Subsequent stories alternate between the past and future, allowing Tezuka to explore his themes in both historical and science fiction settings. Throughout the stories there are various recurring characters, some from Tezuka's famous star system. A character named Saruta appears repeatedly, for example, in the form of various ancestors and descendants, all of whom endure harsh trials in their respective eras.

Tezuka began work on a preliminary version of Phoenix in 1954, and the series continued in various forms until his death in 1989. As it progresses, the stories seemed to be converging on the present day. Due to Tezuka dying before the manga's completion, it is not known how this would have played out. Scholar and translator Frederik L. Schodt, who knew Tezuka in life, wrote that he fantasized about a secret ending, "waiting in a safe somewhere to be revealed posthumously". This was not the case, and Tezuka's final intentions with Phoenix remain unknown; its episodic nature leaves each volume highly accessible nonetheless. Many of the Phoenix stories feature an intensely experimental layout and visual design. For example, Universe tells the story of four spacefarers who are forced to leave their spaceship in separate escape pods. The panels of the story are organized such that each character has his own vertical or horizontal tier on the page, emphasizing the astronauts' isolation; the tiers combine and separate as characters join and split up. In an astonishing sequence after one character's death, he is represented for a number of pages by a series of empty black panels.

Tezuka was said to have been influenced to create the series after listening to the music of Igor Stravinsky. He also told that he created the image of Phoenix as he was impressed by the Firebird in director Ivan Ivanov-Vano's animation film Konyok Gorbunok ( Soyuzmultfilm studio).

After several aborted attempts at a first chapter in the 1950s published in the magazine Manga Shōnen, Tezuka began Dawn in 1967, serialized in . The serialization of Phoenix would continue throughout his career, moving to Manga Shōnen after COM's closure in the mid-70s. The final volume, Sun, was serialized in The Wild Age.

The first volume, originally serialized in 1967. This story took place in 240-70 AD, in the era of Queen Himiko of the Yamatai. Using her army, led by feudal general Sarutahiko, to invade the Kumaso, she seeks the Phoenix and eternal youth.

The second volume, originally serialized in 1967-68. In Phoenix's chronology, this is the final story chronologically, taking place near the end of mankind. In 3404, the world has become super-modernized, but humanity has reached its peak and shows decline. A young man named Masato Yamanobe is living with his girlfriend, Tamami, a shapeshifting alien. Pursued by Masato's boss, Rock, they eventually take shelter at the isolated base of mad scientist Dr. Saruta, who attempts to preserve life on Earth with the assistance of his robot, Robita. Eventually, nuclear war breaks out.

The third volume, originally serialized in 1968-69. This story took place in 320-50 (Kofun period), and is based on the Yamato-takeru-no-mikoto legend. The decadent king of Yamato is trying to have his own version of Japan's history written. Meanwhile, a "barbarian" tribe, the Kumaso, is writing an unbiased history. The king of Yamato sends his youngest son, Oguna, to murder the barbarian chief, Takeru. On his journey, Oguna encounters the Phoenix.

The fourth volume, originally serialized in 1969; also known as Space. The story took place in 2577 AD, where four astronauts must escape their ruined spaceship in escape pods. The survivors eventually crash into a mysterious planet. Among them is Saruta, who contends with Makimura for the heart of their female companion, Nana. On this strange planet, they eventually meet the Phoenix.

The fifth volume, originally serialized in 1969-1970. The story occurred in 720-752 AD (the period in which the Daibutsu of Tōdai-ji was built), during the Nara period. One-eyed and one-armed young man Gao, an ancestor of Saruta, turns into a murderous bandit when he is rejected by his village. He attacks a sculptor, Akanemaru, and the two men's paths diverge, but their fates remain linked. Akanemaru becomes obsessed with the Phoenix to the point that he loses sight of his original dreams, while Gao eventually finds a state of grace despite his continuing hardships. Hō-ō is widely considered the masterpiece of the Phoenix series. MSX and Famicom video games, both developed by Konami, were based on this volume. The Viz (English) edition is entitled "Karma".

The sixth volume, originally serialized in 1970-1971. The story took place in 2482-3344 AD. In an age of robotics, technology and science, young Leon dies in a car accident. He is returned to life by scientific surgery, but his now mostly-artificial brain makes him see living things - including humans - as distorted clay figures, while he sees machines and robots as beauties. Leon falls in love with a worker robot, Chihiro, whom he sees as a beautiful girl, and would fight for this forbidden love. He would also find out the secret behind his accident. A side plot features the robot Robita, who previously appeared in Future.

Serialized in COM, 1971. Published in English by Viz as an appendix to the second volume of Civil War (Turbulent Times). Based on the story of the Hagoromo.

Published in COM, 1971; continued in Manga Shōnen, 1976-1978. A science fiction epic about the rise and fall of civilization on the deceptively named desert planet of Eden and one boy's universe-spanning search for the planet of his ancestors: Earth. Features numerous cameos from other Science fiction-based Phoenix stories, including the shapeshifting alien "Moopies" first seen in Future, Makimura from Universe and an early model of the Chihiro robot from Resurrection. Black Jack also made an appearance here, under a different name.

Published in Manga Shōnen, 1978-1980. The story is about a woodcutter named Benta and his childhood sweetheart, Obu, who are separated and caught up in the events of the Genpei War. Various historical figures, such as Taira no Kiyomori, appear as major and minor characters. Although the character of Gao (from Ho-ō) appears as a 400-year-old hermit and thus links Ranse-hen to the rest of the series, this particular arc stands out for its much more naturalistic approach, with next to no fantasy elements in it (except for those used for comedic effect, such as telephones in the 12th century). The Viz (English) edition is entitled Civil War and is split into two volumes, with Robe of Feathers included as an appendix to the second volume.

Published in Manga Shōnen, 1980. A TV producer who attempts to procure human clones to use in a The Most Dangerous Game-style reality TV program learns the error of his ways when he is mistaken for a clone himself. This episode is notable for only featuring the Phoenix in flashbacks and also for introducing her half-human daughter who does not appear again after this episode.

Published in Manga Shōnen, 1981. The story of a female Buddhist nun (bhikkhuni) who is imprisoned in a time-warp by the Phoenix as punishment for her sins along with her faithful retainer and is forced to become a healer treating the victims of wars from all over time and space including humans, youkai and various extraterrestrials. This chapter was loosely based on the Hyakki Yakō emakimono by the famous Japanese artist Tosa Mitsunobu (although in the context of the story it's the complete opposite).

Published in The Wild Age, 1986-88. This is the longest story, and was the final volume completed before Tezuka's death. It centers on Harima, a young Korean soldier from the Baekje Kingdom whose head is replaced with that of a wolf by Tang Dynasty soldiers following the defeat of the joint Baekje-Yamato force at the Battle of Baekgang. He then escapes to Japan where he becomes the feudal lord Inugami and becomes caught in the middle of the Jinshin War, as well as joining a greater battle between supernatural forces and time-travelling to a bleak future world ruled by a theocracy that claimed to have captured the Phoenix. This chapter stands in stark contrast to the earlier historical Phoenix stories, which tended to de-mythologize the mythical characters therein, for instance in Dawn, many Shinto gods are portrayed as mere humans. In this chapter, however, a wide variety of mythical creatures are shown fighting against Bodhisattva.

Early Works

Covers the prototype version of the series from the 1950s.

Resurrection

Strange creatures

Phoenix is currently published in English by Viz Communications. Although the second volume was initially published by the now defunct Pulp manga anthology in a larger edition, in 2002, Viz took over the rest of the manga series, and re-released the second volume. Frederik Schodt, Jared Cook, Shinji Sakamoto, and Midori Ueda, members of a Tokyo group called "Dadakai", had already translated the first five volumes of the series around 1977/78, but after handing these translation to Tezuka Productions, they collected dust for nearly twenty-five years. Finally, Schodt and Cook finished translating the rest of the series and Viz published the entire series in English, starting in 2002 and completing it in March 2008. It has been criticized for being a dumbing-down, including overlapping artwork with unnecessary new narration, and altering character names (such as Sarutahiko to Saruta) to make their reincarnations more obvious to the reader. However, Tezuka was known to update his manga every few years, so the U.S. version could reflect the last known edition of the series.

The Viz editions are released "flipped" (the original right-to-left orientation is reversed for easier reading in English). Some of the shorter stories have been consolidated into one book (based on the Japanese publication), and Troubled Times has been split across two; this resulted in each Viz book having a similar page count. While many of the actual Viz books are out of print, they became available again through digital purchase on Kindle. Viz later offered the digital version of Phoenix manga in 2014.

Volumes in English

Vol. 1 - Dawn

Released March 2003.

Vol. 2 - A Tale of the Future / Future

This volume was released first, in May 2002, as a stand-alone graphic novel; Dawn was released a year later, as Vol. 1, followed by the rest of the series. A Tale of the Future was initially released in a larger size; the series releases, starting with Dawn, are digest-sized. A Tale of the Future was reprinted in the smaller size in 2004, titled Future, with Vol. 2 appended to the title.

Vol. 3 - Yamato / Space

Collects Yamato and Space in one book; released November 2003.

Vol. 4 - Karma

Originally titled Ho-ō; released May 2004. Listed at #2 in Time Magazine's "Best Comix of 2004".

Vol. 5 - Resurrection

Released December 14, 2004.

Vol. 6 - Nostalgia

Released March 26, 2006.

Vol. 7 - Civil War, Part 1

Originally titled Troubled Times, and here split into two books; the first was released June 13, 2006.

Vol. 8 - Civil War, Part 2 / Robe of Feathers

Collects the ending of Troubled Times, and includes Robe of Feathers; released September 12, 2006.

Vol. 9 - Strange Beings / Life

Collects Strange Beings and Life in one book; released December 19, 2006.

Vol. 10 - Sun, Part 1

Released March 20, 2007.

Vol. 11 - Sun, Part 2

Released September 18, 2007.

Vol. 12 - Early Works

Released March 18, 2008.

A live-action film entitled , based on the Dawn storyline, directed by Kon Ichikawa and including some animated sequences directed by Tezuka, was released in 1978. The cast included Tomisaburo Wakayama and Tatsuya Nakadai. It was released in the United States on VHS by Video Action under the cover title The Phoenix (Hinotori) in 1982, using a subtitled print, letterboxed only in the split-screen sequence. To date, the film is available on DVD only in Spain, where it is titled Fénix. The film included a brief appearance by Astro Boy, substituting for another character to illustrate his attempts to get on a horse. The score was co-composed by Michel Legrand and Jun Fukamachi.

Several volumes of Phoenix were adapted into anime. The best-known feature film, Phoenix 2772, loosely adapts elements from various Phoenix volumes and other Tezuka works into a complete whole cloth scenario. A second animated feature, Phoenix: Karma Chapter was released on December 20, 1986, and was later succeeded by two sequel OVAs, Yamato Chapter and Space Chapter, in 1987.

A 13-episode anime television series also aired in 2004 in Japan, and was released in English in October 2007 by Anime Works. The anime premiered in Jamaica on CVM Television in June 2017. A short film by the same staff as the TV series, Phoenix: Robe of Feathers, was released on July 17, 2004.

Dōgo Onsen hot spring bathhouse released a three-episode net anime collaboration with Phoenix in 2019-2020.

An anime adaptation by Studio 4°C, titled Phoenix: Eden17, is scheduled for streaming worldwide, except mainland China, on Disney+ in 2023. It is directed by Shōjirō Nishimi, with character designs and animations handled by Tatsuzou Nishida.

Episode list

A MSX adaptation of Karma was created by Konami. The Phoenix also made a cameo appearance in the 2003 Astro Boy series and 2004 Astro Boy: Omega Factor game for the Nintendo Game Boy Advance, along with a number of other Tezuka characters.

Hi no Tori Hououhen (1987, MSX2)

Hi no Tori Hououhen: Gaou no Bouken (1987, Famicom)

Black Jack Hinotorihen (2006, Nintendo DS)

DS de Yomu Series: Tezuka Osamu Hi no Tori 1 (2008, Nintendo DS)

DS de Yomu Series: Tezuka Osamu Hi no Tori 2 (2008, Nintendo DS)

DS de Yomu Series: Tezuka Osamu Hi no Tori 3 (2008, Nintendo DS)

Phoenix is considered one of the greatest manga of all time, and is often ranked as one of Tezuka's greatest manga. In 2006, Phoenix ranked 1st in the Japan Media Arts Festival's special 'experts' ranking (consisting of critics, editors, people working in the industry, etc.) for the greatest manga of all time, which it held to mark its 10th anniversary. In a 2009 poll held by Asahi Shimbun for 'Greatest Shōwa Manga', Phoenix ranked 12th, the 3rd highest Tezuka manga behind and . Mangaka Naoki Urasawa has spoken about how the first time he read Phoenix he was shocked that a work of this quality existed, and that since reading it, he has never been as significantly impacted by anything since, so much so that he would mark it as the moment he became an adult. The titular Phoenix is considered an icon of manga, and a sculpture of the character is featured as a prominent permanent exhibition in the Kyoto International Manga Museum. A statute of the Phoenix is also featured outside the Osamu Tezuka Manga Museum.

The Resurrection arc of Phoenix inspired the lyrical theme of the 2018 song " M.D.O." by heavy metal band Lovebites. In celebration of what would have been Tezuka's 90th birthday, Evil Line Records released the compilation album New Gene, Inspired from Phoenix on October 30, 2019. It features songs inspired by Phoenix written and performed by various artists, including Glim Spanky, Kizuna AI, Tavito Nanao and Naotarō Moriyama.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Phoenix Genre Manga Published by Various Magazine Manga Shōnen (1954-1955, 1973-1981) Shōjo Club (1956-1957) COM (1967-1973) Yasei Jidai (1986-1988) English magazine Original run July 1954 - February 1988 Volumes 12 Live-action film Produced by Kunihiko MuraiKon Ichikawa Written by Shuntaro Tanigawa Music by Michel Legrand Jun Fukamachi Released August 19,

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Angelo Daniel Badalamenti (March 22, 1937 - December 11, 2022) was an American composer and arranger best known for his work in composing for films. He is best known for his acclaimed collaborations with director David Lynch, notably the scores for Blue Velvet (1986), the television series (both the original 1990-1992 television series and the 2017 revival), The Straight Story (1999), and Mulholland Drive (2001).

Badalamenti also composed scores for such films as National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation (1989), The City of Lost Children (1995), (1999), and A Very Long Engagement (2004). He also recorded songs with artists including Julee Cruise (in collaboration with Lynch), Nina Simone, Shirley Bassey, Pet Shop Boys, Dusty Springfield, Marianne Faithfull, David Bowie, Tim Booth, Siouxsie Sioux and Dolores O'Riordan.

In 1990, Badalamenti received the Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Performance for his " Twin Peaks Theme" at the 32nd Annual Grammy Awards. Badalamenti received a lifetime achievement award from the World Soundtrack Awards's Academy in 2008 and the Henry Mancini Award from the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers in 2011.

Angelo Daniel Badalamenti was born on March 22, 1937, in Brooklyn, New York, the second of four children born to John and Leonora (née Ferrari) Badalamenti. His father, who was of Sicilian descent from the town of Cinisi, was a fish market owner. He began taking piano lessons at age eight. By the time Badalamenti was a teenager, his aptitude at the piano earned him a summer job accompanying singers at resorts in the Catskill Mountains. His elder brother was a jazz trumpet player who used to improvise with other musicians. He also went to Latin American dance clubs. He attended Lafayette High School, where he wrote the processional march for his high school graduation. After graduating, he enrolled at the Eastman School of Music at the University of Rochester, but after two years he transferred to the Manhattan School of Music, where he earned a bachelor's degree in 1958 and a master's degree in 1959. He began composing music pieces in Kurt Weill's style.

Badalamenti scored films such as Gordon's War, and Law and Disorder, but his break came when he was brought in to be Isabella Rossellini's singing coach for the song " Blue Velvet" in David Lynch's 1986 film Blue Velvet. Badalamenti and Lynch collaborated to write "Mysteries of Love" using lyrics Lynch wrote and Badalamenti's music. Julee Cruise, who went on to work with Lynch and Badalamenti on other projects, performed the vocals for that track. Badalamenti composed the score for the film and served as music supervisor. Lynch's request to the composer was for the score to be "like Shostakovich, be very Russian, but make it the most beautiful thing but make it dark and a little bit scary." Badalamenti appears in Blue Velvet as the piano player in the club where Rossellini's character performs. This film was the first of what would become a career-long collaborative relationship spanning television and film. Badalamenti dubbed their partnership "my second best marriage".

After scoring a variety of mainstream films, including A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors and National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation, Badalamenti once again collaborated with Lynch and scored Lynch's cult television show, , featuring the vocals of Julee Cruise on the leading song " Falling". Twin Peaks would become the score Badalamenti is perhaps best known for, one that helped define the overall style and mood of the show. The score features different themes patterned after specific characters in the show-"Audrey's Dance", for example, is an "abstract jazzy" theme that plays when Audrey Horne (played by Sherilyn Fenn) is on-screen. Many of the songs from the series were released on Cruise's album Floating into the Night. From the soundtrack of the television series, he was awarded the Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Performance for the "Twin Peaks Theme". it also earned a gold plaque from the RIAA. Between 1991 and 1993, Badalamenti and Lynch collaborated on the project Thought Gang, the results of which were released in 2018.

Other Lynch projects he worked on include the movies Wild at Heart, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, Lost Highway, The Straight Story, Mulholland Drive (where he has a small role as a gangster with a finicky taste for espresso), and as well as the television shows and . Other projects with other directors he worked in include the television film Witch Hunt, and the films Naked in New York, The City of Lost Children, A Very Long Engagement, The Wicker Man, and . He has also worked on the soundtrack for the video game Fahrenheit (known as Indigo Prophecy in North America). He was composer for director Paul Schrader on such films as , The Comfort of Strangers and Dominion: Prequel to the Exorcist.

In 1995, he asked Marianne Faithfull to write lyrics for a song, for the soundtrack of Jean-Pierre Jeunet's The City of Lost Children; the result was "Who Will Take My Dreams Away".

In 1998, Badalamenti recorded " A Foggy Day (in London Town)" with David Bowie for the Red Hot Organization's compilation album Red Hot + Rhapsody, a tribute to George Gershwin which raised money for various charities devoted to increasing AIDS awareness and fighting the disease. Badalamenti had sent a demo of the song with his own vocals to the record company and Bowie was the first singer to contact him back. In 1999, he worked with director Jane Campion, for the film , and scored the music, after a few days of working with Campion.

In 2005, he composed the themes for the movie , which were then adapted for the score by Normand Corbeil. In 2008, he composed and directed the soundtrack of The Edge of Love: Siouxsie Sioux sang the Weill-influenced "Careless Love", and Patrick Wolf and Beth Rowley recorded vocals for several other tracks.

Badalamenti received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the World Soundtrack Awards on October 18, 2008, in Ghent, Belgium. That night, he performed a concert at the piano with the Brussels Philharmonic orchestra directed by Dirk Brossé, and Siouxsie Sioux and Beth Rowley on vocals. The concert spanning his whole career with a selection of tracks, was broadcast on Belgian television.

On July 23, 2011, the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers presented Badalamenti with the Henry Mancini Award for his accomplishments in film and television music.

The 2017 revival of the Twin Peaks television series marked the continuation of Badalamenti's work with David Lynch. Its score features new compositions by Badalamenti, as well as material from the original score.

From the start, he collaborated with other songwriters. In 1964, he contributed to Beatlemania by arranging, conducting, and co-writing a Christmas novelty single entitled "Santa, Bring Me Ringo", which was performed by Christine Hunter. In 1966, Badalamenti co-wrote a song ("Visa to the Stars") on Perrey and Kingsley's album The In Sound from Way Out! In 1967, using the name Andy Badale, he co-wrote a song ("Pioneers of the Stars") for Perrey and Kingsley's next album, Kaleidoscopic Vibrations: Electronic Pop Music From Way Out. The same year, he co-wrote (with Norm Simon) "I Want to Love You for What You Are", a No. 54 pop hit for Ronnie Dove. He also arranged, produced, and co-wrote some songs on Perrey's two solo albums for Vanguard Records using the pseudonym Andy Badale.

Among his credits, Badalamenti wrote songs for singers such as Nina Simone and Shirley Bassey. In 1967, Badalamenti co-wrote the song "I Hold No Grudge" for Simone's album High Priestess of Soul. In 1968, he wrote "I've Been Loved" with Sammy Cahn for Bassey's album This Is My Life.

In 1987, he lent his services to British synth-pop duo Pet Shop Boys, arranging the orchestration on "It Couldn't Happen Here". He also arranged the strings on two tracks on their album in 1990.

He was the arranger on songs of artists such as Dusty Springfield and Paul McCartney. He arranged Springfield's single " Nothing Has Been Proved" in 1989 which was written by the Pet Shop Boys. He worked for McCartney at Abbey Road in late 1992 for an unreleased song "Is it raining in London?" which was written by McCartney with Hamish Stuart.

He conceived entire albums with singers such as Julee Cruise, Marianne Faithfull and Tim Booth of the band James. In 1993, he directed with Lynch an album for Cruise, The Voice of Love, which included several tracks from Twin Peaks. Also in 1993, Badalamenti collaborated with thrash metal band Anthrax on the Twin Peaks-inspired track "Black Lodge" from the Sound of White Noise album.

In 1995, he composed, orchestrated and produced Faithfull's album, A Secret Life. In 1996, he teamed up with Tim Booth, as Booth and the Bad Angel: they released the eponymous album on the Mercury label. In 2000, he worked with Orbital on the "Beached" single for the movie . In 2004, he composed the soundtrack working with Dolores O'Riordan, who sang the main theme and with whom he continued collaborating.

Badalamenti composed the opening theme for the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona.

Badalamenti performed at a concert entitled "The Music of David Lynch" in 2015, in recognition of the tenth anniversary of the David Lynch Foundation. The performance was held at Ace Hotel Los Angeles and included Julee Cruise and other artists known for collaborating with Lynch.

Badalamenti and his wife, Lonny, married in 1968 and had two children. He died of natural causes at his home in Lincoln Park, New Jersey, on December 11, 2022, at age 85. Following his death, several industry figures paid tribute to Badalamenti. David Lynch, during his daily installment of Weather Report on December 12, said, "Today-no music".

1990: Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Performance: "Twin Peaks Theme"

1993: Saturn Award for Best Music: Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me

2008: World Soundtrack Awards: Lifetime Achievement Award

2011: American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers: Henry Mancini Award

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Angelo Daniel Badalamenti (March 22, 1937 - December 11, 2022) was an American composer and arranger best known for his work in composing for films. He is best known for his acclaimed collaborations with director David Lynch, notably the scores for Blue Velvet (1986), the television series (both the original 1990-1992 television series and the 2017 revival), The Straight Story (1999), and Mulholland Drive (2001).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Titanic is a 1997 American romantic disaster film directed, written, produced, and co-edited by James Cameron. Incorporating both historical and fictionalized aspects, it is based on accounts of the sinking of RMS Titanic in 1912. Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet star as members of different social classes who fall in love during the ship's maiden voyage, with Billy Zane, Kathy Bates, Frances Fisher, Gloria Stuart, Bernard Hill, Jonathan Hyde, Victor Garber, David Warner, Suzy Amis and Bill Paxton in supporting roles.

Cameron's inspiration for the film came from his fascination with shipwrecks. He felt a love story interspersed with the human loss would be essential to convey the emotional impact of the disaster. Production began on September 1, 1995, when Cameron shot footage of the Titanic wreck. The modern scenes on the research vesselwere shot on board the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, which Cameron had used as a base when filming the wreck. Scale models, computer-generated imagery and a reconstruction of the Titanic built at Baja Studios were used to recreate the sinking. The film was co-financed by Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox; Paramount handled distribution in North America while 20th Century Fox released the film internationally. Titanic was the most expensive film ever made at the time, with a production budget of $200 million. Filming took place from July 1996 to March 1997.

Titanic was released on December 19, 1997. It was praised for its visual effects, performances (particularly those of DiCaprio, Winslet, and Stuart), production values, direction, score, cinematography, story and emotional depth. Among other awards, it was nominated for 14 Academy Awards and won 11, including Best Picture and Best Director, tying (1959) for the most Academy Awards won by a film. With an initial worldwide gross of over $1.84 billion, Titanic was the first film to reach the billion-dollar mark. It was the highest-grossing film of all time until Cameron's next film, (2009), surpassed it in 2010. Income from the initial theatrical release, retail video and soundtrack sales and US broadcast rights exceeded $3.2 billion. A number of re-releases have pushed the film's worldwide theatrical total to $2.264 billion, making it the second film to gross more than $2 billion worldwide after Avatar. In 2017, the Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the United States National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

In 1996, aboard the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, Brock Lovett and his team search the wreck of RMS Titanic. They recover a safe they hope contains a necklace with a large diamond known as the Heart of the Ocean. Instead, they find only a drawing of a young nude woman wearing the necklace. The sketch is dated April 14, 1912, the same day the Titanic struck the iceberg that caused it to sink. After viewing a television news story about the discovery, centenarian Rose Dawson Calvert contacts Lovett, identifying herself as the woman in the drawing. Hoping she can help locate the necklace, Lovett brings Rose aboard Keldysh, where she recounts her experiences as a Titanic passenger.

In 1912 Southampton, 17-year-old Rose DeWitt Bukater, her wealthy fiancé Caledon "Cal" Hockley and Rose's widowed mother Ruth board the Titanic. Ruth emphasizes that Rose's marriage to Cal will resolve the family's financial problems and maintain their upper-class status. Meanwhile, Jack Dawson, a poor young artist, wins a third-class Titanic ticket in a poker game. After setting sail, Rose, distraught over her loveless engagement, climbs over the stern railing, intending to commit suicide. Jack coaxes her back onto the deck and they develop a friendship. Jack soon admits that he has feelings for Rose. When Cal and Ruth object, Rose rejects Jack's attentions, but returns to him after realizing she has fallen in love.

Rose brings Jack to her state room and requests he draw her nude, wearing only the Heart of the Ocean. They later evade Cal's servant, Lovejoy, and have sex in a Renault Towncar inside the cargo hold. On the forward deck, they witness the ship's collision with an iceberg and overhear its officers discussing its seriousness. Cal discovers Jack's sketch and an insulting note from Rose in his safe, along with the necklace. When Jack and Rose return to warn the others about the collision, Cal has Lovejoy slip the necklace into Jack's pocket to frame him for theft. Jack is confined in the master-at-arms' office. Cal puts the necklace into his own overcoat pocket.

With the ship sinking, the crew prioritize women and children for evacuation. Rose finds and frees Jack, and they make it back to the deck, where Cal and Jack urge Rose to board a lifeboat. Intending to save himself, Cal lies that he will get Jack safely off the ship and wraps his overcoat around Rose. As her lifeboat is lowered, Rose, unable to abandon Jack, jumps back onto the ship. Cal grabs Lovejoy's pistol and chases Jack and Rose, but they escape. Cal realizes the necklace is still in the coat he gave Rose. He poses as a lost child's father to board a lifeboat.

Jack and Rose return to the deck. The ship's stern is rising as the flooded bow sinks; the two desperately cling to the stern rail. The upended ship breaks in half and the bow section sinks. The stern slams back onto the ocean, upends again and sinks. In the freezing water, Jack helps Rose onto a wood transom panel among the debris, buoyant enough only for one person, and makes her promise to survive. Jack dies of cold shock, but Rose is among six people saved by the one returning lifeboat. RMS Carpathia rescues the survivors. Rose avoids Cal and her mother by hiding among the steerage passengers and giving her name as Rose Dawson. Still wearing Cal's overcoat, she discovers the necklace tucked inside the pocket.

In the present, Rose says she heard that Cal committed suicide after losing his fortune in the 1929 Wall Street crash. Lovett abandons his search after hearing Rose's story. Alone on the stern of Keldysh, Rose takes the Heart of the Ocean, which has been in her possession all along, and drops it into the sea over the wreck site. While she is seemingly asleep in her bed, her photos on the dresser depict a life of freedom and adventure inspired by Jack. A young Rose reunites with Jack at the Titanic's Grand Staircase, applauded by those who died that night.

Fictional characters

Leonardo DiCaprio as Jack Dawson. Cameron said he needed the cast to feel they were really on the Titanic, to relive its liveliness, and "to take that energy and give it to Jack, ... an artist who is able to have his heart soar". Jack is portrayed as an itinerant, poor orphan from Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, who has travelled the world, including Paris. He wins two third-class tickets for the Titanic in a poker game and travels with his friend Fabrizio. He is attracted to Rose at first sight. Her fiancé's invitation to dine with them the next evening enables Jack to mix with the first-class passengers for a night. Cameron's original choice for the role was River Phoenix, however he died in 1993. Though established actors like Matthew McConaughey, Chris O'Donnell, Billy Crudup, and Stephen Dorff were considered, Cameron felt they were too old for the part of a 20-year-old. Tom Cruise was interested, but his asking price was too high. Cameron considered Jared Leto for the role, but Leto refused to audition. Jeremy Sisto did a series of screen tests with Winslet and three other actresses vying for the role of Rose. DiCaprio, 21 years old at the time, was brought to Cameron's attention by casting director Mali Finn. Initially, he did not want the role and refused to read his first romantic scene. Cameron said, "He read it once, then started goofing around, and I could never get him to focus on it again. But for one split second, a shaft of light came down from the heavens and lit up the forest." Cameron strongly believed in DiCaprio's acting ability and told him, "Look, I'm not going to make this guy brooding and neurotic. I'm not going to give him a tic and a limp and all the things you want." Cameron envisioned the character as being like those played by James Stewart or Gregory Peck. Although Jack Dawson was a fictional character, in Fairview Cemetery in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where 121 victims are buried, there is a grave labeled "J. Dawson". The producers did not know of the real J. Dawson until after the film was released.

Kate Winslet as Rose DeWitt Bukater. Cameron said Winslet "had the thing that you look for" and that there was "a quality in her face, in her eyes" that he "just knew people would be ready to go the distance with her". Rose is a 17-year-old girl from Philadelphia, who is forced into an engagement to 30-year-old Cal Hockley so she and her mother, Ruth, can maintain their high-class status after her father's death had left the family debt-ridden. Rose boards Titanic with Cal and Ruth, as a first-class passenger, and meets Jack. Winslet said of her character, "She has got a lot to give, and she's got a very open heart. And she wants to explore and adventure the world, but she [feels] that's not going to happen." Gwyneth Paltrow, Winona Ryder, Claire Danes (who had previously worked with DiCaprio in Romeo + Juliet the previous year), Gabrielle Anwar, and Reese Witherspoon had been considered for the role. When they turned it down, Winslet campaigned heavily for the role. She sent Cameron daily notes from England, which led Cameron to invite her to Hollywood for auditions. As with DiCaprio, casting director Mali Finn originally brought her to Cameron's attention. When looking for a Rose, Cameron described the character as "an Audrey Hepburn type" and was initially uncertain about casting Winslet even after her screen test impressed him. After she screen tested with DiCaprio, Winslet was so thoroughly impressed with him, that she whispered to Cameron, "He's great. Even if you don't pick me, pick him." Winslet sent Cameron a single rose with a card signed, "From Your Rose", and lobbied him by phone. "You don't understand!" she pleaded one day when she reached him by mobile phone in his Humvee. "I am Rose! I don't know why you're even seeing anyone else!" Her persistence, as well as her talent, eventually convinced him to cast her in the role.

Billy Zane as Caledon "Cal" Hockley, Rose's arrogant and snobbish 30-year-old fiancé, who is the heir to a Pittsburgh steel fortune. He is resentful of Rose's affection for Jack. Cameron initially considered Michael Biehn, who he had previously collaborated with on , and , for the role, before offering it to Matthew McConaughey, and Rob Lowe said he pursued it.

Frances Fisher as Ruth DeWitt Bukater, Rose's widowed mother, who arranges Rose's engagement to Cal to maintain her family's high-society status. Like many aristocratic passengers portrayed in the film, her disposition is elitist and frivolous. She loves her daughter but believes that social position is more important than having a loving marriage. She strongly dislikes Jack, even though he saved her daughter's life.

Gloria Stuart as the modern-day Rose Dawson Calvert. Rose narrates the film in a framing device. Cameron stated, "In order to see the present and the past, I decided to create a fictional survivor who is [close to] 101 years, and she connects us in a way through history." The 100-year-old Rose gives Lovett information regarding the "Heart of the Ocean" after he discovers a nude drawing of her in the wreck. She shares the story of her time aboard the ship, and speaks about her relationship with Jack for the first time since the sinking. At 87, Stuart had to be made up to look older for the role. Of casting Stuart, Cameron stated, "My casting director found her. She was sent out on a mission to find retired actresses from the Golden Age of the thirties and forties." Cameron said that he did not know who Stuart was, and Fay Wray was also considered for the role. "But [Stuart] was just so into it, and so lucid, and had such a great spirit. And I saw the connection between her spirit and [Winslet's] spirit," stated Cameron. "I saw this joie de vivre in both of them, that I thought the audience would be able to make that cognitive leap that it's the same person."

Bill Paxton as Brock Lovett, a treasure hunter looking for the "Heart of the Ocean" in the wreck of the Titanic in the present. Time and funding for his expedition are running out. He reflects at the film's conclusion that, despite thinking about Titanic for three years, he has never understood it until he hears Rose's story.

Suzy Amis as Lizzy Calvert. Rose's granddaughter, who accompanies her when she visits Lovett on the ship and learns of her grandmother's romantic past with Jack Dawson.

Danny Nucci as Fabrizio. Jack's Italian best friend, who boards Titanic with him after Jack wins two tickets in a poker game. Fabrizio fails to board a lifeboat when the Titanic sinks and is killed when one of the ship's funnels breaks and crashes into the water, crushing him and several other passengers to death.

David Warner as Spicer Lovejoy, an ex-Pinkerton constable and Cal's English valet and bodyguard. He monitors Rose and is suspicious about the circumstances surrounding Jack rescuing her. He dies when the Titanic splits in half, causing him to fall into a massive opening. Warner had appeared in the 1979 TV miniseries S.O.S. Titanic.

Jason Barry as Tommy Ryan, an Irish third-class passenger who befriends Jack and Fabrizio. Tommy is killed when he is accidentally pushed forward and shot by a panicked First Officer Murdoch.

Historical characters

Although not intended to be an entirely accurate depiction of events, the film includes portrayals of various historical figures:

The real Margaret Brown (right) providing Captain Arthur Henry Rostron with an award for his service in the rescue of Titanic's surviving passengers.

Kathy Bates as Margaret "Molly" Brown. Brown is looked down upon by other first-class women, including Ruth, as "vulgar" and "new money". She is friendly to Jack and lends him a suit of evening clothes (bought for her son) when he is invited to dinner in the first-class dining saloon. She was dubbed "The Unsinkable Molly Brown" by historians because, with the support of other women, she commandeered Lifeboat 6 from Quartermaster Robert Hichens.[32] Some aspects of this altercation are portrayed in Cameron's film. Reba McEntire was offered the role, but had to turn it down, because it conflicted with her touring schedule.[33]

Victor Garber as Thomas Andrews: The ship's builder, Andrews is portrayed as a kind, decent man who is modest about his grand achievement. After the collision, he tries to convince the others, particularly Ismay, that it is a "mathematical certainty" that the ship will sink. He is depicted during the sinking of the ship as standing next to the clock in the first-class smoking room, lamenting his failure to build a strong and safe ship. Although this has become one of the most famous legends of the sinking of the Titanic, this story, which was published in a 1912 book (Thomas Andrews: Shipbuilder) and therefore perpetuated, came from John Stewart, a steward on the ship who in fact left the ship in boat no.15 at approximately 1:40 a.m.[34] There were testimonies of sightings of Andrews after that moment.[34] It appears that Andrews stayed in the smoking room for some time to gather his thoughts, then he continued assisting with the evacuation.[34]

Crew of the Olympic, 1911. Left: First Officer William M. Murdoch. Right: Captain Edward J. Smith.

Bernard Hill as Captain Edward John Smith. Smith planned to make the Titanic his final voyage before retiring. He retreats into the wheelhouse on the bridge as the ship sinks, dying when the windows burst from the water pressure whilst he clings to the ship's wheel. There are conflicting accounts as to whether he died in this manner or later froze to death in the water near the capsized collapsible lifeboat "B".[35]

Jonathan Hyde as J. Bruce Ismay, White Star Line's ignorant, boorish managing director. Ismay influences Captain Smith to go faster with the prospect of an earlier arrival in New York and favorable press attention; while this appears in popular portrayals of the disaster, it is unsupported by evidence.[36][37] After the collision, he struggles to comprehend that his "unsinkable" ship is doomed. Ismay later boards Collapsible C (one of the last lifeboats to leave the ship) just before it is lowered. He was branded a coward by the press and public for surviving the disaster while many women and children had drowned.

Eric Braeden as John Jacob Astor IV, a first-class passenger and the richest man on the ship. The film depicts Astor and his 18-year-old wife Madeleine (Charlotte Chatton) as being introduced to Jack by Rose in the first-class dining saloon. During the introduction, Astor asks if Jack is connected to the "Boston Dawsons", a question Jack deflects by saying that he is instead affiliated with the Chippewa Falls Dawsons. Astor is last seen as the Grand Staircase glass dome implodes and water surges in.

Bernard Fox as Colonel Archibald Gracie IV. The film depicts Gracie making a comment to Cal that "women and machinery don't mix", and congratulating Jack for saving Rose from falling off the ship, though he is unaware that it was a suicide attempt. He is later seen offering to lead Jack and Rose to the remaining lifeboats during the sinking. Fox had portrayed Frederick Fleet in the 1958 film A Night to Remember.

Michael Ensign as Benjamin Guggenheim, a mining magnate traveling in first-class. He shows off his French mistress Madame Aubert (Fannie Brett) to his fellow passengers while his wife and three daughters wait for him at home. When Jack joins the other first-class passengers for dinner after his rescue of Rose, Guggenheim refers to him as a "bohemian". He is seen in the flooding Grand Staircase during the sinking, saying he is prepared to go down as a gentleman.

Wallace Hartley. Titanic's bandmaster and violinist.

Jonathan Evans-Jones as Wallace Hartley, the ship's bandmaster and violinist who plays uplifting music with his colleagues on the boat deck as the ship sinks. As the final plunge begins, he leads the band in a final performance of "Nearer, My God, to Thee", to the tune of Bethany,[38][39] and dies in the sinking.

Mark Lindsay Chapman as Chief Officer Henry Wilde, the ship's chief officer, who lets Cal on board a lifeboat because he has a child in his arms. Before he dies, he tries to get the boats to return to the sinking site to rescue passengers by blowing his whistle. After he freezes to death, Rose uses his whistle to attract the attention of Fifth Officer Lowe, which leads to her rescue.

Ewan Stewart as First Officer William Murdoch, the officer in charge of the bridge when the Titanic struck the iceberg. During a rush for the lifeboats, Murdoch shoots Tommy Ryan, as well as another passenger, in a momentary panic, then commits suicide by shooting himself in the head. When Murdoch's nephew Scott saw the film, he objected to his uncle's portrayal as damaging to Murdoch's heroic reputation.[40] A few months later, Fox vice-president Scott Neeson went to Dalbeattie, Scotland, where Murdoch lived, to deliver a personal apology, and also presented a £5000 donation to Dalbeattie High School to boost the school's William Murdoch Memorial Prize.[41] Cameron apologized on the DVD commentary, but stated that there were officers who fired gunshots to enforce the "women and children first" policy. According to Cameron, his depiction of Murdoch is that of an "honorable man," not of a man "gone bad" or of a "cowardly murderer." He added, "I'm not sure you'd find that same sense of responsibility and total devotion to duty today. This guy had half of his lifeboats launched before his counterpart on the port side had even launched one. That says something about character and heroism."[43]

Jonathan Phillips as Second Officer Charles Lightoller. Lightoller took charge of the port side evacuation. The film depicts Lightoller informing Captain Smith that it will be difficult to see icebergs without breaking water, and following the collision, suggesting the crew should begin boarding women and children to the lifeboats. He is seen brandishing a gun and threatening to use it to keep order. He can be seen on top of Collapsible B when the first funnel collapses. Lightoller was the most senior officer to have survived the disaster.

Film producer Kevin De La Noy as Third Officer Herbert Pitman, who also survived the sinking.

Simon Crane as Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall, the officer in charge of firing flares and manning Lifeboat 2 during the sinking. He is shown on the bridge wings helping the seamen firing the flares.

Ioan Gruffudd as Fifth Officer Harold Lowe, the only officer to lead a lifeboat to retrieve survivors of the sinking from the icy waters. The film depicts Lowe rescuing Rose.

Edward Fletcher as Sixth Officer James Moody, the only junior officer to have died in the sinking. The film depicts Moody admitting Jack and Fabrizio onto the ship only moments before it departs from Southampton. Moody is later shown following Murdoch's orders to put the ship to full speed ahead, and informs Murdoch about the iceberg. He is last seen clinging to one of the davits on the starboard side after having unsuccessfully attempted to launch collapsible A.

James Lancaster as Father Thomas Byles, a second-class passenger and a Catholic priest from England. He is portrayed praying and consoling passengers during the ship's final moments.

Lew Palter and Elsa Raven as Isidor and Ida Straus. Isidor is a former owner of R.H. Macy and Company, a former congressman from New York, and a member of the New York and New Jersey Bridge Commission. During the sinking, the couple were offered seats on a lifeboat together. Isidor refused to go before all women and children have been evacuated, and urged his wife Ida to go ahead. Ida is portrayed refusing to board the lifeboat, saying that she will honor her wedding pledge by staying with Isidor. They are last seen lying on their bed, embracing each other as water fills their stateroom.

Martin Jarvis as Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon, a Scottish baronet who is rescued in Lifeboat 1. Lifeboats 1 and 2 were emergency boats with a capacity of 40. Situated at the forward end of the boat deck, these were kept ready to launch in case of a person falling overboard. On the night of the disaster, Lifeboat 1 was the fourth to be launched, with 12 people aboard, including Duff-Gordon, his wife and her secretary. The baronet was much criticized for his conduct during the incident. It was suggested that he had boarded the emergency boat in violation of the "women and children first" policy, and that the boat had failed to return to rescue those struggling in the water. He offered five pounds to each of the lifeboat's crew, which those critical of his conduct viewed as a bribe. The Duff-Gordons at the time (and his wife's secretary in a letter written at the time and rediscovered in 2007) stated that there had been no women or children waiting to board in the vicinity of the launching of their boat; there is confirmation that lifeboat 1 of the Titanic was almost empty, and that First Officer William Murdoch was apparently glad to offer Duff-Gordon and his wife and her secretary a place (simply to fill it) after they had asked if they could get on. Duff-Gordon denied that his offer of money to the lifeboat crew represented a bribe. The British Board of Trade's inquiry into the disaster accepted Duff-Gordon's denial of bribing the crew, but maintained that, if the emergency boat had rowed towards the people who were in the water, it might very well have been able to rescue some of them.[44][45]

Rosalind Ayres as Lady Duff-Gordon, a world-famous fashion designer and Sir Cosmo's wife. She is rescued in Lifeboat 1 with her husband. They never lived down rumors that they had forbidden the lifeboat's crew to return to the wreck site in case they would be swamped.[46][47][48]

Rochelle Rose as Noël Leslie, Countess of Rothes. The Countess is shown to be friendly with Cal and the DeWitt Bukaters. Despite being of a higher status in society than Sir Cosmo and Lady Duff-Gordon, she is kind, and helps row the boat and even looks after the steerage passengers.

Scott G. Anderson as Frederick Fleet, the lookout who saw the iceberg. Fleet escapes the sinking ship aboard Lifeboat 6.

Paul Brightwell as Quartermaster Robert Hichens, one of the six quartermasters and at the ship's wheel at the time of collision. He is in charge of lifeboat 6. He refuses to go back and pick up survivors after the sinking and eventually the boat is commandeered by Molly Brown.

Martin East as Reginald Lee, the other lookout in the crow's nest. He survives the sinking.

Gregory Cooke as Jack Phillips, the senior wireless operator whom Captain Smith ordered to send the distress signal.

Craig Kelly as Harold Bride, a junior wireless operator.

Liam Tuohy as Chief Baker Charles Joughin. The baker appears in the film helping Rose stand up after she falls, following her and Jack to the ship's stern, and finally hanging onto the ship's railing as it sinks, drinking brandy from a flask. According to the real Joughin's testimony, he rode the ship down and stepped into the water without getting his hair wet. He also admitted to hardly feeling the cold, most likely thanks to alcohol.[49] In a deleted scene, he's shown throwing deckchairs overboard before taking a drink from his bottle.[50][51]

Terry Forrestal as Chief Engineer Joseph G. Bell: Bell and his men worked until the last minute to keep the lights and the power on in order for distress signals to get out. Bell and all of the engineers died in the bowels of the Titanic.

Several crew members of the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh appear, including Anatoly Sagalevich, the creator and pilot of the self-propelled Deep Submergence Vehicle. Anders Falk, who filmed a documentary about the film's sets for the Titanic Historical Society, makes a cameo appearance in the film as a Swedish immigrant whom Jack Dawson meets when he enters his cabin; Edward Kamuda and Karen Kamuda, then President and Vice President of the Society, who served as film consultants, were cast as extras in the film.

Pre-production

Writing and inspiration

Director, writer and producer James Cameron (pictured in 2000)

The story could not have been written better had it been fiction...The juxtaposition of rich and poor, the gender roles played out unto death ( women first), the stoicism and nobility of a bygone age, the magnificence of the great ship matched in scale only by the folly of the men who drove her hell-bent through the darkness. And above all the lesson: that life is uncertain, the future unknowable... the unthinkable possible.

James Cameron has long had a fascination with shipwrecks, and for him Titanic was "the Mount Everest of shipwrecks". He was almost past the point in his life when he felt he could consider an undersea expedition, but said he still had "a mental restlessness" to live the life he had turned away from when he switched from the sciences to the arts in college. When an IMAX film, , was made from footage shot of the Titanic wreck, Cameron decided to seek Hollywood funding for his own expedition. It was "not because I particularly wanted to make the movie," Cameron said. "I wanted to dive to the shipwreck."

Cameron wrote a scriptment for a Titanic film, met with 20th Century Fox executives including Peter Chernin, and pitched it as "Romeo and Juliet on the Titanic". Cameron said the executives were unconvinced of the commercial potential, and had instead hoped for action scenes similar to his previous films. They approved the project as they hoped for a long-term relationship with Cameron.

Cameron convinced Fox to promote the film based on the publicity afforded by shooting the Titanic wreck, and organized several dives over a period of two years. He also convinced Fox that shooting the real wreck for the film scenes, instead of simulating it with special effects, would provide value: "We can either do [the shots] with elaborate models and motion control shots and CG and all that, which will cost X amount of money - or we can spend X plus 30 per cent and actually go shoot it at the real wreck."

The crew shot at the wreck in the Atlantic Ocean 12 times in 1995. The work was risky, as the water pressure could kill the crew if there were a tiny flaw in the submersible structure. Additionally, adverse conditions prevented Cameron from getting footage. During one dive, one of the submersibles collided with Titanic's hull, damaging both sub and ship, and leaving fragments of the submersible's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure. The external bulkhead of the captain's quarters collapsed, exposing the interior, and the area around the entrance to the Grand Staircase was damaged.

Descending to the site emphasized to the crew that the Titanic disaster was not simply a story but a real event with real loss of life. Cameron said: "Working around the wreck for so much time, you get such a strong sense of the profound sadness and injustice of it, and the message of it." He felt a "great mantle of responsibility" to convey the emotional message of the story, as he was aware there might never be another filmmaker to visit the wreck.

Cameron felt the Titanic sinking was "like a great novel that really happened", but that the event had become a mere morality tale; the film would give audiences the experience of living the history. The treasure hunter Brock Lovett represented those who never connected with the human element of the tragedy. He believed that the romance of Jack and Rose would be the most engaging element: when their love is finally destroyed, the audience would mourn the loss. He said: "All my films are love stories, but in Titanic I finally got the balance right. It's not a disaster film. It's a love story with a fastidious overlay of real history."

After filming the underwater shots, Cameron began writing the screenplay. He wanted to honor the people who died, and spent six months researching the Titanic's crew and passengers. He created a detailed timeline of the events of the voyage and sinking and had it verified by historical experts. From the beginning of the shoot, the team had "a very clear picture" of what happened on the ship. Cameron said "That set the bar higher in a way - it elevated the movie in a sense. We wanted this to be a definitive visualization of this moment in history as if you'd gone back in a time machine and shot it." Cameron was influenced by the 1958 British film about Titanic, A Night to Remember, which he had seen as a youth. He liberally copied some dialogue and scenes, including the lively party of the passengers in steerage, and the musicians playing on the deck during the sinking.

Cameron framed the romance with the elderly Rose to make the intervening years palpable and poignant. While Winslet and Stuart believed Rose dies at the end of the film, Cameron said "the answer has to be something you supply personally; individually".

Scale modeling

The reconstruction of Titanic. The blueprints were supplied by the original ship's builder and Cameron tried to make the ship as detailed and accurate as possible.[65][66]

Harland & Wolff, Titanic's builders, opened their private archives to the crew, sharing blueprints that were previously thought lost. For the ship's interiors, production designer Peter Lamont's team looked for artifacts from the era. The newness of the ship meant every prop had to be made from scratch. Fox acquired 40 acres of waterfront south of Playas de Rosarito in Mexico and began building a new studio on May 31, 1996. A horizon tank of 17 million gallons was built for the exterior of the reconstructed ship, providing 270 degrees of ocean view. The ship was built to full scale, but Lamont removed redundant sections on the superstructure and forward well deck for the ship to fit in the tank, with the remaining sections filled with digital models. The lifeboats and funnels were shrunk by ten percent. The boat deck and A-deck were working sets, but the rest of the ship was steel plating. Within was a 50-foot lifting platform for the ship to tilt during the sinking sequences. The 60-foot 1/8th scale model of the stern section was designed by the naval architect Jay Kantola using plans of the Titanic's sister ship RMS Olympic. Above the model was a 162-foot-tall (49 m) tower crane on 600 feet (180 m) of rail track, acting as a combined construction, lighting, and camera platform.

The sets representing the interior rooms of the Titanic were reproduced exactly using photographs and plans from the Titanic's builders. The Grand Staircase, which features prominently in the film, was recreated to a high standard, though it was widened 30% compared to the original and reinforced with steel girders. Craftsmen from Mexico and Britain sculpted the ornate paneling and plasterwork based on Titanic's original designs. The carpeting, upholstery, individual pieces of furniture, light fixtures, chairs, cutlery and crockery with the White Star Line crest on each piece were among the objects recreated according to original designs. Cameron hired two Titanic historians, Don Lynch and Ken Marschall, to authenticate the historical detail.

Production

Principal photography began on July 31, 1996 at Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, with the modern-day expedition scenes aboard the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh. In September 1996, the production moved to the newly built Fox Baja Studios in Rosarito, Mexico, where a full-scale Titanic had been constructed. The poop deck was built on a hinge that could rise from zero to 90 degrees in a few seconds, just as the ship's stern rose during the sinking. For the safety of the stuntmen, many props were made of foam rubber. By November 15, the boarding scenes were being shot. Cameron built his Titanic on the starboard side as a study of weather data revealed it was a prevailing north-to-south wind, which blew the funnel smoke aft. This posed a problem for shooting the ship's departure from Southampton, as it was docked on its port side. Implementation of written directions, as well as props and costumes, had to be reversed; for example, if someone walked to their right in the script, they had to walk left during shooting. In post-production, the film was flipped to the correct direction. A full-time etiquette coach was hired to instruct the cast in the manners of the upper class gentility in 1912. Despite this, several critics noted anachronisms in the film.

Cameron's sketch of Rose wearing the Heart of the Ocean. The scene was one of the first shot, as the main set was not ready.[30]

Cameron sketched Jack's portrait of Rose; Winslet posed in a bathing suit. Cameron felt the scene had a backdrop of repression and freedom: "You know what it means for her, the freedom she must be feeling. It's kind of exhilarating for that reason," he said. The sketching scene was DiCaprio and Winslet's first scene together. "It wasn't by any kind of design, although I couldn't have designed it better. There's a nervousness and an energy and a hesitance in them," Cameron stated. "They had rehearsed together, but they hadn't shot anything together. If I'd had a choice, I probably would have preferred to put it deeper into the body of the shoot." Cameron said he and his crew "were just trying to find things to shoot" because the big set "wasn't ready for months, so we were scrambling around trying to fill in anything we could get to shoot." Cameron felt the final scene worked well.

The shoot was an arduous experience that "cemented Cameron's formidable reputation as 'the scariest man in Hollywood". He became known as an "uncompromising, hard-charging perfectionist" and a "300-decibel screamer, a modern-day Captain Bligh with a megaphone and walkie-talkie, swooping down into people's faces on a 162ft crane". Winslet chipped a bone in her elbow during filming and had been worried that she would drown in the 17m-gallon water tank in which the ship would sink. "There were times when I was genuinely frightened of him. Jim has a temper like you wouldn't believe," she said. "'God damn it!' he would yell at some poor crew member, 'That's exactly what I didn't want!'" Bill Paxton was familiar with Cameron's work ethic from his earlier experience, and said: "There were a lot of people on the set. Jim is not one of those guys who has the time to win hearts and minds." The crew felt Cameron had an evil alter ego and so nicknamed him "Mij" (Jim spelled backwards). In response to the criticism, Cameron said, "Film-making is war. A great battle between business and aesthetics." More than 800 crew members worked on the film, a large number for any Hollywood production.

On August 9, 1996, during the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh shoot in Canada, an unknown person, suspected to be a crew member, put the dissociative drug PCP into the soup that Cameron and various others ate one night in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. It sent more than 50 people to the hospital. Paxton and Cameron ate the soup and went to the hospital but Paxton decided to leave, telling Cameron "Jim, I'm not gonna hang out here, this is bedlam. I'm gonna ... wander back down to the set and just drink a case of beer." "There were people just rolling around, completely out of it. Some of them said they were seeing streaks and psychedelics," said actor Lewis Abernathy. Cameron managed to vomit before the drug took a full hold. Abernathy was shocked at the way he looked. "One eye was completely red, like the Terminator eye. A pupil, no iris, beet red. The other eye looked like he'd been sniffing glue since he was four." The Nova Scotia Department of Health confirmed that the soup had contained PCP on August 27, and the Halifax Regional Police Service announced a criminal investigation the next day. The investigation was closed in February 1999. The person behind the poisoning was never caught.

The filming schedule was intended to last 138 days but grew to 160 (filming officially wrapped on March 23, 1997). Many cast members came down with colds, flu, or kidney infections after spending hours in cold water, including Winslet. In the end, she decided she would not work with Cameron again unless she earned "a lot of money". Several others left the production, and three stuntmen broke their bones, but the Screen Actors Guild decided, following an investigation, that nothing was inherently unsafe about the set. Additionally, DiCaprio said there was no point when he felt he was in danger during filming. Cameron believed in a passionate work ethic and never apologized for the way he ran his sets, although he acknowledged:

I'm demanding, and I'm demanding on my crew. In terms of being kind of militaresque, I think there's an element of that in dealing with thousands of extras and big logistics and keeping people safe. I think you have to have a fairly strict methodology in dealing with a large number of people.

The costs of filming Titanic ballooned and eventually reached $200 million, a bit over $1 million per minute of screen time. Fox executives panicked and suggested an hour of specific cuts from the three-hour film. They argued the extended length would mean fewer showings, thus less revenue, even though long epics are more likely to help directors win Oscars. Cameron refused, telling Fox, "You want to cut my movie? You're going to have to fire me! You want to fire me? You're going to have to kill me!" The executives did not want to start over, because it would mean the loss of their entire investment. The executives initially rejected Cameron's offer to forfeit his share of the profits as an empty gesture, as they predicted profits would be unlikely. Worried about the mounting costs, Fox wanted to find a partner studio to co-finance the film; Fox approached Paramount Pictures in May 1996, and the two studios agreed to split the costs and distribution rights. Fox retained the international distribution rights and sold the domestic rights to Paramount in return for $65 million, in an effort to recoup their investment.

Cameron explained forfeiting his share as complex. "...the short version is that the film cost proportionally much more than and Those films went up seven or eight percent from the initial budget. Titanic also had a large budget to begin with, but it went up a lot more," he said. "As the producer and director, I take responsibility for the studio that's writing the checks, so I made it less painful for them. I did that on two different occasions. They didn't force me to do it; they were glad that I did." Amidst the film's successful box office run, a Fox executive, William Mechanic, commented that "Jim Cameron told us we could have an expensive bad movie or a more expensive potentially great movie. We made our judgment. And we made the best choice."

Post-production

Cameron wanted to push the boundary of special effects, and enlisted Digital Domain and Pacific Data Images to continue the developments in digital technology he pioneered on and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. Many previous films about Titanic shot water in slow motion, which did not look wholly convincing. Cameron encouraged his crew to shoot their 45-foot-long (14 m) miniature of the ship as if "we're making a commercial for the White Star Line". Afterwards, digital water and smoke were added, as were extras captured on a motion capture stage. Visual effects supervisor Rob Legato scanned the faces of many actors, including himself and his children, for the digital extras and stuntmen. There was also a 65-foot-long (20 m) model of the ship's stern that could break in two repeatedly, the only miniature to be used in water. For scenes set in the ship's engines, footage of the engines were composited with miniature support frames, and actors shot against a greenscreen. In order to save money, the first-class lounge was a miniature set incorporated into a greenscreen backdrop behind the actors. The miniature of the Lounge would later be crushed to simulate the destruction of the room and a scale model of a First-Class corridor flooded with jets of water while the camera pans out.

Unlike previous Titanic films, Cameron's retelling of the disaster showed the ship breaking into two pieces before sinking entirely. The scenes were an account of the moment's most likely outcome.

An enclosed 5,000,000-US-gallon (19,000,000 L) tank was used for sinking interiors, in which the entire set could be tilted into the water. In order to sink the Grand Staircase, 90,000 US gallons (340,000 L) of water were dumped into the set as it was lowered into the tank. Unexpectedly, the waterfall ripped the staircase from its steel-reinforced foundations, although no one was hurt. The 744-foot-long (227 m) exterior of Titanic had its first half lowered into the tank, but as the heaviest part of the ship it acted as a shock absorber against the water; to get the set into the water, Cameron had much of the set emptied and even smashed some of the promenade windows himself. After submerging the dining saloon, three days were spent shooting Lovett's ROV traversing the wreck in the present. The post-sinking scenes in the freezing Atlantic were shot in a 350,000-US-gallon (1,300,000 L) tank, where the frozen corpses were created by applying on actors a powder that crystallized when exposed to water, and wax was coated on hair and clothes.

The climactic scene, which features the breakup of the ship directly before it sinks as well as its final plunge to the bottom of the Atlantic, involved a tilting full-sized set, 150 extras, and 100 stunt performers. Cameron criticized previous Titanic films for depicting the liner's final plunge as a graceful slide underwater. He "wanted to depict it as the terrifyingly chaotic event that it really was". When carrying out the sequence, people needed to fall off the increasingly tilting deck, plunging hundreds of feet below and bouncing off of railings and propellers on the way down. A few attempts to film this sequence with stunt people resulted in some minor injuries, and Cameron halted the more dangerous stunts. The risks were eventually minimized "by using computer-generated people for the dangerous falls". A Linux-based operating system was utilized for the creation of the effects.

Cameron said there were aspects of the Titanic story that seemed important in pre- and post-production but became less important as the film evolved. He omitted the SS Californian, the ship that was close to the Titanic the night she sank but had turned off its radio for the night, did not hear her crew's SOS calls, and did not respond to their distress flares. A scene involving the Californian was cut, according to Cameron, "because it focuses you back onto that world. If Titanic is powerful as a metaphor, as a microcosm, for the end of the world in a sense, then that world must be self-contained." He said its omission was not "a compromise to mainstream filmmaking" but "about emphasis, creating an emotional truth to the film".

During the first assembly cut, Cameron altered the ending. In the original version, Brock and Lizzy see the elderly Rose at the stern of the boat and fear she is going to commit suicide. Rose reveals that she had the Heart of the Ocean diamond all along but never sold it, to live on her own without Cal's money. She allows Brock to hold it but tells Brock that life is priceless and throws the diamond into the ocean. After accepting that treasure is worthless, Brock laughs at his stupidity. In the editing room, Cameron decided that by this point, the audience would no longer be interested in Brock Lovett and cut the scene, so that Rose is alone when she drops the diamond. He also did not want to disrupt the audience's melancholy after the Titanic's sinking. Paxton agreed that his scene with Brock's epiphany and laugh was unnecessary, saying "I would have shot heroin to make the scene work better... Our job was done by then... If you're smart and you take the ego and the narcissism out of it, you'll listen to the film, and the film will tell you what it needs and what it does not need."

The version used for the first test screening featured a fight between Jack and Lovejoy after Jack and Rose escape into the flooded dining saloon. The scene was written to give the film more suspense, and had Cal offering to give Lovejoy, his valet, the Heart of the Ocean if he can get it from Jack and Rose. Lovejoy goes after the pair in the sinking first-class dining room. Jack attacks him and smashes his head against a window; this is why Lovejoy has a gash later in the film. Test audiences said it would be unrealistic to risk one's life for wealth, and Cameron cut it for this reason, as well as for timing and pacing reasons. Many other scenes were cut for similar reasons.

Heart of the Ocean

For the Heart of the Ocean design, London-based jewelers Asprey & Garrard used cubic zirconias set in white gold to create an Edwardian-style necklace to be used as a prop in the film. The studio designed and produced three variations, very similar but unique and distinguishable in character. Two of them were used in the film while the third went unused until after the film had been released. The three necklaces are commonly known as the original prop, the J. Peterman necklace and the Asprey necklace.

The third and final design was not used in the film. After the film's success, Asprey & Garrard were commissioned to create an authentic Heart of the Ocean necklace using the original design. The result was a platinum-set, 171-carat (34.2 g) heart-shaped Ceylon sapphire surrounded by 103 diamonds. This design featured a much larger inverted pear-shaped Ceylon sapphire with a subtle cleft to resemble a heart. The chain for this necklace also featured a mix of round, pear, and marquise cut white diamonds. The bail also featured a heart cut white diamond with another round cut diamond attached to an inverted pear shape diamond which was then attached to the cage of the main stone. The necklace was donated to Sotheby's auction house in Beverly Hills for an auction benefiting the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund and Southern California's Aid For AIDS. It was sold to an unidentified Asprey client for $1.4 million (equivalent to $2.62 million in 2023), under the agreement that Dion would wear it two nights later at the 1998 Academy Awards ceremony. Since then, this necklace has not been made available for public viewing.

Soundtrack

Cameron wrote Titanic while listening to the work of the Irish new-age musician Enya. After Enya declined an invitation to compose for the film, Cameron instead chose James Horner. The two had parted ways after a tumultuous working experience on but Titanic cemented a successful collaboration that lasted until Horner's death. For the vocals heard throughout the film, Horner chose the Norwegian singer Sissel Kyrkjebø, commonly known as "Sissel". Horner knew Sissel from her album Innerst i sjelen, and particularly liked how she sang "Eg veit i himmerik ei borg" ("I Know in Heaven There Is a Castle"). He tried around 30 singers before choosing Sissel.

Horner wrote the end theme, " My Heart Will Go On", in secret with Will Jennings because Cameron did not want any songs in the film. Céline Dion agreed to record a demo at the persuasion of her husband René Angélil. Horner waited until Cameron was in an appropriate mood before presenting him with the song. After playing it several times, Cameron declared his approval, although worried that he would have been criticized for "going commercial at the end of the movie". Cameron also wanted to appease anxious studio executives and "saw that a hit song from his movie could only be a positive factor in guaranteeing its completion".

The soundtrack was the best-selling album of 1998 with sales of over 27 million.

Initial screening

Distribution for the film was split between Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox; Paramount handling the distribution in the United States and Canada, and Fox handling the international release. Both studios expected Cameron to complete the film for a release on July 2, 1997. The film was to be released on this date "to exploit the lucrative summer season ticket sales when blockbuster films usually do better". In April, Cameron said the film's special effects were too complicated and that releasing the film on that date would not be possible. The studios considered pushing the film to late July or the first week of August, but Harrison Ford, whose film Air Force One was to be released on July 25, is reported to have informed Paramount, which had produced his lucrative Indiana Jones and franchises, that he would never work with them again if they released Titanic so close to his own film. On May 29, 1997, Paramount pushed back the release date to December 19, 1997. "This fueled speculation that the film itself was a disaster." A preview screening in Minneapolis on July 14 "generated positive reviews" and "[c]hatter on the internet was responsible for more favorable word of mouth about the [film]". This eventually led to more positive media coverage.

Cameron refused to hold the film's world premiere in Los Angeles. Paramount disagreed with Cameron's decision, but Fox acquiesced and went ahead and held the premiere on November 1, 1997, at the Tokyo International Film Festival, where reaction was described as "tepid" by The New York Times. Positive reviews started to appear back in the United States; the official Hollywood premiere occurred on December 14, 1997, where "the big movie stars who attended the opening were enthusiastically gushing about the film to the world media".

Including revenue from the 2012, 2017 and 2023 reissues, Titanic earned $674.3 million in North America and $1.583 billion in other countries, for a worldwide total of $2.257 billion. It became the highest-grossing film of all time worldwide in 1998, beating Jurassic Park (1993). The film remained so for twelve years, until (2009), also written and directed by Cameron, surpassed it in 2010. On March 1, 1998, it became the first film to earn more than $1 billion worldwide and on the weekend April 13-15, 2012-a century after the original vessel's foundering, Titanic became the second film to cross the $2 billion threshold during its 3D re-release. Box Office Mojo estimates that Titanic is the fifth-highest-grossing film of all time in North America when adjusting for ticket price inflation. The site also estimates that the film sold over 128 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.

Titanic was the first foreign-language film to succeed in India, which claims to have the largest movie-going audience in the world. A Hindustan Times report attributes this to the film's similarities and shared themes with most Bollywood films.

Initial theatrical run

The film received steady attendance after opening in North America on Friday, December 19, 1997. By the end of that same weekend, theaters were beginning to sell out. The film earned $8,658,814 on its opening day and $28,638,131 over the opening weekend from 2,674 theaters, averaging to about $10,710 per venue, and ranking number one at the box office, ahead of , and the eighteenth James Bond film, Tomorrow Never Dies. It would go on to surpass The Godfather Part III's record for having the highest Christmas Day gross, generating a total of $9.2 million. For its second weekend, the film made $35.6 million, making it the biggest December weekend gross, surpassing Scream 2. By New Year's Day, Titanic had made over $120 million, had increased in popularity and theaters continued to sell out. In just 44 days, it became the fastest film to approach the $300 million mark at the domestic box office, surpassing the former record held by Jurassic Park, which took 67 days to do so. Titanic would hold this record until 1999 when it was taken by Star Wars: Episode I - The Phantom Menace.

Its highest grossing single day was Saturday, February 14, 1998, on which it earned $13,048,711, more than eight weeks after its North American debut. On March 14, it surpassed Star Wars as the highest-grossing film ever in North America. It stayed at number one for 15 consecutive weeks in North America, a record for any film. By April 1998, the film's number one spot would be overtaken by Lost in Space, dropping into second place. The film stayed in theaters in North America for almost 10 months before finally closing on Thursday, October 1, 1998, with a final domestic gross of $600,788,188, equivalent to $1140.3 million in 2023. Outside North America, the film made double its North American gross, generating $1,242,413,080 and accumulating a grand total of $1,843,201,268 worldwide from its initial theatrical run.

Commercial analysis

Before Titanic's release, various film critics predicted the film would be a significant disappointment at the box office, especially since it was the most expensive film ever made at the time. When it was shown to the press in autumn of 1997, "it was with massive forebodings", since the "people in charge of the screenings believed they were on the verge of losing their jobs - because of this great albatross of a picture on which, finally, two studios had to combine to share the great load of its making". Cameron also thought he was "headed for disaster" at one point during filming. "We labored the last six months on Titanic in the absolute knowledge that the studio would lose $100 million. It was a certainty," he stated. As the film neared release, "particular venom was spat at Cameron for what was seen as his hubris and monumental extravagance". A film critic for the Los Angeles Times wrote that "Cameron's overweening pride has come close to capsizing this project" and that the film was "a hackneyed, completely derivative copy of old Hollywood romances".

It's hard to forget the director on the stage of the Shrine Auditorium in LA, exultant, pumping a golden Oscar statuette into the air and shouting: "I'm the king of the world!" As everyone knew, that was the most famous line in Titanic, exclaimed by Leonardo DiCaprio's character as he leaned into the wind on the prow of the doomed vessel. Cameron's incantation of the line was a giant "eff off", in front of a television audience approaching a billion, to all the naysayers, especially those sitting right in front of him.

When the film became a success, with an unprecedented box-office performance, it was credited for being a love story that captured its viewers' emotions. The film was playing on 3,200 screens ten weeks after it opened, and out of its fifteen straight weeks on top of the charts, jumped 43% in total sales in its ninth week of release. It earned over $20 million for each of its first 10 weekends, and after 14 weeks was still bringing in more than $1 million on weekdays. 20th Century Fox estimated that seven percent of American teenage girls had seen Titanic twice by its fifth week. Although young women who saw the film several times and subsequently caused " Leo-Mania" were often credited with having primarily propelled the film to its all-time box office record, other reports have attributed the film's success to positive word of mouth and repeat viewership due to the love story combined with the ground-breaking special effects. The Hollywood Reporter estimated that after a combined production and promotion cost of $487 million, the film turned a net profit of $1.4 billion, with a modern profit of as much as $4 billion after ancillary sources.

Titanic's impact on men has also been especially credited. It is considered one of the films that make men cry, with MSNBC's Ian Hodder stating that men admire Jack's sense of adventure and his ambitious behavior to win over Rose, which contributes to their emotional attachment to Jack. The film's ability to make men cry was briefly parodied in the 2009 film Zombieland, where character Tallahassee ( Woody Harrelson), when recalling the death of his young son, states: "I haven't cried like that since Titanic."

In 2010, the BBC analyzed the stigma over men crying during Titanic and films in general. "Middle-aged men are not 'supposed' to cry during movies," stated Finlo Rohrer of the website, citing the ending of Titanic as having generated such tears, adding that "men, if they have felt weepy during [this film], have often tried to be surreptitious about it." Professor Mary Beth Oliver, of Penn State University, stated, "For many men, there is a great deal of pressure to avoid expression of 'female' emotions like sadness and fear. From a very young age, males are taught that it is inappropriate to cry, and these lessons are often accompanied by a great deal of ridicule when the lessons aren't followed." Rohrer said, "Indeed, some men who might sneer at the idea of crying during Titanic will readily admit to becoming choked up during Saving Private Ryan or " For men in general, "the idea of sacrifice for a 'brother' is a more suitable source of emotion".

Scott Meslow of The Atlantic stated while Titanic initially seems to need no defense, given its success, it is considered a film "for 15-year-old girls" by its main detractors. He argued that dismissing Titanic as fodder for teenage girls fails to consider the film's accomplishment: "that [this] grandiose, 3+ hour historical romantic drama is a film for everyone-including teenage boys." Meslow stated that despite the film being ranked high by males under the age of 18, matching the ratings for teenage boy-targeted films like , it is common for boys and men to deny liking Titanic. He acknowledged his own rejection of the film as a child while secretly loving it. "It's this collection of elements-the history, the romance, the action-that made (and continues to make) Titanic an irresistible proposition for audiences of all ages across the globe," he stated. " Titanic has flaws, but for all its legacy, it's better than its middlebrow reputation would have you believe. It's a great movie for 15-year-old girls, but that doesn't mean it's not a great movie for everyone else too."

Quotes in the film aided its popularity. Titanic's catchphrase "I'm the king of the world!" became one of the film industry's more popular quotations. According to Richard Harris, a psychology professor at Kansas State University, who studied why people like to cite films in social situations, using film quotations in everyday conversation is similar to telling a joke and a way to form solidarity with others. "People are doing it to feel good about themselves, to make others laugh, to make themselves laugh", he said.

Cameron explained the film's success as having significantly benefited from the experience of sharing. "When people have an experience that's very powerful in the movie theatre, they want to go share it. They want to grab their friend and bring them, so that they can enjoy it," he said. "They want to be the person to bring them the news that this is something worth having in their life. That's how Titanic worked." Media Awareness Network stated, "The normal repeat viewing rate for a blockbuster theatrical film is about 5%. The repeat rate for Titanic was over 20%." The box office receipts "were even more impressive" when factoring in "the film's 3-hour-and-14-minute length meant that it could only be shown three times a day compared to a normal movie's four showings". In response to this, "[m]any theatres started midnight showings and were rewarded with full houses until almost 3:30 am".

Titanic held the record for box office gross for 12 years. Cameron's follow-up film, , was considered the first film with a genuine chance at surpassing its worldwide gross, and did so in 2010. Various explanations for why the film was able to successfully challenge Titanic were given. For one, "Two-thirds of Titanic's haul was earned overseas, and Avatar [tracked] similarly... Avatar opened in 106 markets globally and was no. 1 in all of them" and the markets "such as Russia, where Titanic saw modest receipts in 1997 and 1998, are white-hot today" with "more screens and moviegoers" than ever before. Brandon Gray, president of Box Office Mojo, said that while Avatar may beat Titanic's revenue record, the film is unlikely to surpass Titanic in attendance. "Ticket prices were about $3 cheaper in the late 1990s." In December 2009, Cameron had stated, "I don't think it's realistic to try to topple Titanic off its perch. Some pretty good movies have come out in the last few years. Titanic just struck some kind of chord." In a January 2010 interview, he gave a different take on the matter once Avatar's performance was easier to predict, saying "It's gonna happen. It's just a matter of time,".

Author Alexandra Keller, when analyzing Titanic's success, stated that scholars could agree that the film's popularity "appears dependent on contemporary culture, on perceptions of history, on patterns of consumerism and globalization, as well as on those elements experienced filmgoers conventionally expect of juggernaut film events in the 1990s - awesome screen spectacle, expansive action, and, more rarely seen, engaging characters and epic drama."

Critical reception

Titanic garnered mostly positive reviews from film critics, and was positively reviewed by audiences and scholars, who commented on the film's cultural, historical, and political impacts. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88% based on 255 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A mostly unqualified triumph for James Cameron, who offers a dizzying blend of spectacular visuals and old-fashioned melodrama." Metacritic, which assigned a weighted average score of 75 out of 100, based on 35 critics, reports the film has "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare "A+" grade, one of fewer than 60 films in the history of the service from 1982 to 2011 to earn the score.

With regard to the film's overall design, Roger Ebert stated: "It is flawlessly crafted, intelligently constructed, strongly acted, and spellbinding... Movies like this are not merely difficult to make at all, but almost impossible to make well." He credited the "technical difficulties" with being "so daunting that it's a wonder when the filmmakers are also able to bring the drama and history into proportion" and "found [himself] convinced by both the story and the sad saga". He named it his ninth-best film of 1997. On the television program Siskel & Ebert, the film received "two thumbs up" and was praised for its accuracy in recreating the ship's sinking; Ebert described the film as "a glorious Hollywood epic" and "well worth the wait," and Gene Siskel found Leonardo DiCaprio "captivating".

James Berardinelli stated: "Meticulous in detail, yet vast in scope and intent, Titanic is the kind of epic motion picture event that has become a rarity. You don't just watch Titanic, you experience it." It was named his second best film of 1997. Joseph McBride of Boxoffice Magazine concluded: "To describe Titanic as the greatest disaster movie ever made is to sell it short. James Cameron's recreation of the 1912 sinking of the 'unsinkable' liner is one of the most magnificent pieces of serious popular entertainment ever to emanate from Hollywood."

The romantic and emotionally charged aspects of the film were equally praised. Andrew L. Urban of Urban Cinefile said: "You will walk out of Titanic not talking about budget or running time, but of its enormous emotive power, big as the engines of the ship itself, determined as its giant propellers to gouge into your heart, and as lasting as the love story that propels it." Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly described the film as "a lush and terrifying spectacle of romantic doom. Writer-director James Cameron has restaged the defining catastrophe of the early 20th century on a human scale of such purified yearning and dread that he touches the deepest levels of popular moviemaking." Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented that "Cameron's magnificent Titanic is the first spectacle in decades that honestly invites comparison to Gone With the Wind." Adrian Turner of Radio Times awarded it four stars out of five, stating "Cameron's script wouldn't have sustained Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh for 80 minutes, but, somehow, he and his magical cast revive that old-style studio gloss for three riveting hours. Titanic is a sumptuous assault on the emotions, with a final hour that fully captures the horror and the freezing, paralysing fear of the moment. And there are single shots, such as an awesome albatross-like swoop past the steaming ship, when you sense Cameron hugging himself with the fun of it all."

Titanic suffered backlash in addition to its success. Some reviewers felt that while the visuals were spectacular, the story and dialogue were weak. Richard Corliss of magazine wrote a mostly negative review, criticizing the lack of interesting emotional elements. Kenneth Turan's review in the Los Angeles Times was particularly scathing. Dismissing the emotive elements, he stated, "What really brings on the tears is Cameron's insistence that writing this kind of movie is within his abilities. Not only is it not, it is not even close." He later argued that the only reason that the film won Oscars was because of its box office total. Barbara Shulgasser of The San Francisco Examiner gave Titanic one star out of four, citing a friend as saying, "The number of times in this unbelievably badly written script that the two [lead characters] refer to each other by name was an indication of just how dramatically the script lacked anything more interesting for the actors to say."

Retrospective

According to Dalin Rowell of , "With complaints about its lengthy runtime, observations that certain characters could have easily fit onto pieces of floating furniture, and jokes about its melodramatic nature, Titanic is no stranger to modern-day criticism." In 2002, filmmaker Robert Altman called it "the most dreadful piece of work I've ever seen in my entire life". Similarly, French New Wave director and former Cahiers du Cinéma editor Jacques Rivette referred to it as "garbage" in a 1998 interview with Frédéric Bonnaud and was particularly critical of Winslet's performance, who he said was "unwatchable, the most slovenly girl to appear on the screen in a long, long time." In 2003, the film topped a poll of "Best Film Endings", but it also topped a poll by as "the worst movie of all time".

In his 2012 study of the lives of the passengers on the Titanic, historian Richard Davenport-Hines said, "Cameron's film diabolized rich Americans and educated English, anathematizing their emotional restraint, good tailoring, punctilious manners and grammatical training, while it made romantic heroes of the poor Irish and the unlettered." The British film magazine reduced their rating of the film from the maximum five stars and an enthusiastic review, to four stars with a less positive review in a later edition, to accommodate its readers' tastes, who wanted to disassociate themselves from the hype surrounding the film, and the reported activities of its fans, such as those attending multiple screenings. In addition to this, positive and negative parodies and other such spoofs of the film abounded and were circulated on the internet, often inspiring passionate responses from fans of various opinions of the film. Benjamin Willcock of DVDActive.com did not understand the backlash or the passionate hatred for the film. "What really irks me...," he said, "are those who make nasty stabs at those who do love it." Willcock stated, "I obviously don't have anything against those who dislike Titanic, but those few who make you feel small and pathetic for doing so (and they do exist, trust me) are way beyond my understanding and sympathy."

In 1998, Cameron responded to the backlash, and Kenneth Turan's review in particular, by writing " Titanic is not a film that is sucking people in with flashy hype and spitting them out onto the street feeling let down and ripped off. They are returning again and again to repeat an experience that is taking a 3-hour and 14-minute chunk out of their lives, and dragging others with them, so they can share the emotion." Cameron emphasized that people from all ages (ranging from 8 to 80) and from all backgrounds were "celebrating their own essential humanity" by seeing it. He described the script as earnest and straightforward, and said it intentionally "incorporates universals of human experience and emotion that are timeless - and familiar because they reflect our basic emotional fabric" and that the film was able to succeed in this way by dealing with archetypes. He did not see it as pandering. "Turan mistakes archetype for cliché," he said. "I don't share his view that the best scripts are only the ones that explore the perimeter of human experience, or flashily pirouette their witty and cynical dialogue for our admiration."

In 2000, Almar Haflidason of the BBC wrote that "the critical knives were out long before James Cameron's Titanic was complete. Spiralling costs that led to it becoming the most expensive motion picture of the 20th Century, and a cast without any big stars seemed to doom the film before release. But box office and audience appreciation proved Cameron right and many critics wrong." He added that "the sinking of the great ship is no secret, yet for many exceeded expectations in sheer scale and tragedy" and that "when you consider that [the film] tops a bum-numbing three-hour running time, then you have a truly impressive feat of entertainment achieved by Cameron". Empire eventually reinstated its original five-star rating of the film, commenting: "It should be no surprise[,] then[,] that it became fashionable to bash James Cameron's Titanic at approximately the same time it became clear that this was the planet's favourite film. Ever."

The film's climax has sparked many debates over the years on whether both Jack and Rose should have been able to fit on the floating door and survive, becoming among the most talked about aspects of the film. Cameron has stated he often gets asked about the scene and has spoken about and tested it numerous times; one early test said they could not, while another in advance of the film's 25th anniversary, said it was possible but unlikely and depended on numerous variables.

In 2017, on the 20th anniversary of its release, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". It was listed among the 100 best films in an Empire poll and in a later poll of members of the film industry. In 2021, Dalin Rowell of /Film ranked it the third-best film of Cameron's career, stating that it is "easily one of his best films, simply because it defied the odds", and considering it "a legitimately remarkable achievement - one that, despite its large budget, has a humble, earnest center. Even with all of the jokes the Internet loves to throw its way, Titanic demonstrates that Cameron is truly capable of everything he can imagine."

At the Golden Globes, Titanic won Best Motion Picture - Drama, Best Director, Best Original Score, and Best Original Song. Winslet and Stuart were also nominated. The film garnered fourteen Academy Award nominations, tying the record set in 1950 by Joseph L. Mankiewicz's All About Eve and won eleven: Best Picture (the second film about the Titanic to win that award, after 1933's ), Best Director, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Film Editing, Best Costume Design, Best Sound ( Gary Rydstrom, Tom Johnson, Gary Summers, Mark Ulano), Best Sound Effects Editing, Best Original Dramatic Score, Best Original Song. Winslet, Stuart and the make-up artists were nominated, but lost to Helen Hunt in As Good as It Gets, Kim Basinger in L.A. Confidential and Men in Black. Titanic was the second film to receive eleven Academy Awards, after Ben-Hur (1959). The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King matched the record in 2004.

Titanic won the 1997 Academy Award for Best Original Song, as well as four Grammy Awards for Record of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television, and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. The soundtrack became the best-selling primarily orchestral soundtrack of all time, spending sixteen weeks at number-one in the United States, and was certified diamond for over eleven million copies sold in the United States alone. It was also the best-selling album of 1998 in the US. " My Heart Will Go On" won the Grammy Awards for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television.

Titanic also won various awards outside the United States, including the Awards of the Japanese Academy as the Best Foreign Film of the Year. It eventually won nearly ninety awards and had an additional forty-seven nominations from various award-giving bodies around the world. The book about the making of the film was at the top of The New York Times' bestseller list for several weeks, "the first time that such a tie-in book had achieved this status".

Titanic has appeared on the American Film Institute's award-winning 100 Years... series six times.

25

A list of the top 100 thrilling films in American cinema, compiled in 2001.

37

A list of the top 100 love stories in American cinema, compiled in 2002.

14

A list of the top 100 songs in American cinema, compiled in 2004. Titanic ranked 14th for Céline Dion's "My Heart Will Go On".

Movie quotes

100

A list of the top 100 film quotations in American cinema, compiled in 2005. Titanic ranked 100th for Jack Dawson's yell of " I'm the king of the world!"

83

A 2007 (10th anniversary) edition of 1997's list of the 100 best films of the past century. Titanic was not eligible when the original list was released.

AFI's 10 Top 10

6

The 2008 poll consisted of the top ten films in ten different genres. Titanic ranked as the sixth-best epic film.

Titanic was released worldwide in widescreen and pan and scan formats on VHS on September 1, 1998. More than $50 million was spent to market the home video release of the film. Both VHS formats were also made available in a deluxe boxed gift set with a mounted filmstrip and six lithograph prints from the movie. In the first 3 months, the film sold 25 million copies in North America with a total sales value of $500 million, becoming the best selling live-action video, beating Independence Day. In that time, it sold 58 million copies worldwide, outselling The Lion King for a total worldwide revenue of $995 million. By March 2005, the film has sold 8 million DVD and 59 million VHS units. In the United Kingdom, the film sold 1.1 million copies on its first day of release, making it the country's fastest-selling home video release. It would hold this record until it was surpassed by Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in May 2002 when that film sold 1.2 million home video units during its first day. Within the first week of release, Titanic quickly beat The Full Monty, selling a total of 1.8 million home video copies.

NBC acquired the US television broadcast rights for $30 million, which was considered a bargain.

A DVD version was released on August 31, 1999, in a widescreen-only (non- anamorphic) single-disc edition with no special features other than a theatrical trailer. Cameron stated at the time that he intended to release a special edition with extra features later. This release became the best-selling DVD of 1999 and early 2000, becoming the first DVD ever to sell one million copies. At the time, less than 5% of all U.S. homes had a DVD player. "When we released the original Titanic DVD, the industry was much smaller, and bonus features were not the standard they are now," said Meagan Burrows, Paramount's president of domestic home entertainment, which made the film's DVD performance even more impressive.

Titanic was re-released to DVD on October 25, 2005, when a three-disc Special Collector's Edition was made available in the United States and Canada. This edition contained a newly restored transfer of the film, a 6.1 DTS-ES Discrete surround sound mix and various special features. In PAL regions, two-disc and four-disc variants were released, marketed as the Special Edition and Deluxe Collector's Edition respectively. They were released in the United Kingdom on November 7, 2005. A limited 5-disc set of the film, under the title Deluxe Limited Edition, was also only released in the United Kingdom with only 10,000 copies manufactured. The fifth disc contains Cameron's documentary Ghosts of the Abyss, which was distributed by Walt Disney Pictures. Unlike the individual release of Ghosts of the Abyss, which contained two discs, only the first disc was included in the set. In 2007, for the film's tenth anniversary, a 10th Anniversary Edition was released on DVD, which consists of the first two discs from the three-disc 2005 set containing the movie and the special features on those discs.

The film was released by Paramount Home Entertainment on Blu-ray and Blu-ray 3D on September 10, 2012. The 3D presentation of the film is split over two discs and is also THX-certified. Special features on another disc included many of those featured on the 2005 Special Collector's Edition DVD along with two new documentaries titled "Reflections on Titanic" and "Titanic: The Final Word with James Cameron." The latter aired on National Geographic on April 9, 2012, and was executively produced by Cameron.

Re-releases

3D conversion

A 2012 3D re-release was created by re-mastering the original to 4K resolution and post-converting to stereoscopic 3D format. The Titanic 3D version took 60 weeks and $18 million to produce, including the 4K restoration. The 3D conversion was performed by Stereo D. Digital 2D and in 2D IMAX versions were also struck from the new 4K master created in the process. The only scene entirely redone for the re-release was Rose's view of the night sky at sea on the morning of April 15, 1912. The scene was replaced with an accurate view of the night-sky star pattern, including the Milky Way, adjusted for the location in the North Atlantic Ocean in April 1912. The change was prompted by the astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, who had criticized the unrealistic star pattern. He agreed to send Cameron a corrected view of the sky, which was the basis of the new scene.

An accurate view of the Milky Way was used to replace Rose's view of the moonless night sky at sea, as in this photo from Paranal Observatory. The view was adjusted to match the North Atlantic at 4:20 am on April 15, 1912.

The 3D version of Titanic premiered at the Royal Albert Hall in London on March 27, 2012, with James Cameron and Kate Winslet in attendance, and entered general release on April 4, 2012, six days before the centenary of Titanic embarking on her maiden voyage.

Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers rated the reissue stars out of 4, explaining he found it "pretty damn dazzling". He said, "The 3D intensifies Titanic. You are there. Caught up like never before in an intimate epic that earns its place in the movie time capsule." Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman gave the film an A grade. He wrote, "For once, the visuals in a 3-D movie don't look darkened or distracting. They look sensationally crisp and alive." Richard Corliss of , who was very critical in 1997, remained in the same mood: "I had pretty much the same reaction: fitfully awed, mostly water-logged." In regards to the 3D effects, he noted the "careful conversion to 3D lends volume and impact to certain moments... [but] in separating the foreground and background of each scene, the converters have carved the visual field into discrete, not organic, levels." Ann Hornaday for The Washington Post found herself asking "whether the film's twin values of humanism and spectacle are enhanced by Cameron's 3-D conversion, and the answer to that is: They aren't." She added that the "3-D conversion creates distance where there should be intimacy, not to mention odd moments in framing and composition."

The film grossed an estimated $4.7 million on the first day of its re-release in North America (including midnight preview showings) and went on to make $17.3 million over the weekend, finishing in third place behind The Hunger Games and American Reunion. Outside North America it earned $35.2 million, finishing second, and it improved on its performance the following weekend by topping the box office with $98.9 million. China has proven to be its most successful territory, where it earned $11.6 million on its opening day, going on to earn a record-breaking $67 million in its opening week and taking more money in the process than it did in the entirety of its original theatrical run.

The reissue earned $343.4 million worldwide, with $145 million coming from China and $57.8 million from Canada and the United States. With a worldwide box office of nearly $350 million, the 3D re-release of Titanic remains the highest grossing re-released film of all time, ahead of The Lion King, , and Avatar.

The 3D conversion of the film was also released in the 4DX format in selected international territories, which allows the audience to experience the film's environment using motion, wind, fog, lighting and scent-based special effects.

20th anniversary

For the 20th anniversary of the film, Titanic was re-released in cinemas in Dolby Vision (in both 2D and 3D) for one week beginning December 1, 2017.

25th anniversary

Titanic was re-released in theaters by Paramount domestically and Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures (through the 20th Century Studios label) internationally on February 10, 2023, in a remastered 3D 4K HDR render, with high frame rate, as part of the film's 25th anniversary. For this version, the international prints update 20th Century's logo with the studio's current name, as a result of Disney's 2019 acquisition of the studio.

Titanic Live was a live performance of James Horner's original score by a 130-piece orchestra, choir and Celtic musicians, accompanying a showing of the film.[non-primary source needed ] In April 2015, Titanic Live premiered at the Royal Albert Hall, London, where the 2012 3D re-release had premiered.

Merchandise

In 1998, an official tie-in CD-ROM game was released, titled James Cameron's Titanic Explorer. The educational game covered the history of the vessel's construction, maiden voyage and sinking, as well as the discovery and exploration of the wreck. The game included deleted footage from the film and extensive 360-degree video footage of the film's sets.

In 2020, a board game based on the film, titled Titanic: The Game, was released by Spin Master Games.

References

Further reading

Ballard, Robert (1987). The Discovery of the Titanic. Canada: Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-0-446-67174-3.

Majoor, Mireille; James Cameron (2003). Titanic: Ghosts of the Abyss. New York: Scholastic. ISBN 978-1-895892-31-4.

Marsh, Ed W.; Kirkland, Douglas (1998). James Cameron's Titanic. London: Boxtree. ISBN 978-0-7522-2404-6. OCLC 43745407.

Parisi, Paula (1998). Titanic and the Making of James Cameron. London: Orion. ISBN 978-0-7528-1799-6. Archived from the original on September 20, 2023.

Sandler, Kevin S.; Studlar, Gaylyn, eds. (1999). Titanic: Anatomy of a Blockbuster. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-2669-0.

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Titanic is a 1997 American romantic disaster film directed, written, produced, and co-edited by James Cameron. Incorporating both historical and fictionalized aspects, it is based on accounts of the sinking of RMS Titanic in 1912.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Leonardo Wilhelm DiCaprio (, ; Italian: [diˈkaːprjo]; born November 11, 1974) is an American actor and film producer. Known for his work in biographical and period films, he is the recipient of numerous accolades, including an Academy Award, a British Academy Film Award and three Golden Globe Awards. As of 2019, his films have grossed over $7.2 billion worldwide, and he has been placed eight times in annual rankings of the world's highest-paid actors.

Born in Los Angeles, DiCaprio began his career in the late 1980s by appearing in television commercials. In the early 1990s, he had recurring roles in various television shows, such as the sitcom Parenthood, and had his first major film part as author Tobias Wolff in This Boy's Life (1993). He received critical acclaim and his first Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for his performance as a developmentally disabled boy in What's Eating Gilbert Grape (1993). DiCaprio achieved international stardom with the star-crossed romances Romeo + Juliet (1996) and (1997). After the latter became the highest-grossing film at the time, he reduced his workload for a few years. In an attempt to shed his image of a romantic hero, DiCaprio sought roles in other genres, including the 2002 crime dramas Catch Me If You Can and Gangs of New York; the latter marked the first of his many successful collaborations with director Martin Scorsese.

DiCaprio continued to gain acclaim for his performances in the biopic The Aviator (2004), the political thriller Blood Diamond (2006), the crime drama The Departed (2006) and the romantic drama Revolutionary Road (2008). He later made environmental documentaries and starred in several high-profile directors' successful projects, including the action thriller (2010), the western Django Unchained (2012), the biopic The Wolf of Wall Street (2013), the survival drama The Revenant (2015)-for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor-and the comedy-dramas Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (2019) and Don't Look Up (2021).

DiCaprio is the founder of Appian Way Productions-a production company that has made some of his films and the documentary series Greensburg (2008-2010)-and the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation, a nonprofit organization devoted to promoting environmental awareness. A United Nations Messenger of Peace, he regularly supports charitable causes. In 2005, he was named a Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres for his contributions to the arts, and in 2016, he appeared in magazine's 100 most influential people in the world. DiCaprio was voted one of the 50 greatest actors of all time in a 2022 readers' poll by .

Early life and acting background

Leonardo Wilhelm DiCaprio was born on November 11, 1974, in Los Angeles, California. He is the only child of Irmelin Indenbirken, a legal secretary, and George DiCaprio, an underground comix artist and distributor; they met while attending college and moved to Los Angeles after graduating. His mother is German and his father is of Italian and German descent. His maternal grandfather, Wilhelm Indenbirken, was German, and his maternal grandmother, Helene Indenbirken, was a Russian immigrant living in Germany. DiCaprio was raised Catholic. Sources have falsely claimed his maternal grandmother was born in Odesa, Ukraine; there is no evidence that DiCaprio has any relatives of Ukrainian birth or heritage.

DiCaprio's parents named him Leonardo because his pregnant mother first felt him kick while she was looking at a Leonardo da Vinci painting in the Uffizi museum in Florence, Italy. When DiCaprio was one year old, his parents divorced after his father fell in love with another woman, prompting him to move out. To raise him together, his parents moved into twin cottages with a shared garden in Echo Park, Los Angeles. DiCaprio's father lived with his girlfriend and her son, Adam Farrar, with whom DiCaprio developed a close bond. DiCaprio and his mother later moved to other neighborhoods, such as Los Feliz. He has described his parents as " bohemian in every sense of the word" and as "the people I trust the most in the world". DiCaprio has stated that he grew up poor in a neighborhood plagued with prostitution, crime and violence. Attending the Los Angeles Center for Enriched Studies for four years and later the Seeds Elementary School, he later enrolled at the John Marshall High School. DiCaprio disliked public school and wanted to audition for acting jobs instead. He dropped out of high school later, eventually earning a general equivalency diploma.

As a child, DiCaprio wanted to become either a marine biologist or an actor. He eventually favored the latter; he liked impersonating characters and imitating people, and enjoyed seeing their reactions to his acting. His interest in performing began at the age of two when he went onto the stage at a performance festival and danced spontaneously to a positive response from the crowd. He was also motivated to learn acting when Farrar's appearance in a television commercial earned him $50,000. DiCaprio has said in interviews that his first television appearance was in the children's series Romper Room, and that he was dismissed from the show for being disruptive. The show's host has denied that any children were removed from the show in this way. At 14, he began appearing in several commercials for Matchbox cars, which he calls his first role. DiCaprio later appeared in commercials for Kraft Singles, Bubble Yum and Apple Jacks. In 1989, he played the role of Glen in two episodes of the television show The New Lassie.

At the beginning of his career, DiCaprio had difficulty finding an agent. When he found one, the agent suggested DiCaprio change his name to Lenny Williams to appeal to American audiences, which he declined to do. DiCaprio remained jobless for a year and a half, even after 100 auditions. Following this lack of success, DiCaprio was going to give up acting but his father persuaded him to persevere with it. Motivated by his father and by the prospect of financial security, he continued to audition. After a talent agent, who knew his mother's friend, recommended him to casting directors, DiCaprio secured roles in about 20commercials.

By the early1990s, DiCaprio began acting regularly on television, starting with a role in the pilot of The Outsiders (1990) and one episode of the soap opera Santa Barbara (1990), in which he played a teenage alcoholic. DiCaprio's career prospects improved when he was cast in Parenthood, a series based on the 1989 comedy film of the same name. To prepare for the role of Garry Buckman, a troubled teenager, he analyzed Joaquin Phoenix's performance in the original film. His work that year earned him two nominations at the 12th Youth in Film Awards-Best Young Actor in a Daytime Series for Santa Barbara and Best Young Actor Starring in a New Television Series for Parenthood. Around this time, he was a contestant on the children's game show , on which he performed several stunts, including catching the fish inside a small pool using only his teeth.

1991-1996: Early work and breakthrough

DiCaprio made his film debut later that year as the stepson of an unscrupulous landlord in the low-budget horror sequel - a part he later described as "your average, no-depth, standard kid with blond hair". DiCaprio has stated that he prefers not to remember Critters 3, viewing it as "possibly one of the worst films of all time" and the kind of role he wanted to avoid in the future. Later in 1991, he became a recurring cast member on the sitcom Growing Pains, playing Luke Brower, a homeless boy who is taken in by the show's central family. Co-star Joanna Kerns recalls DiCaprio being "especially intelligent and disarming for his age" but she noted that he was also mischievous and jocular on set, and often made fun of his co-stars. DiCaprio was cast by the producers to appeal to young female audience, but his arrival did not improve the show's ratings and he left before the end of its run. He was nominated for a Young Artist Award for Best Young Actor Co-starring in a Television Series. DiCaprio also had an uncredited role in 1991 in one episode of .

Lasse Hallström directed DiCaprio in What's Eating Gilbert Grape (1993), for which he earned his first Academy Award nomination.

In 1992, DiCaprio had a brief role in the first installment of the Poison Ivy film series, and was handpicked by Robert De Niro from a shortlist of 400 young actors to co-star with him in This Boy's Life. Adapted from the memoir by Tobias Wolff, the film focuses on the relationship between a rebellious teenager, Toby (DiCaprio), and his mother ( Ellen Barkin) and abusive stepfather (De Niro). Director Michael Caton-Jones said that DiCaprio did not know how to behave on set; accordingly, Caton-Jones used a strict mentoring style, after which DiCaprio's behavior began to improve. Bilge Ebiri of Rolling Stone found that the powerful bond between Barkin and DiCaprio elevated the film, praising DiCaprio's portrayal of his character's complex growth from a rebellious teen to an independent young man. This Boy's Life was the first film that gained him recognition.

DiCaprio played the developmentally disabled brother of Johnny Depp's character in What's Eating Gilbert Grape (1993), a comedy-drama about a dysfunctional Iowa family. Caton-Jones recommended DiCaprio to director Lasse Hallström, but he was initially skeptical, as he considered DiCaprio too good-looking for the part. Hallström cast DiCaprio after he emerged as "the most observant" auditionee. To ensure authenticity in his portrayal, DiCaprio studied similarly impaired children and their mannerisms, and Hallström allowed him to create the character using his own researched attributes. The film became a critical success. At 19, DiCaprio earned a National Board of Review Award, as well as nominations for a Golden Globe Award and an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, making him the seventh-youngest Oscar nominee in the category. "The film's real show-stopping turn comes from Mr. DiCaprio," wrote New York Times critic Janet Maslin, "who makes Arnie's many tics so startling and vivid that at first he is difficult to watch. The performance has a sharp, desperate intensity from beginning to end." Caryn James, also writing for The New York Times, said of his performances in This Boy's Life and What's Eating Gilbert Grape: "He made the raw, emotional neediness of those boys completely natural and powerful."

DiCaprio's first role of 1995 was in Sam Raimi's Western The Quick and the Dead. When Sony Pictures became dubious over DiCaprio's casting, co-star Sharon Stone paid his salary herself. The film was released to dismal box office performance and mixed reviews from critics. DiCaprio next starred as a teenage Jim Carroll, a drug-addicted high school basketball player and budding writer, in the biopic The Basketball Diaries. He starred in the erotic drama Total Eclipse (1995), driven by the desire to showcase an exceptional performance, which would focus on his acting talent rather than his much-discussed physical appeal. Directed by Agnieszka Holland, it is a fictionalized account of the same-sex relationship between Arthur Rimbaud (DiCaprio) and Paul Verlaine ( David Thewlis). DiCaprio was cast when River Phoenix died before filming began. Although the film failed commercially, it has been included in the catalog of the Warner Archive Collection, which releases classic and cult films from Warner Bros.' library on home video. A review in the San Francisco Chronicle called DiCaprio "his generation's great acting promise" but criticized the mismatch between Thewlis's "cultivated" British accent and DiCaprio's "Southern California twang".

DiCaprio next starred opposite Claire Danes in Baz Luhrmann's Romeo + Juliet (1996), an abridged modernization of William Shakespeare's romantic tragedy, which retained the original Shakespearean dialogue. DiCaprio was initially unsure about another Romeo and Juliet adaptation, but at his father's suggestion, he agreed to examine Luhrmann's work more closely. DiCaprio and Luhrmann then spent a two-week workshop exchanging ideas, which led to the collaboration. Romeo + Juliet established DiCaprio as a leading Hollywood actor; according to film scholar Murray Pomerance, DiCaprio's newfound popularity helped the film become profitable only days after its release. Reviewing DiCaprio's early works, David Thomson of The Guardian called DiCaprio "a revelation" in What's Eating Gilbert Grape, "very moving" in This Boy's Life, "suitably desperate" in The Basketball Diaries and "a vital spark" in Romeo + Juliet. The latter earned DiCaprio a Silver Bear for Best Actor at the 1997 Berlin International Film Festival. He then portrayed a young man who has been committed to a mental asylum in Marvin's Room (1996), a family drama about two estranged sisters, played by Meryl Streep and Diane Keaton, who are reunited through tragedy. He played Hank, the troubled son of Streep's character. Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly praised "the deeply gifted DiCaprio" for holding his own against veteran actresses Keaton and Streep, describing the three as "full-bodied and so powerfully affecting that you're carried along on the pleasure of being in the presence of their extraordinary talent".

1997-2001: Titanic and worldwide recognition

DiCaprio rejected a role in Boogie Nights (1997) to star opposite Kate Winslet in James Cameron's as members of different social classes who fall in love aboard RMS Titanic during its ill-fated maiden voyage. DiCaprio initially had doubts, but was eventually encouraged by Cameron to pursue the part. With a production budget of more than $200 million, the film was the most expensive in history at the time, and was shot at Rosarito, Baja California where a replica of the ship was created. Titanic became the highest-grossing film at the time, eventually earning more than $2.1 billion in box-office receipts worldwide. The role of Jack Dawson transformed DiCaprio into a superstar, resulting in intense adoration among teenage girls and young women that became known as "Leo-mania". The film won 11 Academy Awards-the most wins for any film - including Best Picture, but DiCaprio's failure to gain a nomination led to a protest against the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) by more than 200fans. He was nominated for other high-profile awards, including a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor.

DiCaprio at a press conference for The Beach in 2000

DiCaprio stated in 2000: "I have no connection with me during that whole Titanic phenomenon and what my face became around the world[...] I'll never reach that state of popularity again, and I don't expect to[...] It's not something I'm going to try to achieve either." In his 2015 Rolling Stone article, Ebiri called the role DiCaprio's best, writing that he and Winslet "infuse their earnest back-and-forth with so much genuine emotion that it's hard not to get swept up in their doomed love affair." A writer for Vanity Fair in 2008 similarly labeled them "Hollywood's most iconic screen couple" since Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman. Essaying her first viewing of the film in 2017, contributor Alissa Wilkinson took note of DiCaprio's "boyish charm" and found his performance "natural and unaffected." The success of Titanic intensified DiCaprio's standing as a teen idol and romantic lead, an image from which he sought to dissociate himself. He reduced his workload "to learn to hear [his] own voice in choosing the roles" that he wanted to pursue.

DiCaprio had a brief featured role in Woody Allen's 1998 satire of fame, . Ebiri labeled DiCaprio "the best thing in the film". That year, he also took on the dual roles of villainous King Louis XIV and his secret, sympathetic twin brother Philippe in Randall Wallace's The Man in the Iron Mask, with common elements from the 1939 film of the same name and a 1929 film with Douglas Fairbanks. It received mixed to negative reviews, but grossed $180 million against a budget of $35 million. Entertainment Weekly critic Owen Gleiberman wrote that DiCaprio did not look old enough to play the part, but praised him as "a fluid and instinctive actor, with the face of a mischievous angel." The Guardian's Alex von Tunzelmann was similarly impressed with the actor's performance but found his talent wasted in the film. DiCaprio won a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Screen Couple for the dual roles in 1999.

Also in 1998, DiCaprio was cast to star in American Psycho (2000) for a reported salary of $20 million; after disagreements with Oliver Stone on the film's direction, DiCaprio left the project, taking the lead role in instead. Adapted from Alex Garland's 1996 novel, the film saw him play a backpacking American tourist who ends up in a secret island commune in the Gulf of Thailand. Budgeted at $50 million, the film earned almost three times that at the box office, but was negatively reviewed by critics, and earned him a nomination for the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actor. Todd McCarthy of thought DiCaprio gave a compelling performance but his character lacked defining qualities. The film received criticism for damaging the filming location in Thailand, after which DiCaprio worked to restore the area.

In the mid-1990s, DiCaprio agreed to be in the mostly improvised black-and-white short film as a favor to aspiring director R. D. Robb. When Robb expanded it to a full-length film, DiCaprio and co-star Tobey Maguire had its release blocked in the US and Canada by court order, arguing they never intended to make a feature film. The film premiered at the 2001 Berlin International Film Festival but remains obscure.

2002-2009: Venture into film production

DiCaprio attending an event for Gangs of New York with Martin Scorsese and Cameron Diaz at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival

DiCaprio turned down the role of Anakin Skywalker in Star Wars: Episode II - Attack of the Clones (2002), feeling unprepared to "take that dive" at the time. His first film that year was the biopic Catch Me If You Can, based on the life of Frank Abagnale Jr., who before his 19th birthday committed check fraud to make millions in the 1960s. Directed by Steven Spielberg, the film was shot across 147 different locations in 52 days, making it "the most adventurous, super-charged movie-making" DiCaprio had experienced yet. The film received critical acclaim and grossed $355 million against a budget of $52 million, becoming his second highest-grossing release after Titanic. Roger Ebert praised his departure from dark and troubled characters, and two Entertainment Weekly critics in 2018 called it DiCaprio's best role, labeling him "delightfully persuasive, deceptive, flirtatious, and sometimes tragic-and we dare you to find a better role, if you can". DiCaprio received his third Golden Globe nomination for his performance in the film.

Also in 2002, DiCaprio starred in Martin Scorsese's Gangs of New York, a historical drama set in the mid-19th century in the Five Points district of New York City. Scorsese initially struggled selling his idea of realizing the film until DiCaprio became interested in starring in the film, and thus Miramax Films got involved with financing the project. Nonetheless, production on the film was plagued by overshooting of budgets and producer-director disagreements, resulting in an eight-month shoot. With a budget of $103 million, the film was the most expensive Scorsese had ever made. DiCaprio was drawn to playing Amsterdam Vallon, the young leader of an Irish-American street gang, as it marked a shift from "boyish" roles to a mature leading man. Gangs of New York earned $193 million worldwide and received positive critical response. Anne Thompson of The Observer took note of DiCaprio's "low-key, sturdy performance", but felt that co-star Daniel Day-Lewis overshadowed him.

In 2004, DiCaprio founded the production company Appian Way Productions, a namesake of the Italian road. He was interested in finding unique source material and preserving its essence during development, citing previous experiences where too many people influenced the final product in a negative way. DiCaprio first executive-produced The Assassination of Richard Nixon, which starred Sean Penn as Samuel Byck, and was screened at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival. DiCaprio and Scorsese reunited for a biopic of Howard Hughes, an American film director and aviation pioneer suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder, in The Aviator (2004), which DiCaprio also co-produced under Appian Way. He initially developed the project with Michael Mann who was eventually replaced by Scorsese. The Aviator became a critical and financial success, grossing $213million against its budget of $110million. Simond Braund of thought DiCaprio convincingly played a complex role and highlighted the scenes depicting Hughes's paranoia and obsession. He received his first Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Drama and nominations for an Academy Award, a BAFTA Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award.

In 2006, DiCaprio starred in the crime film The Departed and the political war thriller Blood Diamond. In Scorsese's The Departed, DiCaprio played the role of Billy Costigan, a state trooper working undercover in the Irish Mob in Boston, someone he characterizes as being in a "constant 24-hour panic attack". DiCaprio especially liked the experience of working with co-star Jack Nicholson, describing a scene with him as "one of the most memorable moments" of his life as an actor. In preparation, he visited Boston to interact with people associated with the Irish Mob and gained 15 pounds (6.8 kg) of muscle. Critically acclaimed, the film grossed $291 million against a budget of $90 million, becoming DiCaprio and Scorsese's highest-grossing collaboration to that point. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone praised DiCaprio's and co-star Matt Damon's performances as "explosive, emotionally complex", but felt that Nicholson overshadowed the two. Despite DiCaprio's leading role in The Departed, the film's distributor Warner Bros. Pictures submitted his performance for a Best Supporting Actor nomination at the AMPAS to avoid internal conflict with his part in Blood Diamond. Instead, his co-star Mark Wahlberg was nominated, though DiCaprio earned other accolades for The Departed, including a Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor and Best Actor nominations at the Golden Globes and BAFTA Awards.

DiCaprio at the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival

In Blood Diamond, DiCaprio starred as a diamond smuggler from Rhodesia who is involved in the Sierra Leone Civil War. While filming, he worked with 24 orphaned children from the SOS Children's Village in Maputo, Mozambique, and said he was touched by his interactions with them. To prepare, he spent six months in Africa, learned about camouflage from people in South African military and interviewed and recorded people in the country to improve his accent. The film received generally favorable reviews, and DiCaprio was noted for his South African accent, which is generally known as difficult to imitate. Claudia Puig of the approvingly highlighted DiCaprio's transition from a boy to a man on screen, and Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post similarly noted his growth as an actor since The Departed. DiCaprio received nominations for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe for Blood Diamond.

In 2007, DiCaprio produced the comedy drama Gardener of Eden, which according to The Hollywood Reporter's Frank Scheck "lack[ed] the necessary dramatic urgency or black humor to connect with audiences". Later that year, he produced, co-wrote and narrated The 11th Hour, a documentary on the state of the natural environment that won the Earthwatch Environmental Film Award in 2008. DiCaprio's Appian Way produced Planet Green's Greensburg (2008-2010), which ran for three seasons. Set in Greensburg, Kansas, it is about rebuilding the town in a sustainable way after being hit by the May 2007 EF5 tornado. Also in 2008, DiCaprio starred in Body of Lies, a spy film based on the novel of the same name. He played one of three agents battling a terrorist organization in the Middle East. Considering the film to be a throwback to political features of the 1970s like The Parallax View (1974) and Three Days of the Condor (1975), DiCaprio dyed his hair brown and wore brown contacts for the role. The film received mixed reviews from critics, and grossed $118 million against a budget of $67.5 million.

Later in 2008, DiCaprio collaborated with Kate Winslet for the drama Revolutionary Road, directed by her then-husband Sam Mendes. As both actors had been reluctant to make romantic films similar to Titanic, it was Winslet who suggested that they both work with her on a film adaptation of the 1961 eponymous novel by Richard Yates. She found that the script, by Justin Haythe, had little in common with the 1997 blockbuster. Playing a couple in a failing marriage in the 1950s, DiCaprio and Winslet spent some time together in preparation, and DiCaprio felt claustrophobic on the small set they used. He saw his character as "unheroic", "slightly cowardly" and someone "willing to be just a product of his environment". Peter Travers liked DiCaprio's pairing with Winslet and his multi-layered portrayal of an overwhelmed character, and Marshall Sella of called it the "most mature and memorable performance of his lifetime". DiCaprio earned his seventh Golden Globes nomination for the film. Revolutionary Road grossed $75.9million against its budget of $35million. He ended the 2000s by producing director Jaume Collet-Serra's psychological horror thriller film (2009), starring Vera Farmiga, Peter Sarsgaard and Isabelle Fuhrman. Although the film received mixed reviews, it was a commercial success.

2010-2013: Films with high-profile directors

DiCaprio continued to collaborate with Scorsese in the 2010 psychological thriller film Shutter Island, based on the 2003 novel of the same name by Dennis Lehane. He played Edward "Teddy" Daniels, a U.S. Marshal investigating a psychiatric facility located on an island, who comes to question his own sanity. DiCaprio and Scorsese became interested in the project in 2007, and the former co-produced the film under Appian Way with Phoenix Pictures. Because of the film's disturbing scenes, DiCaprio had nightmares of mass murder during production and considered relaxing with his friends a form of therapy. The film was released to mixed reviews; Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised Scorsese's direction and the acting but criticized its twist ending. Peter Travers called it DiCaprio's "most haunting and emotionally complex performance yet", and particularly liked his cave scene with co-star Patricia Clarkson. The film was a commercial success, grossing $294 million worldwide against a budget of $80 million.

DiCaprio (first from the right) with the cast of Inception at the film's premiere in 2010

DiCaprio's second role in 2010 was in Christopher Nolan's critically acclaimed ensemble science-fiction film . Inspired by the experience of lucid dreaming and dream incubation, the film features Dom Cobb (DiCaprio), an "extractor" who enters the dreams of others to obtain information that is otherwise inaccessible. Cobb is promised a chance to regain his old life in exchange for planting an idea in a corporate target's mind. DiCaprio was fascinated with the idea of a "dream-heist" and the potential for his character to manipulate his dreamworld and impact his real life. Made on a budget of $160 million, the film grossed $836 million worldwide to become DiCaprio's second highest-grossing film. To star in this film, DiCaprio agreed to a pay cut from his $20 million fee and opted for a share in first-dollar gross points, which entitled him to a percentage of the cinema ticket sales. The risk proved fruitful, as DiCaprio earned $50 million from the film, becoming his highest payday yet.

DiCaprio starred as J. Edgar Hoover in Clint Eastwood's (2011). A biopic about Hoover, the film focuses on his career as an FBI director, including an examination of his private life as an alleged closeted homosexual. Critics felt that the film lacked coherence overall but commended DiCaprio's performance. Roger Ebert praised DiCaprio's ability to bring depth and nuance to the character, suggesting that his performance conveyed aspects of Hoover's personality that were possibly even unknown to the man himself. Also in 2011, he produced Catherine Hardwicke's romantic horror film Red Riding Hood. Though it was named one of the ten worst films of 2011 by magazine, it had moderate box-office returns. Also that year, DiCaprio's Appian Way produced George Clooney's political drama The Ides of March, an adaptation of Beau Willimon's 2008 play Farragut North.

In 2012, DiCaprio starred as plantation owner Calvin Candie in Quentin Tarantino's Spaghetti Western, Django Unchained. After reading the script, DiCaprio felt uncomfortable with the extent of racism portrayed in the film, but his co-stars and Tarantino convinced him not to sugarcoat it. While filming, DiCaprio accidentally cut his hand on glass, but continued filming, and Tarantino elected to use the take in the final product. The film received critical acclaim; a writer for magazine commended him for playing a villainous role and found his performance "blood-chilling". The film earned DiCaprio a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Django Unchained grossed $425 million worldwide on a production budget of $100 million.

In January 2013, DiCaprio said he would take a long break from acting to "fly around the world doing good for the environment". That year, he had four releases as an actor and a producer. His first was in the role of millionaire Jay Gatsby in Baz Luhrmann's The Great Gatsby, an adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald's 1925 novel of the same name, co-starring Carey Mulligan and Tobey Maguire. The film received mixed reviews from critics, but DiCaprio's performance was praised and earned him the AACTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role. Critic Rafer Guzman of wrote that DiCaprio was not only "tough[...] but also vulnerable, touching, funny, a faker, a human. It's a tremendous, hard-won performance." Matt Zoller Seitz of Roger Ebert's website described his performance as "the movie's greatest and simplest special effect," and "iconic-maybe his career best". The film grossed $353 million worldwide, more than three times its budget. Three films were produced by DiCaprio under Appian Way in 2013-the ensemble crime thriller Runner Runner, which The Guardian's Xan Brooks described as "a lazy, trashy film that barely goes through the motions"; the commercially failed thriller Out of the Furnace; and the black comedy-drama The Wolf of Wall Street.

DiCaprio reunited with Scorsese for the fifth time in The Wolf of the Wall Street, a film based on the life of stockbroker Jordan Belfort (played by DiCaprio), who was arrested in the late 1990s for securities fraud and money laundering. DiCaprio wanted to play Belfort ever since he had read his autobiography and won a bidding war with Warner Bros. against Brad Pitt and Paramount Pictures for the rights to Belfort's memoir in 2007. He was fond of Belfort's honest and unapologetic portrayal of his actual experiences in the book, and was inspired by the financial crisis of 2007-2008 to make the film. The Wolf of Wall Street received positive reviews for Scorsese's and DiCaprio's work together. The Hollywood Reporter's Todd McCarthy lauded DiCaprio for fully realizing his character's potential with a carefree performance. Jonathan Romney of Film Comment wrote that DiCaprio displays a great deal of comedic talent, excelling in "rubber-limbed slapstick" humor. The film earned him the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and nominations for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, as well as Academy Awards for Best Actor and Best Picture.

2014-present: Environmental documentaries and awards success

DiCaprio was an executive producer on , a 2014 British documentary film about four people fighting to protect the world's last mountain gorillas from war and poaching. The film premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in April2014, and DiCaprio was nominated for the 2015 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Special. Cowspiracy: The Sustainability Secret was another documentary film that year for which he was an executive producer-he took part in the new cut released exclusively on Netflix that September. It explores the impact of animal agriculture on the environment.

DiCaprio at the French premiere of The Revenant in 2016

In 2015, DiCaprio produced and played fur trapper Hugh Glass in Alejandro G. Iñárritu's survival drama The Revenant. DiCaprio found his role in the film difficult; he had to eat a raw slab of bison's liver and sleep in animal carcasses. He also learned to shoot a musket, build a fire, speak two Native American languages ( Pawnee and Arikara) and apply ancient healing techniques. Built on a budget of $135 million, the film earned $533 million worldwide. The film received positive reviews with particular praise for DiCaprio's acting. Mark Kermode of The Guardian wrote that DiCaprio shone with a performance that prioritizes physicality over speech, and Nick De Semlyen of Empire noted that he uplifted the film. The film earned him numerous awards, including an Academy Award, a Golden Globe, a BAFTA, a Screen Actors Guild Award and a Critic's Choice Award for Best Actor. For the next three years, DiCaprio narrated documentaries and served as a producer for films. In 2016, he was an executive producer for The Ivory Game and Catching the Sun; he also produced, hosted and narrated the documentary Before the Flood about climate change. He produced the crime drama Live by Night (2016), which received unenthusiastic reviews and failed to recoup its $65 million production budget. His next production ventures were in 2018-the psychological horror and the commercially failed action-adventure .

After producing and narrating the 2019 global warming documentary , DiCaprio returned to acting following a four-year break in Quentin Tarantino's comedy-drama Once Upon a Time in Hollywood, which traces the relationship between Rick Dalton (DiCaprio), an aging television actor and his stuntman, Cliff Booth (Brad Pitt). To help the film's financing, DiCaprio and Pitt agreed to take a pay cut, and they each received $10 million. DiCaprio liked working with Pitt, and Tarantino described the pair as the most exciting since Robert Redford and Paul Newman. DiCaprio was fascinated with the film's homage to Hollywood and focus on the friendship between his and Pitt's characters. He drew from real-life experience of witnessing the struggles and rejections of his actor friends in the industry. The film premiered at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival, where critics praised his and Pitt's performances. A writer for Business Insider called it one of the best performances of DiCaprio's career, and Ian Sandwell of Digital Spy particularly liked the duo's chemistry, believing their scenes together to be some of the film's strongest parts. DiCaprio received nominations for an Oscar, a Golden Globe, a BAFTA Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actor. The film earned $374 million against a budget of $90 million.

In 2020, DiCaprio served as an executive producer for The Right Stuff, a television series adaption of the 1973 namesake book. After being in development at National Geographic, it was released on Disney+. That May, DiCaprio briefly featured in the finale of the miniseries The Last Dance. In 2021, DiCaprio appeared in Adam McKay's satirical comedy Don't Look Up. He spent five months changing the film's script with McKay before agreeing to the part. Starring alongside Jennifer Lawrence as two astronomers attempting to warn humanity about an extinction-level comet, DiCaprio saw this film as an analogy of the world's indifference to the climate crisis. As a frequent supporter of environmentalism, DiCaprio said he has often looked to star in and make films tackling issues related to it, something he found hard due to people's inability to listen. He praised McKay for envisioning a project on how humans would react to a serious issue from a political, social and scientific standpoint. While reviews for the film were mixed, most critics praised DiCaprio's and Lawrence's performances; journalists from Digital Spy and NDTV lauded their pairing. DiCaprio earned nominations for a Golden Globe and a BAFTA Award for the film. It broke the record for the most views (152 million hours) in a single week in Netflix history.

DiCaprio next starred in Scorsese's crime drama Killers of the Flower Moon (2023) based on the book of the same name by David Grann, for which he was paid $30 million. Initially signed for the heroic part of FBI agent Tom White, DiCaprio insisted on playing the morally complex role of Ernest Burkhart, the nephew of murderer William Hale, leading to extensive script rewrites. Terming it the best performance of DiCaprio's career, IndieWire's David Ehrlich wrote that "his nuanced and uncompromising turn as the cretinous Ernest Burkhart mines new wonders from the actor's long-standing lack of vanity".

Reception and acting style

Early in his career, DiCaprio gained a reputation for his reckless behavior and intense partying with a group of male celebrities dubbed "the Pussy Posse" in the 1990s. In an infamous article published by New York Magazine in 1998, journalist Nancy Jo Sales criticized the group as men whose pursuit was to "chase girls, pick fights and not tip the waitress". During an unknown activity, DiCaprio got himself and friend Justin Herwick almost killed when his parachute failed to open, after which his instructor released an emergency core. In response, DiCaprio said he is fond of doing things that scare him. John McCain, who was a United States Senator for Arizona, called him "an androgynous wimp". DiCaprio found people's perception of him exaggerated, adding, "They want you miserable, just like them. They don't want heroes; what they want is to see you fall." Steven Spielberg, who directed him in Catch Me If You Can, defended DiCaprio's reputation as a "party boy", believing it is a common behavior for young people and describing him as a family-oriented person during the film's production. Considering DiCaprio to be conscious of his public reputation, The New York Times' Caryn James credited him as one of the few actors to use his stardom to further social causes. Carole Cadwalladr of The Guardian said DiCaprio is "polite, charming, makes jokes, engages eye contact. And manages[...] to give almost no hint whatsoever of his actual personality."

"Life can get pretty monotonous. Acting is like living multiple lives. When you make a movie, you go off to different places, live different cultures, investigate somebody else's reality, and you try to manifest that to the best of your ability. It is incredibly eye-opening. That's why I love acting. There's nothing as transformative as what a film, a documentary, can do to get people to care about something else besides their own lives."

DiCaprio is regarded as one of the finest actors of his generation. In a 2022 readers' poll by Empire, he was voted one of the 50 greatest actors of all time. The magazine praised his willingness to "go to the ends of the earth (often literally) to get under his characters' skin". Colin Covert of The Seattle Times similarly believed DiCaprio "redefines film stardom" through his willingness to take on challenging roles that few of his contemporaries are capable of performing.

Since his international stardom with Titanic (1997), he has admitted feeling nervous about starring in big-budget studio films because of their hype and marketing campaigns. As an actor, he views film as a "relevant art form, like a painting or sculpture. A hundred years from now, people will still be watching that movie." He often plays roles based on real-life people and stories told in specific periods. According to Caryn James, DiCaprio is unafraid of working with established directors on unconventional projects; taking such risks has led him to star in failed films like The Beach (2000), but also his successful collaborations with Martin Scorsese. DiCaprio has described his relationship with Scorsese as dreamlike and admires his knowledge of film, crediting the director with having taught him its history and importance. Scorsese has commented on DiCaprio's ability to repeatedly demonstrate emotion on screen. Jesse Hassenger of considers the duo's collaborations-which earned them the 2013 National Board of Review (Spotlight Award)-to be career-defining moments for both of them and as vital as Scorsese's acclaimed collaborations with Robert De Niro.

Author Michael K. Hammond wrote that DiCaprio built his star reputation by demonstrating his acting ability, and praised him for "revealing a character while concealing the actor" and "disappearing into [his] roles". According to Agnieszka Holland, who directed DiCaprio in Total Eclipse (1995), DiCaprio is "one of the most mature actors" she has worked with and is "courageous" in his choice of roles. Holland remarked that he does not rely on method acting but rather on a trick that allows him to truly "become the character". Meryl Streep, who co-starred with DiCaprio in Marvin's Room, said he possesses the kind of unpredictability that makes his career difficult to classify, his life precarious and his work thrilling. Writing for The Observer, film critic Philip French has asserted that many characters portrayed by DiCaprio are in the process of becoming men. He wrote that DiCaprio's inclination toward films about dysfunctional families and characters seeking father figures may allude to his own troubled childhood. DiCaprio often plays characters who themselves are playing roles, which Caryn James says looks simple on screen but requires sophisticated acting. He tends to play antiheroes and characters who lose their mental stability as the narrative progresses. Derek Thompson of The Atlantic argued that DiCaprio gives his best performances when playing "frauds and cheats and double-crossing liars and mercenaries".

Several media publications, such as , Empire and Harper's Bazaar, have included DiCaprio in their listings of the most attractive actors. In 1998, he sued magazine over plans to publish a fully nude picture of him. He has said he does not believe in focusing on appearance-as this is only temporary and can negatively affect one's profession in the industry-and looks for career longevity instead. In 2005, DiCaprio was made a commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Minister of Culture for his contributions to the arts. In 2016, he was named one of the 100most influential people in the world by magazine. He was included on ' annual list of the world's highest-paid actors in 2008 and from 2010 to 2016 with respective earnings of $45 million, $28 million, $77 million, $37 million, $39 million, $29 million and $27 million, topping the list in 2011. The magazine has commended DiCaprio's ability to star in risky, R-rated films that become box office successes. The Hollywood Reporter listed him as one of the 100 most powerful people in entertainment from 2016 to 2019. A writer for the same magazine credits DiCaprio as the rare actor to have a successful career "without ever having made a comic book movie, family film or pre-branded franchise. Leo is the franchise." Stacey Wilson Hunt, analyzing his career in New York Magazine in 2016, opined DiCaprio, unlike most of his contemporaries, had not starred in a bad film in the previous ten years. Of his success, DiCaprio says, "My attitude is the same as when I started. I feel very connected to that fifteen-year-old kid who got his first movie."

DiCaprio has named Robert De Niro and James Dean as two of his favorite and most influential actors, stating "There were a lot of great actors I really fell in love with, but if I were to pick two, from different generations, it would be De Niro and James Dean". When asked about a performance that stayed with him the most, DiCaprio responded, "I remember being incredibly moved by Jimmy Dean, in East of Eden. There was something so raw and powerful about that performance. His vulnerability [...] his confusion about his entire history, his identity, his desperation to be loved. That performance just broke my heart."

Other ventures

"Climate change is real, it is happening right now. It is the most urgent threat facing our entire species, and we need to work collectively together and stop procrastinating. We need to support leaders around the world who do not speak for the big polluters, but who speak for all of humanity, for the indigenous people of the world, for the billions and billions of underprivileged people out there who would be most affected by this. For our children's children, and for those people out there whose voices have been drowned out by the politics of greed."

-DiCaprio during his acceptance speech at the 88th Academy Awards, 2016

An active celebrity in the climate change movement, DiCaprio believes global warming is the world's "number-one environmental challenge". Eager to learn about ecology from an early age, he would watch documentaries on rainforest depletion and the loss of species and habitats. In 1998, he established the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation, a non-profit organization devoted to promoting environmental awareness. It supports organizations and campaigns committed to ensuring a viable future for planet Earth, and produced the short web documentaries Water Planet and Global Warning. The foundation has also funded debt-for-nature swaps. By 2018, the foundation had funded more than 200 projects, providing $100 million in support. He has been an active supporter of numerous environmental organizations and sat on the board of the World Wildlife Fund and International Fund for Animal Welfare.

DiCaprio has owned environment-friendly electric-hybrid vehicles. His use of private jets and large yachts have been criticized as hypocritical due to their large carbon footprints. DiCaprio chaired the national Earth Day celebration in 2000 where he interviewed Bill Clinton and they discussed plans to deal with global warming and the environment. He presented at the 2007 American leg of Live Earth. DiCaprio donated $1 million to the Wildlife Conservation Society at Russia's Tiger Summit. DiCaprio's persistence in reaching the event after encountering two plane delays caused then Prime Minister Vladimir Putin to describe him as a " muzhik" or "real man". In 2013, he organized a benefit fine art auction, "11th Hour", which raised nearly $38.8 million for his foundation. In September 2014, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon designated DiCaprio as a United Nations Messenger of Peace with a focus on climate change. Later that month, he made an opening statement to members of the UN Climate Summit; his speech reached an estimated one billion people worldwide. In 2015, he announced his intention to divest from fossil fuels. He again spoke at the UN in April 2016 prior to the signing of the Paris Climate Change Agreement.

U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry and DiCaprio at the Our Ocean Conference in 2016

At a 2016 meeting with Pope Francis, DiCaprio donated to charity and discussed environmental issues with him. A few days later, possibly influenced by this meeting, the Pope said he would act in a charity film. DiCaprio traveled to Indonesia in early 2016 where he criticized the government's palm oil industry's slash-and-burn forest clearing methods. In July 2016, his foundation donated $15.6 million to help protect wildlife and the rights of Native Americans, along with mitigating climate change. That October, DiCaprio joined Mark Ruffalo in support of the Standing Rock tribe's opposition to the Dakota Access Pipeline.

In April 2017, DiCaprio protested against President Donald Trump's inaction on climate change by attending the People's Climate March. In July, a charity auction and celebrity concert arranged by DiCaprio's foundation had raised over $30 million in one night. The DiCaprio foundation donated $100 million in December 2018 to fight climate change. In May 2021, DiCaprio pledged $43million to enact conservation operations across the Galápagos Islands.

Political views

DiCaprio endorsed Hillary Clinton for the 2016 presidential election. In March 2020, DiCaprio attended a fundraiser for Joe Biden at the home of Paramount Pictures executive Sherry Lansing. Prior to the 2020 election, DiCaprio narrated a Netflix documentary series about voting rights, stating, "All of us may have been created equal. But we'll never actually be equal until we all vote. So don't wait." On social media, DiCaprio urged voters to make a plan to cast their ballots and to draw attention to voter suppression and restrictive voter ID laws, citing VoteRiders as a source of information and assistance.

In 2023, DiCaprio testified during the trial against Prakazrel Michel, who is being accused of participating in a foreign influence campaign that was aimed at the Obama and Trump administrations.

Philanthropy

In 1998, DiCaprio and his mother donated $35,000 for a "Leonardo DiCaprio Computer Center" at a library in Los Feliz. In May 2009, DiCaprio joined Kate Winslet, director James Cameron and Canadian singer Celine Dion, in a campaign to raise money to financially support the fees of the nursing home where Millvina Dean, a survivor of the RMS Titanic, was residing. DiCaprio and Winslet donated $20,000 to support Dean. In 2010, he donated $1 million to relief efforts in Haiti after the earthquake. In 2011, DiCaprio joined the Animal Legal Defense Fund's campaign to release Tony, a tiger that had spent the last decade at a truck stop in Grosse Tête, Louisiana. DiCaprio donated $61,000 to the gay rights group GLAAD in 2013.

In 2016, DiCaprio donated $65,000 to the annual fundraising gala for the Children of Armenia Fund, where he was a special guest of his friend and honorary chair, Tony Shafrazi. Supporting Hurricane Harvey (2017) relief efforts, DiCaprio provided $1 million through his foundation. In 2020, DiCaprio's foundation donated $3 million to Australia bushfire relief efforts. Amidst the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the media announced DiCaprio donated $10million to support Ukraine, although the news agency Associated Press suggested this amount was inaccurate.

Personal life

DiCaprio in 2008

DiCaprio is agnostic but does not identify as an atheist. His personal life is the subject of widespread media attention. He rarely grants interviews and is reluctant to discuss his private life. DiCaprio has been the focus of various reports detailing his involvement with women aged 25 or younger, and has faced criticism for those relationships. In 1999, DiCaprio met Brazilian model Gisele Bündchen, whom he dated until 2005. He was romantically involved with Israeli model Bar Refaeli from 2005 to 2011. He later dated German fashion model Toni Garrn from 2013 to 2014 and later in 2017. DiCaprio was in a relationship with American model and actress Camila Morrone from c. 2017 until 2022.

DiCaprio owns houses in Los Angeles and apartments in New York City. In 2009, he bought an island, Blackadore Caye, off mainland Belize-on which he is set to open an environment-friendly resort-and in 2014, he purchased the original Dinah Shore residence designed by architect Donald Wexler in Palm Springs, California.

In 2005, DiCaprio's face was severely injured when model Aretha Wilson hit him over the head with a broken bottle at a Hollywood party. As a result, he required seventeen stitches to his face and neck. Wilson pleaded guilty to the assault and was sentenced in 2010 to two years in prison.

In 2017, when The Wolf of Wall Street producer Red Granite Pictures was involved in the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal, DiCaprio turned over the gifts he received from business associates at the production company, including from fugitive businessman Jho Low, to the US government. These included a Best Actor Oscar trophy won by Marlon Brando, a $3.2 million Pablo Picasso painting and a $9 million Jean-Michel Basquiat collage.

Filmography and accolades

According to the online portal Box Office Mojo and the review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes, DiCaprio's most critically and commercially successful films include What's Eating Gilbert Grape (1993), Romeo + Juliet (1996), (1997), Catch Me If You Can (2002), Gangs of New York (2002), The Aviator (2004), The Departed (2006), Blood Diamond (2006), Shutter Island (2010), (2010), Django Unchained (2012), The Great Gatsby (2013), The Wolf of Wall Street (2013), The Revenant (2015) and Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (2019). His films have grossed $7.2 billion worldwide.

DiCaprio has been recognized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for the following performances:

66th Academy Awards (1994): Best Supporting Actor, nomination, for What's Eating Gilbert Grape

77th Academy Awards (2005): Best Actor, nomination, for The Aviator

79th Academy Awards (2007): Best Actor, nomination, for Blood Diamond

86th Academy Awards (2014): Best Picture and Best Actor, nominations, for The Wolf of Wall Street

88th Academy Awards (2016): Best Actor, win, for The Revenant

92nd Academy Awards (2020): Best Actor, nomination, for Once Upon a Time in Hollywood

DiCaprio has won three Golden Globe Awards: Best Actor - Motion Picture Drama for The Aviator and The Revenant and Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for The Wolf of Wall Street, as well as a BAFTA Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actor for The Revenant.

References

Cited sources

Erdős, László (2019). "Greening Hollywood - The Activism of Leonardo DiCaprio". Green Heroes. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 217-221. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-31806-2_43. ISBN 978-3-030-31805-5. S2CID 213723782.

Mooney, William H. (2021). "Citizen Kane (1941) and Baz Luhrmann's The Great Gatsby (2013)". Adaptation and the New Art Film. Palgrave Studies in Adaptation and Visual Culture. Palgrave Macmillan: 237-268. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-62934-2_9. ISBN 978-3-030-62933-5. S2CID 238014709.

Muir, John Kenneth (2004). The Unseen Force: The Films of Sam Raimi. Applause: Theatre & Cinema Books. ISBN 978-1-55783-607-6.

Nash, Melanie; Lahti, Marti (1999). "The Paradoxes of Girls' Fandom". In Sandler, Kevin S.; Studlar, Gaylyn (eds.). Titanic: Anatomy of a Blockbuster. Rutgers University Press. pp. 64-88. ISBN 978-0-8135-2669-0.

Pomerance, Murray (2012). "Leonardo DiCaprio: King of the 'World'". In Everett, Anna (ed.). Pretty People: Movie Stars of the 1990s. Rutgers University Press. pp. 103-122. doi:10.36019/9780813553252-007. ISBN 9780813553252. S2CID 225038492.

Romney, Jonathan (2014). "The Man Who Sold the World". Film Comment. 50 (1): 22-27. JSTOR 43459881.

Schwartz, David; Ryan, Steve; Wostbrock, Fred (1999). The Encyclopedia of TV Game Shows, 3rd Edition. Checkmark Books. ISBN 978-0-8160-3847-3.

Todd, Erica (2014). Passionate Love and Popular Cinema. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9781137295385. ISBN 978-1-349-45183-8.

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Leonardo Wilhelm DiCaprio (, ; Italian: [diˈkaːprjo]; born November 11, 1974) is an American actor and film producer. Known for his work in biographical and period films, he is the recipient of numerous accolades, including an Academy Award, a British Academy Film Award and three Golden Globe Awards.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Beach is a 2000 English-language drama film directed by Danny Boyle and based on the 1996 novel of the same name by Alex Garland, which was adapted for the film by John Hodge. The film stars Leonardo DiCaprio, Tilda Swinton, Virginie Ledoyen, Guillaume Canet, and Robert Carlyle.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
File:Best image of Alpha Centauri A and B.jpg - Wikipedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Toggle the table of contents

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Names

Preferred IUPAC name

Other names

γ-Aminobutanoic acid
4-Aminobutyric acid
3-Carboxypropylamine
Piperidic acid
Piperidinic acid

Identifiers

906818

ECHA InfoCard

100.000.235

EC Number

49775

MeSH

gamma-Aminobutyric+Acid

RTECS number

InChI=1S/C4H9NO2/c5-3-1-2-4(6)7/h1-3,5H2,(H,6,7)

Key: BTCSSZJGUNDROE-UHFFFAOYSA-N

InChI=1/C4H9NO2/c5-3-1-2-4(6)7/h1-3,5H2,(H,6,7)

Key: BTCSSZJGUNDROE-UHFFFAOYAC

Properties

C ₄H ₉NO ₂

Molar mass

103.120 g/mol

Appearance

white microcrystalline powder

Density

1.11 g/mL

Melting point

203.7 °C (398.7 °F; 476.8 K)

Boiling point

247.9 °C (478.2 °F; 521.0 K)

130 g/100 mL

log P

−3.17

Acidity (p K a)

4.031 (carboxyl; H₂O)

10.556 (amino; H₂O)[1]

Hazards

Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH):

Irritant, Harmful

Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):

12,680 mg/kg (mouse, oral)

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

γ-Aminobutyric acid (gamma-aminobutyric acid) , or GABA , is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the developmentally mature mammalian central nervous system. Its principal role is reducing neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system.

GABA is sold as a dietary supplement in many countries. It has been traditionally thought that exogenous GABA (i.e. taken as a supplement) does not cross the blood-brain barrier, but data obtained from more recent research in rats describes the notion as being unclear.[2][3]

The carboxylate form of GABA is γ-aminobutyrate.

Neurotransmitter

Two general classes of GABA receptor are known:[4]

Neurons that produce GABA as their output are called GABAergic neurons, and have chiefly inhibitory action at receptors in the adult vertebrate. Medium spiny cells are a typical example of inhibitory central nervous system GABAergic cells. In contrast, GABA exhibits both excitatory and inhibitory actions in insects, mediating muscle activation at synapses between nerves and muscle cells, and also the stimulation of certain glands.[6] In mammals, some GABAergic neurons, such as chandelier cells, are also able to excite their glutamatergic counterparts.[7]

GABAA receptors are ligand-activated chloride channels: when activated by GABA, they allow the flow of chloride ions across the membrane of the cell.[5] Whether this chloride flow is depolarizing (makes the voltage across the cell's membrane less negative), shunting (has no effect on the cell's membrane potential), or inhibitory/hyperpolarizing (makes the cell's membrane more negative) depends on the direction of the flow of chloride. When net chloride flows out of the cell, GABA is depolarising; when chloride flows into the cell, GABA is inhibitory or hyperpolarizing. When the net flow of chloride is close to zero, the action of GABA is shunting. Shunting inhibition has no direct effect on the membrane potential of the cell; however, it reduces the effect of any coincident synaptic input by reducing the electrical resistance of the cell's membrane. Shunting inhibition can "override" the excitatory effect of depolarising GABA, resulting in overall inhibition even if the membrane potential becomes less negative. It was thought that a developmental switch in the molecular machinery controlling the concentration of chloride inside the cell changes the functional role of GABA between neonatal and adult stages. As the brain develops into adulthood, GABA's role changes from excitatory to inhibitory.[8]

Brain development

GABA is an inhibitory transmitter in the mature brain; its actions were thought to be primarily excitatory in the developing brain.[8][9] The gradient of chloride was reported to be reversed in immature neurons, with its reversal potential higher than the resting membrane potential of the cell; activation of a GABA-A receptor thus leads to efflux of Cl − ions from the cell (that is, a depolarizing current). The differential gradient of chloride in immature neurons was shown to be primarily due to the higher concentration of NKCC1 co-transporters relative to KCC2 co-transporters in immature cells. GABAergic interneurons mature faster in the hippocampus and the GABA machinery appears earlier than glutamatergic transmission. Thus, GABA is considered the major excitatory neurotransmitter in many regions of the brain before the maturation of glutamatergic synapses.[10]

In the developmental stages preceding the formation of synaptic contacts, GABA is synthesized by neurons and acts both as an autocrine (acting on the same cell) and paracrine (acting on nearby cells) signalling mediator.[11][12] The ganglionic eminences also contribute greatly to building up the GABAergic cortical cell population.[13]

GABA regulates the proliferation of neural progenitor cells,[14][15] the migration[16] and differentiation[17][18] the elongation of neurites[19] and the formation of synapses.[20]

GABA also regulates the growth of embryonic and neural stem cells. GABA can influence the development of neural progenitor cells via brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression.[21] GABA activates the GABAA receptor, causing cell cycle arrest in the S-phase, limiting growth.[22]

Beyond the nervous system

Besides the nervous system, GABA is also produced at relatively high levels in the insulin-producing beta cells (β-cells) of the pancreas. The β-cells secrete GABA along with insulin and the GABA binds to GABA receptors on the neighboring islet alpha cells (α-cells) and inhibits them from secreting glucagon (which would counteract insulin's effects).[24]

GABA can promote the replication and survival of β-cells[25][26][27] and also promote the conversion of α-cells to β-cells, which may lead to new treatments for diabetes.[28]

Alongside GABAergic mechanisms, GABA has also been detected in other peripheral tissues including intestines, stomach, Fallopian tubes, uterus, ovaries, testes, kidneys, urinary bladder, the lungs and liver, albeit at much lower levels than in neurons or β-cells.[29]

Experiments on mice have shown that hypothyroidism induced by fluoride poisoning can be halted by administering GABA. The test also found that the thyroid recovered naturally without further assistance after the fluoride had been expelled by the GABA.[30]

Immune cells express receptors for GABA[31][32] and administration of GABA can suppress inflammatory immune responses and promote "regulatory" immune responses, such that GABA administration has been shown to inhibit autoimmune diseases in several animal models.[25][31][33][34]

In 2018, GABA has shown to regulate secretion of a greater number of cytokines. In plasma of T1D patients, levels of 26 cytokines are increased and of those, 16 are inhibited by GABA in the cell assays.[35]

In 2007, an excitatory GABAergic system was described in the airway epithelium. The system is activated by exposure to allergens and may participate in the mechanisms of asthma.[36] GABAergic systems have also been found in the testis[37] and in the eye lens.[38]

GABA is found mostly as a zwitterion (i.e. with the carboxyl group deprotonated and the amino group protonated). Its conformation depends on its environment. In the gas phase, a highly folded conformation is strongly favored due to the electrostatic attraction between the two functional groups. The stabilization is about 50 kcal/mol, according to quantum chemistry calculations. In the solid state, an extended conformation is found, with a trans conformation at the amino end and a gauche conformation at the carboxyl end. This is due to the packing interactions with the neighboring molecules. In solution, five different conformations, some folded and some extended, are found as a result of solvation effects. The conformational flexibility of GABA is important for its biological function, as it has been found to bind to different receptors with different conformations. Many GABA analogues with pharmaceutical applications have more rigid structures in order to control the binding better.[39][40]

In 1883, GABA was first synthesized, and it was first known only as a plant and microbe metabolic product.[41]

In 1950, GABA was discovered as an integral part of the mammalian central nervous system.[41]

In 1959, it was shown that at an inhibitory synapse on crayfish muscle fibers GABA acts like stimulation of the inhibitory nerve. Both inhibition by nerve stimulation and by applied GABA are blocked by picrotoxin.[42]

GABA is primarily synthesized from glutamate via the enzyme glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) with pyridoxal phosphate (the active form of vitamin B6) as a cofactor. This process converts glutamate (the principal excitatory neurotransmitter) into GABA (the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter).[43][44]

GABA can also be synthesized from putrescine[45][46] by diamine oxidase and aldehyde dehydrogenase.[45]

Historically it was thought that exogenous GABA did not penetrate the blood-brain barrier,[2] but more current research[3] describes the notion as being unclear pending further research.

GABA transaminase enzymes catalyze the conversion of 4-aminobutanoic acid (GABA) and 2-oxoglutarate (α-ketoglutarate) into succinic semialdehyde and glutamate. Succinic semialdehyde is then oxidized into succinic acid by succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase and as such enters the citric acid cycle as a usable source of energy.[47]

Drugs that act as allosteric modulators of GABA receptors (known as GABA analogues or GABAergic drugs), or increase the available amount of GABA, typically have relaxing, anti-anxiety, and anti-convulsive effects (with equivalent efficacy to lamotrigine based on studies of mice).[48][49] Many of the substances below are known to cause anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia.[50]

In general, GABA does not cross the blood-brain barrier,[2] although certain areas of the brain that have no effective blood-brain barrier, such as the periventricular nucleus, can be reached by drugs such as systemically injected GABA.[51] At least one study suggests that orally administered GABA increases the amount of human growth hormone (HGH).[52] GABA directly injected to the brain has been reported to have both stimulatory and inhibitory effects on the production of growth hormone, depending on the physiology of the individual.[51]

GABA enhances the catabolism of serotonin into N-acetylserotonin (the precursor of melatonin) in rats.[53] It is thus suspected that GABA is involved in the synthesis of melatonin and thus might exert regulatory effects on sleep and reproductive functions.[54]

Although in chemical terms, GABA is an amino acid (as it has both a primary amine and a carboxylic acid functional group), it is rarely referred to as such in the professional, scientific, or medical community. By convention the term "amino acid", when used without a qualifier, refers specifically to an alpha amino acid. GABA is not an alpha amino acid, meaning the amino group is not attached to the alpha carbon. Nor is it incorporated into proteins as are many alpha-amino acids.[55]

GABA A receptor ligands are shown in the following table[nb 1]

Activity at GABAA

Ligand

Orthosteric Agonist

Muscimol,[56] GABA,[56] gaboxadol ( THIP),[56] isoguvacine, progabide, piperidine-4-sulfonic acid (partial agonist)

Positive allosteric modulators

Barbiturates,[57] benzodiazepines,[58] neuroactive steroids,[59] niacin/ niacinamide,[60] nonbenzodiazepines (i.e. z-drugs, e.g. zolpidem, etomidate,[61] alcohol ( ethanol),[62][63][64] methaqualone, propofol, stiripentol,[65] and anaesthetics[56] (including volatile anaesthetics)

Orthosteric (competitive) Antagonist

bicuculline,[56] gabazine,[66] thujone,[67] flumazenil[68]

Uncompetitive antagonist (e.g. channel blocker)

cicutoxin

Negative allosteric modulators

furosemide, oenanthotoxin, amentoflavone

GABAergic pro-drugs include chloral hydrate, which is metabolised to trichloroethanol,[69] which then acts via the GABA A receptor.[70]

The plant kava contains GABAergic compounds, including kavain, dihydrokavain, methysticin, dihydromethysticin and yangonin.[71]

Other GABAergic modulators include:

GABA is also found in plants.[75][76] It is the most abundant amino acid in the apoplast of tomatoes.[77] Evidence also suggests a role in cell signalling in plants.[78][79]

1. ^ Haynes, William M., ed. (2016). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (97th ed.). CRC Press. pp. 5-88. ISBN 978-1498754286.

2. ^

3. ^

4. ^ Ffrench-Constant RH, Rocheleau TA, Steichen JC, Chalmers AE (June 1993). "A point mutation in a Drosophila GABA receptor confers insecticide resistance". Nature. 363 (6428): 449-51. Bibcode:1993Natur.363..449F. doi:10.1038/363449a0. PMID 8389005. S2CID 4334499.

5. ^

6. ^

7. ^ Purves D, Fitzpatrick D, Hall WC, Augustine GJ, Lamantia AS, eds. (2007). Neuroscience (4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer. pp. 135, box 6D. ISBN 978-0-87893-697-7.

8. ^ Jelitai M, Madarasz E (2005). "The role of GABA in the early neuronal development". GABA in Autism and Related Disorders. International Review of Neurobiology. Vol. 71. pp. 27-62. doi:10.1016/S0074-7742(05)71002-3. ISBN 9780123668721. PMID 16512345.

9. ^ LoTurco JJ, Owens DF, Heath MJ, Davis MB, Kriegstein AR (December 1995). "GABA and glutamate depolarize cortical progenitor cells and inhibit DNA synthesis". Neuron. 15 (6): 1287-1298. doi:10.1016/0896-6273(95)90008-X. PMID 8845153. S2CID 1366263.

10. ^ Ganguly K, Schinder AF, Wong ST, Poo M (May 2001). "GABA itself promotes the developmental switch of neuronal GABAergic responses from excitation to inhibition". Cell. 105 (4): 521-32. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00341-5. PMID 11371348. S2CID 8615968.

11. ^ Ben-Ari Y (September 2002). "Excitatory actions of gaba during development: the nature of the nurture". Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3 (9): 728-739. doi:10.1038/nrn920. PMID 12209121. S2CID 8116740.

12. ^ Rorsman P, Berggren PO, Bokvist K, Ericson H, Möhler H, Ostenson CG, Smith PA (1989). "Glucose-inhibition of glucagon secretion involves activation of GABAA-receptor chloride channels". Nature. 341 (6239): 233-6. Bibcode:1989Natur.341..233R. doi:10.1038/341233a0. PMID 2550826. S2CID 699135.

13. Tian J, Chau C, Hales TG, Kaufman DL (1999). "GABAA receptors mediate inhibition of T cell responses". J. Neuroimmunol. 96 (1): 21-8. doi:10.1016/s0165-5728(98)00264-1. PMID 10227421. S2CID 3006821.

14. ^ Payne AH, Hardy MH (2007). The Leydig cell in health and disease. Humana Press. ISBN 978-1-58829-754-9.

15. ^ Majumdar D, Guha S (1988). "Conformation, electrostatic potential and pharmacophoric pattern of GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) and several GABA inhibitors". Journal of Molecular Structure: THEOCHEM. 180: 125-140. doi:10.1016/0166-1280(88)80084-8.

16. ^ Sapse AM (2000). Molecular Orbital Calculations for Amino Acids and Peptides. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-0-8176-3893-1.[page needed ]

17. ^ W. G. Van der Kloot; J. Robbins (1959). "The effects of GABA and picrotoxin on the junctional potential and the contraction of crayfish muscle". Experientia. 15: 36.

18. ^ Schousboe A, Waagepetersen HS (2007). "GABA: homeostatic and pharmacological aspects". Gaba and the Basal Ganglia - from Molecules to Systems. Prog. Brain Res. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 160. pp. 9-19. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(06)60002-2. ISBN 978-0-444-52184-2. PMID 17499106.

19. ^

20. ^ Powers ME, Yarrow JF, McCoy SC, Borst SE (January 2008). "Growth hormone isoform responses to GABA ingestion at rest and after exercise". Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 40 (1): 104-10. doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e318158b518. PMID 18091016. S2CID 24907247.

21. ^

22. ^ Chua HC, Chebib M (2017). "GABA a Receptors and the Diversity in their Structure and Pharmacology". GABAA Receptors and the Diversity in their Structure and Pharmacology. Advances in Pharmacology. Vol. 79. pp. 1-34. doi:10.1016/bs.apha.2017.03.003. ISBN 9780128104132. PMID 28528665. S2CID 41704867.

23. ^ Olsen RW, Betz H (2006). "GABA and glycine". In Siegel GJ, Albers RW, Brady S, Price DD (eds.). Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects (7th ed.). Elsevier. pp. 291-302. ISBN 978-0-12-088397-4.

24. (a) ^ Herd MB, Belelli D, Lambert JJ (October 2007). "Neurosteroid modulation of synaptic and extrasynaptic GABA(A) receptors". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 116 (1): 20-34. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2007.03.007. PMID 17531325.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)Majewska MD, Harrison NL, Schwartz RD, Barker JL, Paul SM (May 1986). "Steroid hormone metabolites are barbiturate-like modulators of the GABA receptor". Science. 232 (4753): 1004-7. Bibcode:1986Sci...232.1004D. doi:10.1126/science.2422758. PMID 2422758.
(k)Reddy DS, Rogawski MA (2012). "Neurosteroids - Endogenous Regulators of Seizure Susceptibility and Role in the Treatment of Epilepsy". In Noebels JL, Avoli M, Rogawski MA, et al. (eds.). Jasper's Basic Mechanisms of the Epilepsies (4th ed.). Bethesda, Maryland: National Center for Biotechnology Information. PMID 22787590.

25. ^ Toraskar, Mrunmayee; Pratima R.P. Singh; Shashank Neve (2010). "STUDY OF GABAERGIC AGONISTS" (PDF). Deccan Journal of Pharmacology. 1 (2): 56-69. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-16.

26. ^ Vanlersberghe, C; Camu, F (2008). Etomidate and other non-barbiturates. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Vol. 182. pp. 267-82. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74806-9_13. ISBN 978-3-540-72813-9. PMID 18175096.

27. ^ Mihic SJ, Ye Q, Wick MJ, Koltchine VV, Krasowski MD, Finn SE, Mascia MP, Valenzuela CF, Hanson KK, Greenblatt EP, Harris RA, Harrison NL (1997). "Sites of alcohol and volatile anaesthetic action on GABAA and glycine receptors". Nature. 389 (6649): 385-389. Bibcode:1997Natur.389..385M. doi:10.1038/38738. PMID 9311780. S2CID 4393717.

28. ^ Boehm SL, Ponomarev I, Blednov YA, Harris RA (2006). "From gene to behavior and back again: new perspectives on GABAAreceptor subunit selectivity of alcohol actions". Adv. Pharmacol. 54 (8): 1581-1602. doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2004.07.023. PMID 17175815.

29. ^

30. ^ Jira, Reinhard; Kopp, Erwin; McKusick, Blaine C.; Röderer, Gerhard; Bosch, Axel; Fleischmann, Gerald. "Chloroacetaldehydes". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_527.pub2.

31. ^ Dimitrijevic N, Dzitoyeva S, Satta R, Imbesi M, Yildiz S, Manev H (2005). "Drosophila GABAB receptors are involved in behavioral effects of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB)". Eur. J. Pharmacol. 519 (3): 246-252. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.07.016. PMID 16129424.

32. ^ Awad R, Muhammad A, Durst T, Trudeau VL, Arnason JT (August 2009). "Bioassay-guided fractionation of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) using an in vitro measure of GABA transaminase activity". Phytother Res. 23 (8): 1075-81. doi:10.1002/ptr.2712. PMID 19165747. S2CID 23127112.

33. ^ Ramesh SA, Tyerman SD, Xu B, Bose J, Kaur S, Conn V, Domingos P, Ullah S, Wege S, Shabala S, Feijó JA, Ryan PR, Gilliham M, Gillham M (2015). "GABA signalling modulates plant growth by directly regulating the activity of plant-specific anion transporters". Nat Commun. 6: 7879. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.7879R. doi:10.1038/ncomms8879. PMC 4532832. PMID 26219411.

34. ^ Ramesh SA, Tyerman SD, Gilliham M, Xu B (2016). "γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) signalling in plants". Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 74 (9): 1577-1603. doi:10.1007/s00018-016-2415-7. hdl:2440/124330. PMID 27838745. S2CID 19475505.

35. ^ Park DH, Mirabella R, Bronstein PA, Preston GM, Haring MA, Lim CK, Collmer A, Schuurink RC (October 2010). "Mutations in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transaminase genes in plants or Pseudomonas syringae reduce bacterial virulence". Plant J. 64 (2): 318-30. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2010.04327.x. PMID 21070411.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Toggle the table of contents From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Names Preferred IUPAC name Other names γ-Aminobutanoic acid4-Aminobutyric acid3-CarboxypropylaminePiperidic acidPiperidinic acid Identifiers 906818 ECHA InfoCard 100.000.235 EC Number 49775 MeSH gamma-Aminobutyric+Acid RTECS number InChI=1S/C4H9NO2/c5-3-1-2-4(6)7/h1-3,5H2,(H,6,7) Key: BTCSSZJGUNDROE-UHFFFAOYSA-N InChI=1/C4H9NO2/c5-3-1-2-4(6)7/h1-3,5H2,(H,6,7) Key: BTCSSZJGUNDROE-UHFFFAOYAC Properties C 4H 9NO 2 Molar mass 103.120 g/mol Appearance white

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The central nervous system ( CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system is so named because it integrates information it receives from, and coordinates and influences the activity of, all parts of the bodies of bilaterally symmetric animals-that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish-and it contains the majority of the nervous system.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Triazolam, sold under the brand name Halcion among others, is a central nervous system (CNS) depressant tranquilizer of the triazolobenzodiazepine (TBZD) class, which are benzodiazepine (BZD) derivatives. It possesses pharmacological properties similar to those of other benzodiazepines, but it is generally only used as a sedative to treat severe insomnia. In addition to the hypnotic properties, triazolam's amnesic, anxiolytic, sedative, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties are pronounced as well.

Triazolam was initially patented in 1970 and went on sale in the United States in 1982. In 2017, it was the 289th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than one million prescriptions.

Triazolam is usually used for short-term treatment of acute insomnia and circadian rhythm sleep disorders, including jet lag. It is an ideal benzodiazepine for this use because of its fast onset of action and short half-life. It puts a person to sleep for about 1.5 hours, allowing its user to avoid morning drowsiness. Triazolam is also sometimes used as an adjuvant in medical procedures requiring anesthesia or to reduce anxiety during brief events, such as MRI scans and nonsurgical dental procedures. Triazolam is ineffective in maintaining sleep, however, due to its short half-life, with quazepam showing superiority.

Triazolam is frequently prescribed as a sleep aid for passengers travelling on short- to medium-duration flights. If this use is contemplated, the user avoiding the consumption of alcoholic beverages is especially important, as is trying a ground-based "rehearsal" of the medication to ensure that the side effects and potency of this medication are understood by the user prior to using it in a relatively more public environment (as disinhibition can be a common side effect, with potentially severe consequences).[citation needed ] Triazolam causes anterograde amnesia, which is why so many dentists administer it to patients undergoing even minor dental procedures. This practice is known as sedation dentistry.

Adverse drug reactions associated with the use of triazolam include:

Relatively common (>1% of patients): somnolence, dizziness, feeling of lightness, coordination problems

Less common (0.9% to 0.5% of patients): euphoria, tachycardia, tiredness, confusional states/memory impairment, cramps/pain, depression, visual disturbances

Rare (<0.5% of patients): constipation, taste alteration, diarrhea, dry mouth, dermatitis/allergy, dreams/nightmares, insomnia, paresthesia, tinnitus, dysesthesia, weakness, congestion

Triazolam, although a short-acting benzodiazepine, may cause residual impairment into the next day, especially the next morning. A meta-analysis demonstrated that residual "hangover" effects after nighttime administration of triazolam such as sleepiness, psychomotor impairment, and diminished cognitive functions may persist into the next day, which may impair the ability of users to drive safely and increase risks of falls and hip fractures. Confusion and amnesia have been reported.

In September 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the boxed warning be updated for all benzodiazepine medicines to describe the risks of abuse, misuse, addiction, physical dependence, and withdrawal reactions consistently across all the medicines in the class.

Tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal

A review of the literature found that long-term use of benzodiazepines, including triazolam, is associated with drug tolerance, drug dependence, rebound insomnia, and CNS-related adverse effects. Benzodiazepine hypnotics should be used at their lowest possible dose and for a short period of time. Nonpharmacological treatment options were found to yield sustained improvements in sleep quality. A worsening of insomnia ( rebound insomnia) compared to baseline may occur after discontinuation of triazolam, even following short-term, single-dose therapy.

Other withdrawal symptoms can range from mild unpleasant feelings to a major withdrawal syndrome, including stomach cramps, vomiting, muscle cramps, sweating, tremor, and in rare cases, convulsions.

Benzodiazepines require special precautions if used in the elderly, during pregnancy, in children, in alcoholics, or in other drug-dependent individuals and individuals with comorbid psychiatric disorders. Triazolam belongs to the Pregnancy Category X of the FDA. It is known to have the potential to cause birth defects.

Triazolam, similar to other benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepines, causes impairments in body balance and standing steadiness in individuals who wake up at night or the next morning. Falls and hip fractures are frequently reported. The combination with alcohol increases these impairments. Partial, but incomplete tolerance develops to these impairments. Daytime withdrawal effects can occur.

An extensive review of the medical literature regarding the management of insomnia and the elderly found considerable evidence of the effectiveness and durability of nondrug treatments for insomnia in adults of all ages and that these interventions are underused. Compared with the benzodiazepines including triazolam, the nonbenzodiazepine sedative-hypnotics appeared to offer few, if any, significant clinical advantages in efficacy or tolerability in elderly persons. Newer agents with novel mechanisms of action and improved safety profiles, such as the melatonin agonists, hold promise for the management of chronic insomnia in elderly people. Long-term use of sedative-hypnotics for insomnia lacks an evidence base and has traditionally been discouraged for reasons that include concerns about such potential adverse drug effects as cognitive impairment, anterograde amnesia, daytime sedation, motor incoordination, and increased risk of motor vehicle accidents and falls. One study found no evidence of sustained hypnotic efficacy throughout the 9 weeks of treatment for triazolam.

In addition, the effectiveness and safety of long-term use of these agents remain to be determined. More research is needed to evaluate the long-term effects of treatment and the most appropriate management strategy for elderly persons with chronic insomnia.

Following administration of Ketoconazole and itraconazole have a profound effect on the pharmacokinetics of triazolam, leading to greatly enhanced effects. Anxiety, tremor, and depression have been documented in a case report following administration of nitrazepam and triazolam. erythromycin, repetitive hallucinations and abnormal bodily sensations developed. The patient had, however, acute pneumonia, and kidney failure. [citation needed ] Co-administration of benzodiazepine drugs at therapeutic doses with erythromycin may cause serious psychotic symptoms, especially in those with other physical complications. Caffeine reduces the effectiveness of triazolam. Other important interactions include cimetidine, diltiazem, fluconazole, grapefruit juice, isoniazid, itraconazole, nefazodone, rifampicin, ritonavir, and troleandomycin. Triazolam should not be administered to patients on Atripla.[why? ]

Symptoms of an overdose include:

Death can occur from triazolam overdose, but is more likely to occur in combination with other depressant drugs such as opioids, alcohol, or tricyclic antidepressants.

The pharmacological effects of triazolam are similar to those of most other benzodiazepines. It does not generate active metabolites. Triazolam is a short-acting benzodiazepine, is lipophilic, and is metabolised hepatically via oxidative pathways. The main pharmacological effects of triazolam are the enhancement of the neurotransmitter GABA at the GABA A receptor. The half-life of triazolam is only 2 hours making it a very short acting benzodiazepine drug. It has anticonvulsant effects on brain function.

Its use at low doses has been deemed acceptable by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and several other countries.

Triazolam, like other benzodiazepines, is susceptible to misuse and abuse. Its rapid onset of action and short half life contribute to its abuse potential, but its relative obscurity compared to other fast-acting benzodiazepines (such as alprazolam or lorazepam) prevent its abuse from becoming particularly commonplace. Likewise, because it is not prescribed as often or as readily as alprazolam or lorazepam, there is less triazolam available to be diverted for recreational use.

Triazolam is a Schedule IV drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances and the U.S. Controlled Substances Act.

The drug is marketed in English-speaking countries under the brand names Apo-Triazo, Halcion, Hypam, and Trilam. Other names include 2'-chloroxanax, chloroxanax, triclazolam, and chlorotriazolam.[citation needed ]

"Triazolam". Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Triazolam, sold under the brand name Halcion among others, is a central nervous system (CNS) depressant tranquilizer of the triazolobenzodiazepine (TBZD) class, which are benzodiazepine (BZD) derivatives. It possesses pharmacological properties similar to those of other benzodiazepines, but it is generally only used as a sedative to treat severe insomnia.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

" Halcyon" is a song written and performed by Orbital, dedicated to Paul Hartnoll's mother, who was addicted to the tranquilliser Halcion ( Triazolam) for many years. It was released as Radiccio EP in the UK and Japan, and as Halcyon EP in the US.

The song features two samples from earlier international hit singles. The first sample is a backmasked vocal sample by Kirsty Hawkshaw from " It's a Fine Day" by Opus III (1992). Ed Barton, the composer of "It's a Fine Day", receives a co-writing credit for the track. The second is a vocal harmonies sample in the song " Leave It" from the 1983 album by the progressive rock band Yes. There is no co-writing credit for the Yes sample. The beats were produced by a Roland TR-909 rhythm machine.

This original form of Halcyon is relatively uncommon; it first appeared on the Radiccio EP, and was only in the U.S. release as a single under its own name. It did not appear on a full-length album until the compilation Work 1989-2002, and then only in its shorter "single edit".

On Orbital's second eponymous album the track "Halcyon + on + on" appears, a slightly more upbeat and melodic remix of the original song. In contrast to the original, the remix is far more widely known, and has been featured on several movie soundtracks (most notably Mortal Kombat (1995), , and ). The title of the remix is inspired by a contemporary advertising slogan used by the Ariston washing machine company ("Ariston + on + on"). "Halcyon + on + on" is somewhat shorter than the original, at 9 minutes and 27 seconds long.

A 2018 film Teen Spirit and the soundtrack album features an edited version of "Halcyon," retitled "Halcyon Teen Spirit," with added vocal samples by Elle Fanning.

"Halcyon" is one of the mainstays of Orbital's live performances, in which it is frequently remixed with clips from Belinda Carlisle's " Heaven is a Place on Earth" and Bon Jovi's " You Give Love a Bad Name". A 1999 performance containing these samples appears on the album Orbital: Live at Glastonbury 1994-2004. On occasion (notably the group's 2004 "last ever" performance broadcast on BBC Radio 1) it has also incorporated the chorus of " I Believe in a Thing Called Love" by The Darkness.

In June 2009, Orbital released a two CD greatest hits compilation , which included a number of new remixes, including a "remodel" of "Halcyon" by Tom Middleton.

The song's video featured Opus III singer Hawkshaw playing a typical mother who was 'under the influence' (which was shot in the Hartnolls' home), who begins her chores by washing dishes.

As she starts doing the task, it becomes evident that she starts to lose focus and start seeing things. Like pictures of the same person on a plate (when removed by plate the picture starts to get smaller), notices her two sons in unusual places (one dancing on a table; the other inside the cabinet below the sink, then in the sink), throwing items from her purse into the water and also washes them (including Barbara Cartland's novel "Shotgun Wedding"). She discovers a bald person who looks like her and tries to push them back into the sink and as she drains the water she also fights with it by using a bouquet of roses.

She then starts dancing in an erratic behaviour before she calms down, and when she turns around she sees herself coming into the kitchen. The video ends with a definition for Halcyon and Halcyon Days on the screen.

1992, Radiccio (UK release)

1992, Halcyon (US release)

1993, Radiccio (Japan release)

1. Halcyon Edit (3:52)

2. Halcyon (11:09)

3. Deeper (6:59)

4. The Naked And The Dead (6:25)

5. Sunday (7:13)

6. The Naked And The Dub (11:53)

Some versions of this CD repeats "The Naked And The Dead" instead of "The Naked And The Dub".

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia " Halcyon" is a song written and performed by Orbital, dedicated to Paul Hartnoll's mother, who was addicted to the tranquilliser Halcion ( Triazolam) for many years. It was released as Radiccio EP in the UK and Japan, and as Halcyon EP in the US.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
" You Give Love a Bad Name" is a song by American rock band Bon Jovi, released as the first single from their 1986 album Slippery When Wet. Written by Jon Bon Jovi, Richie Sambora, and Desmond Child about a woman who has jilted her lover, the song reached No. 1 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 on November 29, 1986, and became the band's first number one hit. In 2007, the song reentered the charts at No. 29 after Blake Lewis performed it on American Idol.

Despite the lyrics of the chorus, the song should not be confused with "Shot Through the Heart", an unrelated song from Bon Jovi's 1984 self-titled debut album.

The melody of "You Give Love a Bad Name" was originally written for Bonnie Tyler under the title " If You Were a Woman (And I Was a Man)" with different lyrics commissioned by its producer Jim Steinman. Dissatisfied with its success in the US and the UK (which he attributed to reticence on the part of her label in promoting it), Desmond Child re-wrote the song with Jon Bon Jovi and Richie Sambora.

The song is written in the key of C minor and has a tempo of 123 BPM.

The album version of the song ends with the title being repeated until it fades.

Upon the release of the Ava Max song " Kings & Queens", comparisons were drawn with that song, "You Give Love a Bad Name" and "If You Were a Woman (And I Was a Man)", and reviews highlighted Desmond Child's credit as a songwriter for "Kings & Queens".

called it a "jackhammer single" that could push Bon Jovi to massive success and said that "Jon Bon Jovi's grinding vocal and the anthemic production spell A-O-R." called it "hard rock, raspy and aggressive."

In a retrospective analysis, Chris Molanphy expressed his disgust at the song for being spiteful and derisive in its lyrics, and calling them "sub- Meat Loaf" (Meat Loaf being best known for his work with Steinman). However, he did credit it for introducing the genre of hair metal to the mainstream. He also noted in another commentary how the song shared many similarities with Steinman's songs due to Child's involvement, saying "Steinman might as well have [produced it]", due to Child using devices such as its verbose title and anthemic chorus, likening it to "' Bat Out of Hell' infused with Aqua Net".

The music video for the song used all-color concert footage (the only all-color video song from Slippery When Wet) and photogenic shots primarily of Jon Bon Jovi, as well as other band members in concert. This video was filmed at the Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles, California.

Bon Jovi was now being managed by Doc McGhee, who realized that Bon Jovi needed a video for MTV. Doc hired video director Wayne Isham, who had directed videos for Doc's other band, Mötley Crüe. The two bands were competitive with each other and Mötley Crüe felt betrayed that Wayne would direct one of Bon Jovi's videos.

Wayne had the band's name painted on the stage and made sure that the band did not see it until they began shooting.

Bon Jovi had been opening for 38 Special, but became a headlining act after the video debuted.

1. "You Give Love a Bad Name" - 3:53

2. "Raise Your Hands" - 4:17

1. "You Give Love a Bad Name" - 3:53

2. "Raise Your Hands" - 4:17

3. "Borderline" - 4:10

1. "You Give Love a Bad Name" - 3:53

2. "Let It Rock" - 5:24

Audio

1. "Let It Rock" - 5:24

2. "Raise Your Hands" - 4:17

3. "Without Live" - 3:32

4. "You Give Love a Bad Name" - 3:53

Video

"You Give Love a Bad Name" - 3:53

It was placed at No. 20 on VH1's list of the 100 Best Hard Rock Songs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
" You Give Love a Bad Name" is a song by American rock band Bon Jovi, released as the first single from their 1986 album Slippery When Wet . Written by Jon Bon Jovi, Richie Sambora, and Desmond Child about a woman who has jilted her lover, the song reached No.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

" I Believe in a Thing Called Love" is a song by English rock band the Darkness, released as the third single from their debut studio album, Permission to Land. When released as a single in September 2003, it peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart. The song also charted worldwide, becoming a top-10 hit in Ireland, New Zealand, and Sweden, as well as on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart.

"I Believe in a Thing Called Love" was originally issued as a 3-track EP in August 2002; however, as only a small number of copies were printed, it was ineligible to chart. The EP also included early versions of "Love on the Rocks with No Ice" and " Love Is Only a Feeling". A live version of the song recorded at Knebworth House in Knebworth, Hertfordshire, in 2003 was included as a B-side on the group's Christmas single, " Christmas Time (Don't Let the Bells End)".

When released as a single in September 2003, "I Believe in a Thing Called Love" peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart. Sales and streams in the UK have surpassed 600,000 units, allowing it to receive a platinum certification from the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). The single helped the album sell 647,000 copies in the United States as of February 2012. The song became the second highest charting single from a UK band in 2003, finishing behind Lostprophets' single Last Train Home, released in December of that year.

The music video for the song was designed to launch the band onto the US market. Directed by Alex Smith, the band are shown on a spaceship, performing and battling aliens and monsters.

In March 2005, Q magazine placed "I Believe in a Thing Called Love" at number 47 in its list of the 101 Greatest Guitar Tracks.[citation needed ] It was named the 276th best track of the 2000s by . It is also placed 493 on The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born on magazine[citation needed ] and was ranked number one for Classic Rock magazine's list of "The Greatest Rock Songs of the Noughties."[citation needed ] The song was also named the 94th best hard rock song of all time by VH1. In a 2020 poll, Classic Rock readers awarded the song the "Greatest Song of the Century (so far)."

Credits are taken from the Permission to Land album booklet.

Studios

Recorded at Chapel Studios (Lincolnshire, England)

Additional vocals recorded at Paul Smith Music Studios (London, England)

Mixed at Roundhouse Recording Studios (London, England)

Mastered at The Exchange (London, England)

Personnel

Justin Hawkins - writing, vocals, guitar, synthesizer, piano

Dan Hawkins - writing, guitar

Frankie Poullain - writing, bass

Ed Graham - writing, drums

Pedro Ferreira - production, mixing, engineering

Will Bartle - recording assistant

Nick Taylor - mixing assistant

Mike Marsh - mastering

This song was featured as a playable track on the music video games Karaoke Revolution Volume 2, Guitar Hero On Tour: Decades and Dancing Stage Fusion; as source music in an episode of ; and as part of the soundtracks for the films Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason and Mike and Dave Need Wedding Dates. The song was also featured on the original version of . It is featured in both and as downloadable content. The song was featured in a 2012 commercial during Super Bowl XLVI, for the Samsung Galaxy Note. This propelled the song to the number one spot on U.S. iTunes rock chart. The song also appeared in an Apple Music commercial featuring pop singer Taylor Swift in 2016. The song was also used by Tye Dillinger for a theme song for a little while, while he was in Ohio Valley Wrestling.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
I Believe in a Thing Called Love - Wikipedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia " I Believe in a Thing Called Love" is a song by English rock band the Darkness, released as the third single from their debut studio album, Permission to Land . When released as a single in September 2003, it peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Orbital are an English electronic music duo from Otford, Kent, England, consisting of brothers Phil and Paul Hartnoll. The band's name is taken from Greater London's orbital motorway, the M25, which was central to the early rave scene during the early days of acid house. Additionally, the cover art on three of their albums showcase stylised atomic orbitals. Orbital have been critically and commercially successful, known particularly for their live improvisation during shows. They were initially influenced by early electro and punk rock.

Logo of Orbital, used since 1991

In 1989, Orbital recorded " Chime" on their father's 4 track tape deck, which they released on DJ Jazzy M's Oh Zone Records in December 1989 and re-released on FFRR Records a few months later. The track became a rave anthem, reaching number 17 in the UK charts and earning them an appearance on Top of the Pops, during which they wore anti- Poll Tax T-shirts. According to Paul Hartnoll, the track was recorded "under the stairs" of their parents' house in "a knocked-through stair cupboard that my dad set up as a home office". The track received its first live airing at a club night hosted by the promoter Que Pasa (Mark, Andrew and Nick Maddox) in a local Sevenoaks venue called the Grasshopper on Boxing Day. Next was a gig at the Town and Country 2 in Islington, performing for the first time under the name Orbital. Several singles and EPs followed, and their first self-titled album, a collection of tracks recorded at various times, was released in late 1991.

In late 1992, the Radiccio EP barely reached the UK top 40, although it included one of their most popular songs, " Halcyon". The track featured a sample of Kirsty Hawkshaw from "It's a Fine Day" (a chart hit for Opus III earlier that year). The B-side "The Naked and the Dead" was similarly based on a line from Scott Walker's rendition of Jacques Brel's song "Next". "Halcyon" was dedicated to the Hartnolls' mother, who was addicted to the tranquiliser Halcion (Triazolam) for many years.

The duo's popularity grew rapidly with the release of their second self-titled album, in 1993. The album included complex arrangements and textures, opening with the two-minute track "Time Becomes". The track consisted of two slightly delayed, looped samples of a line from the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode Time Squared spoken by actor Michael Dorn as the character Lieutenant Worf: "... where time becomes a loop" being played simultaneously through the left and right channels, respectively (until one cycle of phase difference has happened). The same sample was used at the beginning of "the Moebius", the opening track in the previous album. This audio pun was intended to make listeners believe that they had bought a mis-pressed album ( Orbital 1 packaged as Orbital 2). The album reached #28 on the UK album charts, staying in the chart for 15 weeks. "Halcyon" was remixed for the album, as "Halcyon + On + On". Versions of this song played live by the band have incorporated diverse samples, including " You Give Love a Bad Name" by the band Bon Jovi, " Heaven Is a Place on Earth" by Belinda Carlisle, and in 2004 " I Believe in a Thing Called Love" by the band The Darkness.

The first two albums are commonly known as "The Green Album" and "The Brown Album", after the colours of their covers (although the first album's cover is yellow, one of the first printings had a misprint causing the cover to be yellow-green).

Orbital won an award for Vibes Best Dance Act early in 1994, but it was their headline appearance at the Glastonbury Festival on 25 June 1994 that brought them most attention. Q magazine classed it as one of the top 50 gigs of all time, and in 2002 included Orbital in their list of "50 Bands to See Before You Die".

Crucially, the expanded TV coverage of the 1994 Glastonbury Festival by Channel 4 meant that Orbital's set reached a huge audience, in what is regarded as a pivotal moment. Speaking to The Guardian in 2013 about the gig, Paul Hartnoll commented: "I didn't know how much of an impact it would have. Being young myself, I just thought, 'It's about time - of course we should have acid house at Glastonbury'. It used to annoy me. I just used to think it should be happening."

Orbital gave an improvisational element to live electronic music as the brothers mixed and sequenced their tracks on the fly, wearing their trademark head-mounted torches behind banks of equipment. Orbital were one of the few electronic acts invited to play at Woodstock '94.

The third album, Snivilisation, was released in August 1994. Alison Goldfrapp provided vocals on a couple of the tracks, including the single "Are We Here?". This track also included a sample from "Man at C&A" by The Specials. Among the remixes of "Are We Here?" was "Criminal Justice Bill?" - four minutes of silence, a reference to the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, which was in part intended to clamp down on the rave scene which had given birth to Orbital. The other track with Goldfrapp vocals, "Sad But True", was remixed for the Times Fly EP, the band's only release in 1995.

The single " The Box" was released in April 1996, reaching number 11 in the UK, and its parent album , released in May 1996, became their second Top Five album. In Sides has since come to be one of their most critically well-regarded works. As with the previous album, there was a vague theme of ecological disaster and dissatisfaction with society.

The following year, the duo contributed to film soundtracks (, Event Horizon, ) and enjoyed the biggest singles of their career, with a live version of " Satan" and their reworking of the aforementioned theme both reaching number three in the UK. The In Sides track "Out There Somewhere (Part 2)" was also included in the long-awaited game series relaunch of Test Drive 4.

Orbital would go on to aid the Mortal Kombat film soundtrack in reaching Platinum selling status during 1995, with a remix of "Halcyon", which can be heard during the final scene of the film.

In 1998, they returned to the studio to work on their fifth album The Middle of Nowhere. This was released in 1999, becoming their third top five album, and was a return to a more upbeat style; with Alison Goldfrapp returning on vocals and the single "Style" using the stylophone. In 2000 the single "Beached" was released from the soundtrack to the film , mixing the brothers' musical style with a melody by Angelo Badalamenti and the words of Leonardo DiCaprio from the film.

The Altogether, released in 2001, included guest vocals by the Hartnolls' brother-in-law David Gray, a sampled Ian Dury, and a version of the theme, and was mixed for 5.1 surround sound. It was to be their last album for FFRR, and had a mixed critical reception. The following year, Work 1989-2002 collected various singles from "Chime" onwards. Orbital recorded the track "Technologique Park" for the 2002 film and can be seen in film playing the track live in a club.

In 2003, Orbital recorded the soundtrack for the horror film .

Orbital split up in 2004. They played a final series of gigs in June and July 2004 at the Glastonbury Festival, the T in the Park Festival in Scotland, the Oxegen festival in Ireland, Istanbul, Turkey and the Wire Festival in Japan, concluding with a live Peel Session gig at Maida Vale Studios in London on 28 July 2004. The release of their seventh and last original album, , coincided with this final wave of shows. The album included Sparks (on "Acid Pants") and Lisa Gerrard (on the final single, "One Perfect Sunrise").

Paul Hartnoll continued to record music under his own name, including tracks for the 2005 game Wipeout Pure for the . He released his first full length solo album, entitled The Ideal Condition on the ACP record label in June 2007. Alongside Flood, he also jointly produced Strength in Numbers by band The Music.

Phil Hartnoll formed a new electronica duo, Long Range, with Nick Smith. Their debut album, Madness and Me, was released on their own label, Long Range Recordings, in August 2007. Orbital released a two-CD/DVD compilationOrbital: Live at Glastonbury 1994-2004 in June 2007, containing over two hours of music recorded at their various performances at the festival.

On 21 November 2008, Orbital announced they would be reforming to play a gig together called "20 years after Chime" at The Big Chill Festival 2009. They preceded this show with a headline performance at RockNess 2009 in June.

Orbital at the Brixton Academy in 2009

On 26 January 2009, their official website Loopz announced confirmed dates for their 20th anniversary tour. "The Orbital reformation gathers momentum with headline shows now confirmed for Manchester and London this September." The concerts met with positive reviews. The band's first performance after the breakup took place in June 2009 at Selector Festival in Cracow, Poland. On 17 April 2009, it was announced that Orbital would be playing at The Electric Picnic in September 2009.

On 16 June 2009, Orbital released a 2-CD collection of their favourite tracks. The collection, Orbital 20 (stylised as "20rbital"), covered the 20 years since "Chime" and contained 20 tracks. A single, "Don't Stop Me" / "The Gun is Good" was issued in 2010 on 12" and digital download. At the Glastonbury Festival on 27 June 2010 to close their set, Matt Smith, who played the Eleventh Doctor, came on stage and performed with Orbital their cover of the theme tune.

On 16 February 2011, Orbital posted a video diary on YouTube, via Loopz. The video diary reported their progress on the recording of their new album, along with remixes of existing material for their DJ sets. Subsequent diary updates have been published. In October 2011, Orbital announced a six gig UK tour (including a date at the Royal Albert Hall) and new album in April 2012. "Never", a track from the forthcoming album, was offered as a free download. The album titled was released on 2 April 2012, and included collaborations with singer Zola Jesus and MC Lady Leshurr. The albums release was featured on US radio on PrototypeRadio, which also marked the bands debut radio appearance on American radio.

Orbital appeared at the opening ceremony for the London 2012 Paralympic Games, performing "Where Is It Going?" live with Stephen Hawking delivering a speech about the Large Hadron Collider.

On 8 October 2012, Orbital released their soundtrack to the 2012 re-make of , including vocals from Toni Halliday.

On 21 October 2014, Orbital announced on their official website that they were "hanging up their iconic torch-glasses and parting ways for the final time" but would continue to work on projects separately. Phil Hartnoll focused on a DJ career, including a performance at Fuji Rock Festival, while Paul Hartnoll worked on a variety of music projects, including a solo album under the name 8:58 in 2015, a collaboration with Vince Clarke of Erasure called 2Square, and soundtrack work for Peaky Blinders and American Ultra.

2017 reunion and Monsters Exist

In February 2017, Orbital reunited and announced tour dates in June and July, at Forbidden Fruit in Dublin, Bluedot Festival at Jodrell Bank and Standon Calling in Hertfordshire, and announced that they were working on a new album, releasing "Kinetic 2017", an updated remix of an early single, alongside the announcement. At the Bluedot Festival in July, the BBC Radiophonic Workshop joined Orbital on stage to perform "Doctor?" live, and in August 2017 the band released non-album single "Copenhagen" after working on the song during their summer live sets.

In December 2017, Orbital played two sell out shows over two nights at the Manchester O2 Apollo and the London Eventim Apollo. The sets included two previously unheard songs, "Phuk" (stylised "P.H.U.K.") and "Tiny Foldable Cities". These two shows were released on CD through Pledge Music. A third previously unheard song, "The End is Nigh", was debuted May 2018 at the Biggest Weekend festival in Belfast.

A new album, entitled Monsters Exist, was released on 14 September 2018. It was the first Orbital album since to feature artwork by John Greenwood, and featured physicist Brian Cox on its final track.

In 2019, Orbital revealed plans for a 30th anniversary album, which would feature a compilation of updated versions of their songs created by themselves and their contemporaries. In early 2020, Orbital began performing two new songs tentatively titled "One Day" and "Treadmill" at live shows, including a live streamed "Stay-At-Home-Rave" hosted by United We Stream and The Haçienda, benefiting those impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in Greater Manchester.

In 2022, the duo composed and recorded the soundtrack for the Netflix comedy series The Pentaverate created by Mike Myers. On 20 October, they announced their tenth studio album titled Optical Delusion, which was released on 17 February 2023, along with a lead single titled "Dirty Rat", featuring Sleaford Mods.

Throughout their career, Orbital have sometimes incorporated political and environmental commentary into their music. Early single Choice samples a speech against militarization from Crucifix's "Annihilation". The track "Forever" on Snivilisation samples a speech by Graham Crowden from the 1982 Lindsay Anderson film Britannia Hospital, in which he lambasts humankind; and "You Lot" on the included a confrontational, partially vocoded sample of Christopher Eccleston playing the second coming of Jesus Christ in the TV two-part series The Second Coming written by Russell T Davies.

Although only the phrase "New Age Travellers" from John Major's 1992 Conservative Party conference speech is retained in the 1995 single release of Sad But New, Orbital first unveiled the track including a fuller version of the speech in March 1995 as part of a live broadcast on BBC Radio 1 "Interactive Radio Night", and as a response to the newly passed Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.

The track "The Girl with the Sun in Her Head" from In Sides was recorded in a studio powered only by Greenpeace's mobile solar power generator, CYRUS. On the same album, "Dŵr Budr", Welsh for "dirty water", was inspired by the Sea Empress oil spill which took place just off the southern coast of Wales in February 1996. The album as whole is a concept album on that theme, for example the track "P.E.T.R.O.L".

The video for 2018 single "P.H.U.K" (off Monsters Exist) features photography taken from British news services, with loose references to Brexit, the London fatberg, the Grenfell Tower fire, moped crime, and the 2010s migrant crisis, among other current events, and the title "Please Help United Kingdom" reappearing. Although not strictly political, the track "There Will Come a Time" (also featured on Monsters Exist) includes a spoken passage by the physicist Brian Cox, where he addresses the future of an expanding universe and the inevitable demise of the Earth, and urges mankind to care for the planet and maintain a peaceful existence while the Earth is still our home.

Starting in 2019, live performances of the track "Impact (The Earth Is Burning)" have included a sampled speech from Swedish environmental activist Greta Thunberg, declaring "Our house is on fire. I don't want you to be hopeful. I want you to panic."

Paul Hartnoll described his intentions behind Orbital's sociopolitical messages as "quite ambiguous. Rather than making social comments, I suppose what we're doing is trying to put a score to the times we live in. I'd like to think that some of these are universal issues - the earth is still burning, even today, the world isn't fixed, and governments are still fucking idiots. I'm not saying I could do any better, but they could. With our music, we're saying 'go on then, sort it out!'"

- official site (run by Orbital, Loopz and Mondo Management)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Orbital are an English electronic music duo from Otford, Kent, England, consisting of brothers Phil and Paul Hartnoll. The band's name is taken from Greater London's orbital motorway, the M25, which was central to the early rave scene during the early days of acid house.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Babble on an' ting: Alex Paterson's Incredible Journey Beyond the Ultraworld with The Orb

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Always steered by Alex Paterson, The Orb were the mischief-making pioneers of the late 80s acid house revolution. Inventing "ambient house", they took it to the top of the charts, before continuing its idiosyncratic flight path through subsequent decades, battling meteor storms en route.

# data[].attributes.body
Also in the summer of 1994 the Orb provided music for The Jupiter Collision, the BBC's brief info series about the Shoemaker-Levy comet.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 ( formally designated D/1993 F2) broke apart in July 1992 and collided with Jupiter in July 1994, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects. This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media, and the comet was closely observed by astronomers worldwide. The collision provided new information about Jupiter and highlighted its possible role in reducing space debris in the inner Solar System.

The comet was discovered by astronomers Carolyn and Eugene M. Shoemaker, and David Levy in 1993. Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL9) had been captured by Jupiter and was orbiting the planet at the time. It was located on the night of March 24 in a photograph taken with the 46 cm (18 in) Schmidt telescope at the Palomar Observatory in California. It was the first active comet observed to be orbiting a planet, and had probably been captured by Jupiter around 20 to 30 years earlier.

Calculations showed that its unusual fragmented form was due to a previous closer approach to Jupiter in July 1992. At that time, the orbit of Shoemaker-Levy 9 passed within Jupiter's Roche limit, and Jupiter's tidal forces had acted to pull apart the comet. The comet was later observed as a series of fragments ranging up to 2 km (1.2 mi) in diameter. These fragments collided with Jupiter's southern hemisphere between July 16 and 22, 1994 at a speed of approximately 60 km/s (37 mi/s) (Jupiter's escape velocity) or 216,000 km/h (134,000 mph). The prominent scars from the impacts were more easily visible than the Great Red Spot and persisted for many months.

While conducting a program of observations designed to uncover near-Earth objects, the Shoemakers and Levy discovered Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 on the night of March 24, 1993, in a photograph taken with the 0.46 m (1.5 ft) Schmidt telescope at the Palomar Observatory in California. The comet was thus a serendipitous discovery, but one that quickly overshadowed the results from their main observing program.

Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 was the ninth periodic comet (a comet whose orbital period is 200 years or less) discovered by the Shoemakers and Levy, hence its name. It was their eleventh comet discovery overall including their discovery of two non-periodic comets, which use a different nomenclature. The discovery was announced in IAU Circular 5725 on March 26, 1993.

The discovery image gave the first hint that comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 was an unusual comet, as it appeared to show multiple nuclei in an elongated region about 50 arcseconds long and 10 arcseconds wide. Brian G. Marsden of the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams noted that the comet lay only about 4 degrees from Jupiter as seen from Earth, and that although this could be a line-of-sight effect, its apparent motion in the sky suggested that the comet was physically close to the planet.

Orbital studies of the new comet soon revealed that it was orbiting Jupiter rather than the Sun, unlike all other comets known at the time. Its orbit around Jupiter was very loosely bound, with a period of about 2 years and an apoapsis (the point in the orbit farthest from the planet) of 0.33 astronomical units (49 million kilometres; 31 million miles). Its orbit around the planet was highly eccentric ( e = 0.9986).

Tracing back the comet's orbital motion revealed that it had been orbiting Jupiter for some time. It is likely that it was captured from a solar orbit in the early 1970s, although the capture may have occurred as early as the mid-1960s. Several other observers found images of the comet in precovery images obtained before March 24, including Kin Endate from a photograph exposed on March 15, S. Otomo on March 17, and a team led by Eleanor Helin from images on March 19. An image of the comet on a Schmidt photographic plate taken on March 19 was identified on March 21 by M. Lindgren, in a project searching for comets near Jupiter. However, as his team were expecting comets to be inactive or at best exhibit a weak dust coma, and SL9 had a peculiar morphology, its true nature was not recognised until the official announcement 5 days later. No precovery images dating back to earlier than March 1993 have been found. Before the comet was captured by Jupiter, it was probably a short-period comet with an aphelion just inside Jupiter's orbit, and a perihelion interior to the asteroid belt.

The volume of space within which an object can be said to orbit Jupiter is defined by Jupiter's Hill sphere. When the comet passed Jupiter in the late 1960s or early 1970s, it happened to be near its aphelion, and found itself slightly within Jupiter's Hill sphere. Jupiter's gravity nudged the comet towards it. Because the comet's motion with respect to Jupiter was very small, it fell almost straight toward Jupiter, which is why it ended up on a Jove-centric orbit of very high eccentricity-that is to say, the ellipse was nearly flattened out.

The comet had apparently passed extremely close to Jupiter on July 7, 1992, just over 40,000 km (25,000 mi) above its cloud tops-a smaller distance than Jupiter's radius of 70,000 km (43,000 mi), and well within the orbit of Jupiter's innermost moon Metis and the planet's Roche limit, inside which tidal forces are strong enough to disrupt a body held together only by gravity. Although the comet had approached Jupiter closely before, the July 7 encounter seemed to be by far the closest, and the fragmentation of the comet is thought to have occurred at this time. Each fragment of the comet was denoted by a letter of the alphabet, from "fragment A" through to "fragment W", a practice already established from previously observed fragmented comets.

More exciting for planetary astronomers was that the best orbital calculations suggested that the comet would pass within 45,000 km (28,000 mi) of the center of Jupiter, a distance smaller than the planet's radius, meaning that there was an extremely high probability that SL9 would collide with Jupiter in July 1994. Studies suggested that the train of nuclei would plow into Jupiter's atmosphere over a period of about five days.

The discovery that the comet was likely to collide with Jupiter caused great excitement within the astronomical community and beyond, as astronomers had never before seen two significant Solar System bodies collide. Intense studies of the comet were undertaken, and as its orbit became more accurately established, the possibility of a collision became a certainty. The collision would provide a unique opportunity for scientists to look inside Jupiter's atmosphere, as the collisions were expected to cause eruptions of material from the layers normally hidden beneath the clouds.

Astronomers estimated that the visible fragments of SL9 ranged in size from a few hundred metres (around 1,000 ft) to two kilometres (1.2 mi) across, suggesting that the original comet may have had a nucleus up to 5 km (3.1 mi) across-somewhat larger than Comet Hyakutake, which became very bright when it passed close to the Earth in 1996. One of the great debates in advance of the impact was whether the effects of the impact of such small bodies would be noticeable from Earth, apart from a flash as they disintegrated like giant meteors. The most optimistic prediction was that large, asymmetric ballistic fireballs would rise above the limb of Jupiter and into sunlight to be visible from Earth. Other suggested effects of the impacts were seismic waves travelling across the planet, an increase in stratospheric haze on the planet due to dust from the impacts, and an increase in the mass of the Jovian ring system. However, given that observing such a collision was completely unprecedented, astronomers were cautious with their predictions of what the event might reveal.

Anticipation grew as the predicted date for the collisions approached, and astronomers trained terrestrial telescopes on Jupiter. Several space observatories did the same, including the Hubble Space Telescope, the ROSAT X-ray-observing satellite, the W. M. Keck Observatory, and the Galileo spacecraft, then on its way to a rendezvous with Jupiter scheduled for 1995. Although the impacts took place on the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth, Galileo, then at a distance of 1.6 AU (240 million km; 150 million mi) from the planet, was able to see the impacts as they occurred. Jupiter's rapid rotation brought the impact sites into view for terrestrial observers a few minutes after the collisions.

Two other space probes made observations at the time of the impact: the Ulysses spacecraft, primarily designed for solar observations, was pointed towards Jupiter from its location 2.6 AU (390 million km; 240 million mi) away, and the distant probe, some 44 AU (6.6 billion km; 4.1 billion mi) from Jupiter and on its way out of the Solar System following its encounter with Neptune in 1989, was programmed to look for radio emission in the 1-390 kHz range and make observations with its ultraviolet spectrometer.

Astronomer Ian Morison described the impacts as following:

The first impact occurred at 20:13 UTC on July 16, 1994, when fragment A of the [comet's] nucleus slammed into Jupiter's southern hemisphere at about 60 km/s (35 mi/s). Instruments on Galileo detected a fireball that reached a peak temperature of about 24,000 K (23,700 °C; 42,700 °F), compared to the typical Jovian cloud-top temperature of about 130 K (−143 °C; −226 °F). It then expanded and cooled rapidly to about 1,500 K (1,230 °C; 2,240 °F). The plume from the fireball quickly reached a height of over 3,000 km (1,900 mi) and was observed by the HST.

A few minutes after the impact fireball was detected, Galileo measured renewed heating, probably due to ejected material falling back onto the planet. Earth-based observers detected the fireball rising over the limb of the planet shortly after the initial impact.

Despite published predictions, astronomers had not expected to see the fireballs from the impacts and did not have any idea how visible the other atmospheric effects of the impacts would be from Earth. Observers soon saw a huge dark spot after the first impact; the spot was visible from Earth. This and subsequent dark spots were thought to have been caused by debris from the impacts, and were markedly asymmetric, forming crescent shapes in front of the direction of impact.

Over the next six days, 21 distinct impacts were observed, with the largest coming on July 18 at 07:33 UTC when fragment G struck Jupiter. This impact created a giant dark spot over 12,000 km or 7,500 mi (almost one Earth diameter) across, and was estimated to have released an energy equivalent to 6,000,000 megatons of TNT (600 times the world's nuclear arsenal). Two impacts 12 hours apart on July 19 created impact marks of similar size to that caused by fragment G, and impacts continued until July 22, when fragment W struck the planet.

Observers hoped that the impacts would give them a first glimpse of Jupiter beneath the cloud tops, as lower material was exposed by the comet fragments punching through the upper atmosphere. Spectroscopic studies revealed absorption lines in the Jovian spectrum due to diatomic sulfur (S ₂) and carbon disulfide (CS ₂), the first detection of either in Jupiter, and only the second detection of S ₂ in any astronomical object. Other molecules detected included ammonia (NH ₃) and hydrogen sulfide (H ₂S). The amount of sulfur implied by the quantities of these compounds was much greater than the amount that would be expected in a small cometary nucleus, showing that material from within Jupiter was being revealed. Oxygen-bearing molecules such as sulfur dioxide were not detected, to the surprise of astronomers.

As well as these molecules, emission from heavy atoms such as iron, magnesium and silicon was detected, with abundances consistent with what would be found in a cometary nucleus. Although a substantial amount of water was detected spectroscopically, it was not as much as predicted, meaning that either the water layer thought to exist below the clouds was thinner than predicted, or that the cometary fragments did not penetrate deeply enough.

As predicted, the collisions generated enormous waves that swept across Jupiter at speeds of 450 m/s (1,476 ft/s) and were observed for over two hours after the largest impacts. The waves were thought to be travelling within a stable layer acting as a waveguide, and some scientists thought the stable layer must lie within the hypothesised tropospheric water cloud. However, other evidence seemed to indicate that the cometary fragments had not reached the water layer, and the waves were instead propagating within the stratosphere.

Radio observations revealed a sharp increase in continuum emission at a wavelength of 21 cm (8.3 in) after the largest impacts, which peaked at 120% of the normal emission from the planet. This was thought to be due to synchrotron radiation, caused by the injection of relativistic electrons-electrons with velocities near the speed of light-into the Jovian magnetosphere by the impacts.

About an hour after fragment K entered Jupiter, observers recorded auroral emission near the impact region, as well as at the antipode of the impact site with respect to Jupiter's strong magnetic field. The cause of these emissions was difficult to establish due to a lack of knowledge of Jupiter's internal magnetic field and of the geometry of the impact sites. One possible explanation was that upwardly accelerating shock waves from the impact accelerated charged particles enough to cause auroral emission, a phenomenon more typically associated with fast-moving solar wind particles striking a planetary atmosphere near a magnetic pole.

Some astronomers had suggested that the impacts might have a noticeable effect on the Io torus, a torus of high-energy particles connecting Jupiter with the highly volcanic moon Io. High resolution spectroscopic studies found that variations in the ion density, rotational velocity, and temperatures at the time of impact and afterwards were within the normal limits.

failed to detect anything with calculations showing that the fireballs were just below the craft's limit of detection; no abnormal levels of UV radiation or radio signals were registered after the blast. also failed to detect any abnormal radio frequencies.

Several models were devised to compute the density and size of Shoemaker-Levy 9. Its average density was calculated to be about 0.5 g/cm ³ (0.018 lb/cu in); the breakup of a much less dense comet would not have resembled the observed string of objects. The size of the parent comet was calculated to be about 1.8 km (1.1 mi) in diameter. These predictions were among the few that were actually confirmed by subsequent observation.

One of the surprises of the impacts was the small amount of water revealed compared to prior predictions. Before the impact, models of Jupiter's atmosphere had indicated that the break-up of the largest fragments would occur at atmospheric pressures of anywhere from 30 kilopascals to a few tens of megapascals (from 0.3 to a few hundred bar), with some predictions that the comet would penetrate a layer of water and create a bluish shroud over that region of Jupiter.

Astronomers did not observe large amounts of water following the collisions, and later impact studies found that fragmentation and destruction of the cometary fragments in a meteor air burst probably occurred at much higher altitudes than previously expected, with even the largest fragments being destroyed when the pressure reached 250 kPa (36 psi), well above the expected depth of the water layer. The smaller fragments were probably destroyed before they even reached the cloud layer.

The visible scars from the impacts could be seen on Jupiter for many months. They were extremely prominent, and observers described them as more easily visible than the Great Red Spot. A search of historical observations revealed that the spots were probably the most prominent transient features ever seen on the planet, and that although the Great Red Spot is notable for its striking color, no spots of the size and darkness of those caused by the SL9 impacts had ever been recorded before, or since.

Spectroscopic observers found that ammonia and carbon disulfide persisted in the atmosphere for at least fourteen months after the collisions, with a considerable amount of ammonia being present in the stratosphere as opposed to its normal location in the troposphere.

Counterintuitively, the atmospheric temperature dropped to normal levels much more quickly at the larger impact sites than at the smaller sites: at the larger impact sites, temperatures were elevated over a region 15,000 to 20,000 km (9,300 to 12,400 mi) wide, but dropped back to normal levels within a week of the impact. At smaller sites, temperatures 10 K (18 °F) higher than the surroundings persisted for almost two weeks. Global stratospheric temperatures rose immediately after the impacts, then fell to below pre-impact temperatures 2-3 weeks afterwards, before rising slowly to normal temperatures.

SL9 is not unique in having orbited Jupiter for a time; five comets, (including 82P/Gehrels, 147P/Kushida-Muramatsu, and 111P/Helin-Roman-Crockett) are known to have been temporarily captured by the planet. Cometary orbits around Jupiter are unstable, as they will be highly elliptical and likely to be strongly perturbed by the Sun's gravity at apojove (the farthest point on the orbit from the planet).

By far the most massive planet in the Solar System, Jupiter can capture objects relatively frequently, but the size of SL9 makes it a rarity: one post-impact study estimated that comets 0.3 km (0.19 mi) in diameter impact the planet once in approximately 500 years and those 1.6 km (1 mi) in diameter do so just once in every 6,000 years.

There is very strong evidence that comets have previously been fragmented and collided with Jupiter and its satellites. During the Voyager missions to the planet, planetary scientists identified 13 crater chains on Callisto and three on Ganymede, the origin of which was initially a mystery. Crater chains seen on the Moon often radiate from large craters, and are thought to be caused by secondary impacts of the original ejecta, but the chains on the Jovian moons did not lead back to a larger crater. The impact of SL9 strongly implied that the chains were due to trains of disrupted cometary fragments crashing into the satellites.

Impact of July 19, 2009

On July 19, 2009, exactly 15 years after the SL9 impacts, a new black spot about the size of the Pacific Ocean appeared in Jupiter's southern hemisphere. Thermal infrared measurements showed the impact site was warm and spectroscopic analysis detected the production of excess hot ammonia and silica-rich dust in the upper regions of Jupiter's atmosphere. Scientists have concluded that another impact event had occurred, but this time a more compact and stronger object, probably a small undiscovered asteroid, was the cause.

Jupiter's role in protection of the inner Solar System

The events of SL9's interaction with Jupiter greatly highlighted Jupiter's role in protecting the inner planets from both interstellar and in-system debris by acting as a "cosmic vacuum cleaner" for the Solar System ( Jupiter barrier). The planet's strong gravitational influence attracts many small comets and asteroids and the rate of cometary impacts on Jupiter is thought to be between 2,000 and 8,000 times higher than the rate on Earth.

The extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous period is generally thought to have been caused by the Cretaceous-Paleogene impact event, which created the Chicxulub crater, demonstrating that cometary impacts are indeed a serious threat to life on Earth. Astronomers have speculated that without Jupiter's immense gravity, extinction events might have been more frequent on Earth and complex life might not have been able to develop. This is part of the argument used in the Rare Earth hypothesis.

In 2009, it was shown that the presence of a smaller planet at Jupiter's position in the Solar System might increase the impact rate of comets on the Earth significantly. A planet of Jupiter's mass still seems to provide increased protection against asteroids, but the total effect on all orbital bodies within the Solar System is unclear. This and other recent models call into question the nature of Jupiter's influence on Earth impacts.

1. Solem, J. C. (1994). "Density and size of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 deduced from a tidal breakup model". Nature. 370 (6488): 349-351. Bibcode:1994Natur.370..349S. doi:10.1038/370349a0. S2CID 4313295.

2. ^ "Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 Collision with Jupiter". National Space Science Data Center. February 2005. Archived from the original on February 19, 2013.

3. ^ Marsden, Brian G. (July 18, 1997). "Eugene Shoemaker (1928-1997)". Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

4. ^ Landis, R. R. (1994). "Comet P/Shoemaker-Levy's Collision with Jupiter: Covering HST's Planned Observations from Your Planetarium". Proceedings of the International Planetarium Society Conference held at the Astronaut Memorial Planetarium & Observatory, Cocoa, Florida, July 10-16, 1994. SEDS. Archived from the original on August 8, 2008.

5. ^ Lindgren, Mats (August 1996). "Searching for comets encountering Jupiter. Second campaign observations and further constraints on the size of the Jupiter family population". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 118 (2): 293-301. Bibcode:1996A&AS..118..293L. doi:10.1051/aas:1996198.

6. ^ Boehnhardt, H. (November 2004). "Split comets". In M. C. Festou, H. U. Keller and H. A. Weaver (ed.). Comets II. University of Arizona Press. p. 301. ISBN 978-0-8165-2450-1.

7. Bruton, Dan (July 1994). "Can I see the effects with my telescope?". Frequently Asked Questions about the Collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter. Stephen F. Austin State University. Archived from the original on December 9, 2012.

8. ^ Morison, Ian (September 25, 2014). A Journey through the Universe: Gresham Lectures on Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-316-12380-5.

9. ^ Hammel, H.B. (December 1994). The Spectacular Swan Song of Shoemaker-Levy 9. 185th AAS Meeting. Vol. 26. American Astronomical Society. p. 1425. Bibcode:1994AAS...185.7201H.

10. ^ "Remembering Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9's Impact on Jupiter, 23 Years Ago This Week". AmericaSpace. July 17, 2017.

11. ^ Yeomans, Don; Chodas, Paul (March 18, 1995). "Comet Crash Impact Times Request". Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

12. ^ Noll, K.S.; McGrath, MA; Trafton, LM; Atreya, SK; Caldwell, JJ; Weaver, HA; Yelle, RV; Barnet, C; Edgington, S (March 1995). "HST Spectroscopic Observations of Jupiter Following the Impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9". Science. 267 (5202): 1307-1313. Bibcode:1995Sci...267.1307N. doi:10.1126/science.7871428. PMID 7871428. S2CID 37686143.

13. ^ Ingersoll, A. P.; Kanamori, H (April 1995). "Waves from the collisions of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter". Nature. 374 (6524): 706-708. Bibcode:1995Natur.374..706I. doi:10.1038/374706a0. PMID 7715724. S2CID 4325357.

14. ^ de Pater, I; Heiles, C; Wong, M; Maddalena, R.; Bird, M.; Funke, O; Neidhoefer, J; Price, R.; Kesteven, M; Calabretta, M; Klein, M. (June 30, 1995). "Outburst of Jupiter's synchrotron radiation after the impact of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9". Science. 268 (5219): 1879-1883. Bibcode:1995Sci...268.1879D. doi:10.1126/science.11536723. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 11536723.

15. ^ Olano, C. A. (August 1999). "Jupiter's Synchrotron Emission Induced by the Collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9". Astrophysics and Space Science. 266 (3): 347-369. Bibcode:1999Ap&SS.266..347O. doi:10.1023/A:1002020013936. S2CID 118876167.

16. ^ Brown, Michael E.; Moyer, Elisabeth J.; Bouchez, Antonin H.; Spinrad, Hyron (1995). "Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9: No Effect on the Io Plasma Torus" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 22 (3): 1833-1835. Bibcode:1995GeoRL..22.1833B. doi:10.1029/95GL00904. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2018.

17. ^ Ulivi, Paolo; Harland, David M (2007). Robotic Exploration of the Solar System Part I: The Golden Age 1957-1982. Springer. p. 449. ISBN 9780387493268.

18. ^ Noll, Keith S.; Weaver, Harold A.; Feldman, Paul D . (2006). Proceedings of Space Telescope Science Institute Workshop, Baltimore, MD, May 9-12, 1995, IAU Colloquium 156: The Collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 and Jupiter. Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on November 24, 2015.

19. ^ Loders, Katharina; Fegley, Bruce (1998). "Jupiter, Rings and Satellites". The Planetary Scientist's Companion. Oxford University Press. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-19-511694-6.

20. ^ Hockey, T.A. (1994). "The Shoemaker-Levy 9 Spots on Jupiter: Their Place in History". Earth, Moon, and Planets. 66 (1): 1-9. Bibcode:1994EM&P...66....1H. doi:10.1007/BF00612878. S2CID 121034769.

21. ^ Ohtsuka, Katsuhito; Ito, T.; Yoshikawa, M.; Asher, D. J.; Arakida, H. (October 2008). "Quasi-Hilda comet 147P/Kushida-Muramatsu. Another long temporary satellite capture by Jupiter". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 489 (3): 1355-1362. arXiv:. Bibcode:2008A&A...489.1355O. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810321. S2CID 14201751.

22. ^ Tancredi, G.; Lindgren, M.; Rickman, H. (November 1990). "Temporary Satellite Capture and Orbital Evolution of Comet P/Helin-Roman-Crockett". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 239 (1-2): 375-380. Bibcode:1990A&A...239..375T.

23. ^ Schenk, Paul M.; Asphaug, Erik; McKinnon, William B.; Melosh, H. J.; Weissman, Paul R. (June 1996). "Cometary Nuclei and Tidal Disruption: The Geologic Record of Crater Chains on Callisto and Ganymede". . 121 (2): 249-24. Bibcode:1996Icar..121..249S. doi:10.1006/icar.1996.0084. hdl:2060/19970022199.

24. ^ Nakamura, T.; Kurahashi, H. (February 1998). "Collisional Probability of Periodic Comets with the Terrestrial Planets - an Invalid Case of Analytic Formulation". Astronomical Journal. 115 (2): 848. Bibcode:1998AJ....115..848N. doi:10.1086/300206. For Jupiter-interacting comets of greater than 1 km diameter, a Jupiter impact takes place every 500-1000 yr, and an Earth impact every 2-4 Myr.

25. ^ "PIA01723: Space Radar Image of the Yucatan Impact Crater Site". NASA/JPL Near-Earth Object Program Office. August 22, 2005. Archived from the original on August 8, 2016.

26. ^ Wetherill, George W. (February 1994). "Possible consequences of absence of "Jupiters" in planetary systems". Astrophysics and Space Science. 212 (1-2): 23-32. Bibcode:1994Ap&SS.212...23W. doi:10.1007/BF00984505. PMID 11539457. S2CID 21928486.

27. ^ Horner, J.; Jones, B. W. (2009). "Jupiter - friend or foe? II: the Centaurs Jupiter". International Journal of Astrobiology. 8 (2): 75-80. arXiv:. Bibcode:2009IJAsB...8...75H. doi:10.1017/S1473550408004357. S2CID 8032181.

Chodas P. W., and Yeomans D. K. (1996), The Orbital Motion and Impact Circumstances of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, in The Collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 and Jupiter, edited by K. S. Noll, P. D. Feldman, and H. A. Weaver, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-30

Chodas P. W. (2002), Communication of Orbital Elements to Selden E. Ball, Jr. Accessed February 21, 2006

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 ( formally designated D/1993 F2) broke apart in July 1992 and collided with Jupiter in July 1994, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects. This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media, and the comet was closely observed by astronomers worldwide.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Discovered by
William Herschel

Discovery date

13 March 1781

Pronunciation

[1] or [2]

the Latin form Ūranus of the Greek god Οὐρανός Ouranos

Adjectives

Uranian ()[3]

Symbol

(mostly astronomical), (mostly astrological)

Epoch J2000

Aphelion

20.0965 AU (3006.39 Gm)

Perihelion

18.2861 AU (2735.56 Gm)

19.19126 AU (2870.972 Gm)

Eccentricity

0.04717

142.238600°

Inclination

74.006°

17-19 August 2050[9][10]

96.998857°

Known satellites
27

25,362±7 km [11][b]

25,559±4 km
4.007 Earths[11][b]

24,973±20 km
3.929 Earths[11][b]

Flattening

0.0229±0.0008 [c]

Circumference

159,354.1 km [5]

8.1156×10 ⁹ km ² [5][b]
15.91 Earths

Volume

6.833×10 ¹³ km ³ [7][b]
63.086 Earths

Mass

(8.6810±0.0013)×105,793,939±13 km ²⁵ kg
14.536 Earths[12]
GM= ³/s ²

1.27 g/cm ³ [7][d]

8.69 m/s² [7][b]
0.886 g

0.23 [13] (estimate)

21.3 km/s[7][b]

−0.71832 d
−17 h 14 m 23 s
( retrograde)[6]

−0.71833 d
−17 h 14 min 24 s
(retrograde)[11]

Equatorial rotation velocity

2.59 km/s
9,320 km/h

17 h 9 m 15 s
257.311°[11]

Albedo

0.300 ( Bond)[14]
0.488 ( geom.)[15]

5.38[18] to 6.03[18]

−7.2[19]

Composition by volume

Below 1.3 bar (130 kPa): Icy volatiles:

Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun and is a gaseous cyan ice giant. Most of the planet is made of water, ammonia, and methane in a supercritical phase of matter, which in astronomy is called 'ice' or volatiles. The planet's atmosphere has a complex layered cloud structure and has the lowest minimum temperature of 49 K (−224 °C; −371 °F) out of all Solar System's planets. It has a marked axial tilt of 97.8° with a retrograde rotation rate of 17 hours. This means that in an 84 Earth years orbital period around the Sun, its poles get around 42 years of continuous sunlight, followed by 42 years of continuous darkness.

Uranus has the third-largest diameter and fourth-largest mass among the Solar System's planets. Based on current models, inside its volatile mantle layer is a rocky core, and surrounding it is a thick hydrogen and helium atmosphere. Trace amounts of hydrocarbons (thought to be produced via hydrolysis) and carbon monoxide along with carbon dioxide (thought to have been originated from comets) have been detected in the upper atmosphere. There are many unexplained climate phenomena in Uranus's atmosphere, such as its peak wind speed of 900 km/h (560 mph), variations in its polar cap and its erratic cloud formation. The planet also has very low internal heat compared to other giant planets, which is still unexplained.

Like the other giant planets, Uranus has a ring system, orbiting natural satellites and a magnetosphere. Its ring system is extremely dark, with only about 2% of the incoming light reflected, and contains the known 13 inner moons. Further out are the larger five major moons of the planet: Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon; and orbiting at much greater distance from Uranus are the known nine irregular moons. The planet's magnetosphere is highly asymmetric and has many charged particles, which may cause the darkening of its rings and moons.

Uranus is visible to the naked eye, but it is very dim and was not classified as a planet until 1781, when it was first observed by William Herschel. About seven decades after its discovery, consensus was reached that the planet be named from the Greek god Uranus (Ouranos), one of the Greek primordial deities. As of 2023, it was visited up close only one time when in 1986 the probe flew by the planet. Though nowadays it can be resolved and observed by telescopes, there is much desire to revisit the planet, as shown by Planetary Science Decadal Survey's decision to make the proposed Uranus Orbiter and Probe mission a top priority in the 2023-2032 survey.

Like the classical planets, Uranus is visible to the naked eye, but it was never recognised as a planet by ancient observers because of its dimness and slow orbit. Sir William Herschel first observed Uranus on 13 March 1781, leading to its discovery as a planet, expanding the known boundaries of the Solar System for the first time in history and making Uranus the first planet classified as such with the aid of a telescope.

Uranus had been observed on many occasions before its recognition as a planet, but it was generally mistaken for a star. Possibly the earliest known observation was by Hipparchos, who in 128 BC might have recorded it as a star for his star catalogue that was later incorporated into Ptolemy's . The earliest definite sighting was in 1690, when John Flamsteed observed it at least six times, cataloguing it as 34 Tauri. The French astronomer Pierre Charles Le Monnier observed Uranus at least twelve times between 1750 and 1769, including on four consecutive nights.

Sir William Herschel observed Uranus on 13 March 1781 from the garden of his house at 19 New King Street in Bath, Somerset, England (now the Herschel Museum of Astronomy), and initially reported it (on 26 April 1781) as a comet. With a homemade 6.2-inch reflecting telescope, Herschel "engaged in a series of observations on the parallax of the fixed stars."

Herschel recorded in his journal: "In the quartile near ζ Tauri ... either [a] Nebulous star or perhaps a comet." On 17 March he noted: "I looked for the Comet or Nebulous Star and found that it is a Comet, for it has changed its place." When he presented his discovery to the Royal Society, he continued to assert that he had found a comet, but also implicitly compared it to a planet:

The power I had on when I first saw the comet was 227. From experience I know that the diameters of the fixed stars are not proportionally magnified with higher powers, as planets are; therefore I now put the powers at 460 and 932, and found that the diameter of the comet increased in proportion to the power, as it ought to be, on the supposition of its not being a fixed star, while the diameters of the stars to which I compared it were not increased in the same ratio. Moreover, the comet being magnified much beyond what its light would admit of, appeared hazy and ill-defined with these great powers, while the stars preserved that lustre and distinctness which from many thousand observations I knew they would retain. The sequel has shown that my surmises were well-founded, this proving to be the Comet we have lately observed.

Herschel notified the Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne of his discovery and received this flummoxed reply from him on 23 April 1781: "I don't know what to call it. It is as likely to be a regular planet moving in an orbit nearly circular to the sun as a Comet moving in a very eccentric ellipsis. I have not yet seen any coma or tail to it."

Although Herschel continued to describe his new object as a comet, other astronomers had already begun to suspect otherwise. Finnish-Swedish astronomer Anders Johan Lexell, working in Russia, was the first to compute the orbit of the new object. Its nearly circular orbit led him to the conclusion that it was a planet rather than a comet. Berlin astronomer Johann Elert Bode described Herschel's discovery as "a moving star that can be deemed a hitherto unknown planet-like object circulating beyond the orbit of Saturn". Bode concluded that its near-circular orbit was more like a planet's than a comet's.

The object was soon universally accepted as a new planet. By 1783, Herschel acknowledged this to Royal Society president Joseph Banks: "By the observation of the most eminent Astronomers in Europe it appears that the new star, which I had the honour of pointing out to them in March 1781, is a Primary Planet of our Solar System." In recognition of his achievement, King George III gave Herschel an annual stipend of £200 (equivalent to £26,000 in 2021) on condition that he moved to Windsor so that the Royal Family could look through his telescopes.

The name Uranus references the ancient Greek deity of the sky Uranus ( Ancient Greek: ), known as Caelus in Roman mythology, the father of Cronus ( Saturn) and grandfather of Zeus ( Jupiter), which was rendered as Uranus in Latin ( IPA: ). It is the only one of the eight planets whose English name derives from a figure of Greek mythology. The adjectival form of Uranus is "Uranian". The pronunciation of the name Uranus preferred among astronomers is YOOR-ə-nəs, with stress on the first syllable as in Latin Uranus, in contrast to yoo-RAY-nəs, with stress on the second syllable and a long a, though both are considered acceptable.

Consensus on the name was not reached until almost 70 years after the planet's discovery. During the original discussions following discovery, Maskelyne asked Herschel to "do the astronomical world the faver [] to give a name to your planet, which is entirely your own, [and] which we are so much obliged to you for the discovery of". In response to Maskelyne's request, Herschel decided to name the object Georgium Sidus (George's Star), or the "Georgian Planet" in honour of his new patron, King George III. He explained this decision in a letter to Joseph Banks:

In the fabulous ages of ancient times the appellations of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were given to the Planets, as being the names of their principal heroes and divinities. In the present more philosophical era it would hardly be allowable to have recourse to the same method and call it Juno, Pallas, Apollo or Minerva, for a name to our new heavenly body. The first consideration of any particular event, or remarkable incident, seems to be its chronology: if in any future age it should be asked, when this last-found Planet was discovered? It would be a very satisfactory answer to say, 'In the reign of King George the Third'.

Herschel's proposed name was not popular outside Britain and Hanover, and alternatives were soon proposed. Astronomer Jérôme Lalande proposed that it be named Herschel in honour of its discoverer. Swedish astronomer Erik Prosperin proposed the names Astraea, Cybele (now the names of asteroids), and , which would become the name of the next planet to be discovered. The name was supported by other astronomers who liked the idea to commemorate the victories of the British Royal Naval fleet in the course of the American Revolutionary War by calling the new planet even Neptune George III or Neptune Great Britain, a compromise Lexell suggested as well. Daniel Bernoulli, suggested Hypercronius and Transaturnis. Georg Lichtenberg from Göttingen suggested Austräa, a goddess mentioned by Ovid (but who is traditionally associated with Virgo). The name was also proposed.

In a March 1782 treatise, Bode proposed Uranus, the Latinised version of the Greek god of the sky, Ouranos. Bode argued that the name should follow the mythology so as not to stand out as different from the other planets, and that Uranus was an appropriate name as the father of the first generation of the Titans. He also noted that elegance of the name in that just as Saturn was the father of Jupiter, the new planet should be named after the father of Saturn. Bode was however apparently unaware that Uranus was only the Latinised form of the titular deity, and his Roman equivalent was Caelus. In 1789, Bode's Royal Academy colleague Martin Klaproth named his newly discovered element uranium in support of Bode's choice. Ultimately, Bode's suggestion became the most widely used, and became universal in 1850 when HM Nautical Almanac Office, the final holdout, switched from using Georgium Sidus to Uranus.

Uranus has two astronomical symbols. The first to be proposed, ,[g] was proposed by Johann Gottfried Köhler at Bode's request in 1782.[50] Köhler suggested that the new planet be given the symbol for platinum, which had been described scientifically only 30 years before. As there was no alchemical symbol for platinum, he suggested ⛢ or ⛢, a combination of the planetary-metal symbols ☉ (gold) and ♂ (iron), as platinum (or 'white gold') is found mixed with iron. Bode thought that an upright orientation, ⛢, fit better with the symbols for the other planets while remaining distinct.[50] This symbol predominates in modern astronomical use in the rare cases that symbols are used at all.[51][52] The second symbol, [h] was suggested by Lalande in 1784. In a letter to Herschel, Lalande described it as " ,[44] The second symbol is nearly universal in astrology. un globe surmonté par la première lettre de votre nom" ("a globe surmounted by the first letter of your surname").

Uranus is called by a variety of names in other languages. Uranus's name is literally translated as the "sky king star" in Chinese (), Japanese (天王星), Korean (천왕성), and Vietnamese ( sao Thiên Vương). In Thai, its official name is Dao Yurenat (ดาวยูเรนัส ), as in English. Its other name in Thai is Dao Maruettayu (, Star of Mṛtyu), after the Sanskrit word for 'death', Mrtyu (). In Mongolian, its name is Tengeriin Van (Тэнгэрийн ван ), translated as 'King of the Sky', reflecting its namesake god's role as the ruler of the heavens. In Hawaiian, its name is Māori, its name is Heleʻekala, the Hawaiian rendering of the name 'Herschel'. In Whērangi.

It is argued that the differences between the ice giants and the gas giants arise from their formation history. The Solar System is hypothesised to have formed from a rotating disk of gas and dust known as the presolar nebula. Much of the nebula's gas, primarily hydrogen and helium, formed the Sun, and the dust grains collected together to form the first protoplanets. As the planets grew, some of them eventually accreted enough matter for their gravity to hold on to the nebula's leftover gas. The more gas they held onto, the larger they became; the larger they became, the more gas they held onto until a critical point was reached, and their size began to increase exponentially. The ice giants, with only a few Earth masses of nebular gas, never reached that critical point. Recent simulations of planetary migration have suggested that both ice giants formed closer to the Sun than their present positions, and moved outwards after formation (the Nice model).

Orbit and rotation

Uranus orbits the Sun once every 84 years. In 2033, the planet will have made its third complete orbit around the Sun since being discovered in 1781. The planet has returned to the point of its discovery northeast of Zeta Tauri twice since then, on 25 March 1865 and 29 March 1949. Uranus will return to this location again on 3 April 2033. Its average distance from the Sun is roughly 20 AU (3 billion km; 2 billion mi). The difference between its minimum and maximum distance from the Sun is 1.8 AU, larger than that of any other planet, though not as large as that of dwarf planet Pluto. The intensity of sunlight varies inversely with the square of distance, and so on Uranus (at about 20 times the distance from the Sun compared to Earth) it is about 1/400 the intensity of light on Earth.

The orbital elements of Uranus were first calculated in 1783 by Pierre-Simon Laplace. With time, discrepancies began to appear between predicted and observed orbits, and in 1841, John Couch Adams first proposed that the differences might be due to the gravitational tug of an unseen planet. In 1845, Urbain Le Verrier began his own independent research into Uranus's orbit. On 23 September 1846, Johann Gottfried Galle located a new planet, later named Neptune, at nearly the position predicted by Le Verrier.

The rotational period of the interior of Uranus is 17 hours, 14 minutes. As on all giant planets, its upper atmosphere experiences strong winds in the direction of rotation. At some latitudes, such as about 60 degrees south, visible features of the atmosphere move much faster, making a full rotation in as little as 14 hours.

The Uranian axis of rotation is approximately parallel to the plane of the Solar System, with an axial tilt of 97.77° (as defined by prograde rotation). This gives it seasonal changes completely unlike those of the other planets. (Pluto and the protoplanet-asteroid 2 Pallas also have extreme axial tilts.) Near the solstice, one pole faces the Sun continuously and the other faces away, with only a narrow strip around the equator experiencing a rapid day-night cycle, with the Sun low over the horizon. On the other side of Uranus's orbit, the orientation of the poles towards the Sun is reversed. Each pole gets around 42 years of continuous sunlight, followed by 42 years of darkness. Near the time of the equinoxes, the Sun faces the equator of Uranus, giving a period of day-night cycles similar to those seen on most of the other planets.

One result of this axis orientation is that, averaged over the Uranian year, the near-polar regions of Uranus receive a greater energy input from the Sun than its equatorial regions. Nevertheless, Uranus is hotter at its equator than at its poles. The underlying mechanism that causes this is unknown. The reason for Uranus's unusual axial tilt is also not known with certainty, but the usual speculation is that during the formation of the Solar System, an Earth-sized protoplanet collided with Uranus, causing the skewed orientation. Research by Jacob Kegerreis of Durham University suggests that the tilt resulted from a rock larger than Earth crashing into the planet 3 to 4 billion years ago. Uranus's south pole was pointed almost directly at the Sun at the time of Voyager 2's flyby in 1986. The labelling of this pole as "south" uses the definition currently endorsed by the International Astronomical Union, namely that the north pole of a planet or satellite is the pole that points above the invariable plane of the Solar System, regardless of the direction the planet is spinning. A different convention is sometimes used, in which a body's north and south poles are defined according to the right-hand rule in relation to the direction of rotation.

Visibility from Earth

The mean apparent magnitude of Uranus is 5.68 with a standard deviation of 0.17, while the extremes are 5.38 and 6.03. This range of brightness is near the limit of naked eye visibility. Much of the variability is dependent upon the planetary latitudes being illuminated from the Sun and viewed from the Earth. Its angular diameter is between 3.4 and 3.7 arcseconds, compared with 16 to 20 arcseconds for Saturn and 32 to 45 arcseconds for Jupiter. At opposition, Uranus is visible to the naked eye in dark skies, and becomes an easy target even in urban conditions with binoculars. On larger amateur telescopes with an objective diameter of between 15 and 23 cm, Uranus appears as a pale cyan disk with distinct limb darkening. With a large telescope of 25 cm or wider, cloud patterns, as well as some of the larger satellites, such as Titania and Oberon, may be visible.

Internal structure

Uranus's mass is roughly 14.5 times that of Earth, making it the least massive of the giant planets. Its diameter is slightly larger than Neptune's at roughly four times that of Earth. A resulting density of 1.27 g/cm ³ makes Uranus the second least dense planet, after Saturn. This value indicates that it is made primarily of various ices, such as water, ammonia, and methane. The total mass of ice in Uranus's interior is not precisely known, because different figures emerge depending on the model chosen; it must be between 9.3 and 13.5 Earth masses. Hydrogen and helium constitute only a small part of the total, with between 0.5 and 1.5 Earth masses. The remainder of the non-ice mass (0.5 to 3.7 Earth masses) is accounted for by rocky material. The standard model of Uranus's structure is that it consists of three layers: a rocky ( silicate/ iron-nickel) core in the centre, an icy mantle in the middle and an outer gaseous hydrogen/helium envelope. The core is relatively small, with a mass of only 0.55 Earth masses and a radius less than 20% of Uranus'; the mantle comprises its bulk, with around 13.4 Earth masses, and the upper atmosphere is relatively insubstantial, weighing about 0.5 Earth masses and extending for the last 20% of Uranus's radius. Uranus's core density is around 9 g/cm ³, with a pressure in the centre of 8 million bars (800 GPa) and a temperature of about 5000 K. The ice mantle is not in fact composed of ice in the conventional sense, but of a hot and dense fluid consisting of water, ammonia and other volatiles. This fluid, which has a high electrical conductivity, is sometimes called a water-ammonia ocean.

The extreme pressure and temperature deep within Uranus may break up the methane molecules, with the carbon atoms condensing into crystals of diamond that rain down through the mantle like hailstones. This phenomenon is similar to diamond rains that are theorised by scientists to exist on Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune. Very-high-pressure experiments at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory suggest that the base of the mantle may comprise an ocean of metallic liquid carbon, perhaps with floating solid 'diamond-bergs'.

The bulk compositions of Uranus and Neptune are different from those of Jupiter and Saturn, with ice dominating over gases, hence justifying their separate classification as ice giants. There may be a layer of ionic water where the water molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper down superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions move freely within the oxygen lattice.

Although the model considered above is reasonably standard, it is not unique; other models also satisfy observations. For instance, if substantial amounts of hydrogen and rocky material are mixed in the ice mantle, the total mass of ices in the interior will be lower, and, correspondingly, the total mass of rocks and hydrogen will be higher. Presently available data does not allow a scientific determination of which model is correct. The fluid interior structure of Uranus means that it has no solid surface. The gaseous atmosphere gradually transitions into the internal liquid layers. For the sake of convenience, a revolving oblate spheroid set at the point at which atmospheric pressure equals 1 bar (100 kPa) is conditionally designated as a "surface". It has equatorial and polar radii of 25,559 ± 4 km (15,881.6 ± 2.5 mi) and 24,973 ± 20 km (15,518 ± 12 mi), respectively. This surface is used throughout this article as a zero point for altitudes.

Internal heat

Uranus's internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets; in astronomical terms, it has a low thermal flux. Why Uranus's internal temperature is so low is still not understood. Neptune, which is Uranus's near twin in size and composition, radiates 2.61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun, but Uranus radiates hardly any excess heat at all. The total power radiated by Uranus in the far infrared (i.e. heat) part of the spectrum is times the solar energy absorbed in its atmosphere. Uranus's heat flux is only , which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about . The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus's tropopause is 49 K (−224.2 °C; −371.5 °F), making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System.

One of the hypotheses for this discrepancy suggests that when Uranus was hit by a supermassive impactor, which caused it to expel most of its primordial heat, it was left with a depleted core temperature. This impact hypothesis is also used in some attempts to explain the planet's axial tilt. Another hypothesis is that some form of barrier exists in Uranus's upper layers that prevents the core's heat from reaching the surface. For example, convection may take place in a set of compositionally different layers, which may inhibit upward heat transport; perhaps double diffusive convection is a limiting factor.

In a 2021 study, the ice giants' interior conditions were mimicked by compressing water containing minerals like olivine and ferropericlase, thus showing that large amounts of magnesium could be dissolved in the liquid interiors of Uranus and Neptune. If Uranus has more of this magnesium than Neptune, it could form a thermal insulation layer, thus potentially explaining the planet's low temperature.

Atmosphere

Although there is no well-defined solid surface within Uranus's interior, the outermost part of Uranus's gaseous envelope that is accessible to remote sensing is called its 0.1 and 10 atmosphere. Remote-sensing capability extends down to roughly 300 km below the 1 bar (100 kPa) level, with a corresponding pressure around 100 bar (10 MPa) and temperature of 320 K (47 °C; 116 °F). The tenuous thermosphere extends over two planetary radii from the nominal surface, which is defined to lie at a pressure of 1 bar. The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three layers: the troposphere, between altitudes of −300 and 50 km (−186 and 31 mi) and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar (10 MPa to 10 kPa); the stratosphere, spanning altitudes between 50 and 4,000 km (31 and 2,485 mi) and pressures of between −10 bar (10 kPa to 10 µPa); and the thermosphere extending from 4,000 km to as high as 50,000 km from the surface. There is no mesosphere.

Composition

The composition of Uranus's atmosphere is different from its bulk, consisting mainly of molecular hydrogen and helium. The helium molar fraction, i.e. the number of helium atoms per molecule of gas, is in the upper troposphere, which corresponds to a mass fraction . This value is close to the protosolar helium mass fraction of , indicating that helium has not settled in its centre as it has in the gas giants. The third-most-abundant component of Uranus's atmosphere is methane (). Methane has prominent absorption bands in the visible and near-infrared (IR), making Uranus aquamarine or cyan in colour. Methane molecules account for 2.3% of the atmosphere by molar fraction below the methane cloud deck at the pressure level of 1.3 bar (130 kPa); this represents about 20 to 30 times the carbon abundance found in the Sun.

The mixing ratio is much lower in the upper atmosphere due to its extremely low temperature, which lowers the saturation level and causes excess methane to freeze out. The abundances of less volatile compounds such as ammonia, water, and hydrogen sulfide in the deep atmosphere are poorly known. They are probably also higher than solar values. Along with methane, trace amounts of various hydrocarbons are found in the stratosphere of Uranus, which are thought to be produced from methane by photolysis induced by the solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation. They include ethane (), acetylene (), methylacetylene (), and diacetylene (). Spectroscopy has also uncovered traces of water vapour, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the upper atmosphere, which can only originate from an external source such as infalling dust and comets.

Troposphere

The troposphere is the lowest and densest part of the atmosphere and is characterised by a decrease in temperature with altitude. The temperature falls from about 320 K (47 °C; 116 °F) at the base of the nominal troposphere at −300 km to 53 K (−220 °C; −364 °F) at 50 km. The temperatures in the coldest upper region of the troposphere (the tropopause) actually vary in the range between 49 and 57 K (−224 and −216 °C; −371 and −357 °F) depending on planetary latitude. The tropopause region is responsible for the vast majority of Uranus's thermal far infrared emissions, thus determining its effective temperature of 59.1 ± 0.3 K (−214.1 ± 0.3 °C; −353.3 ± 0.5 °F).

The troposphere is thought to have a highly complex cloud structure; water clouds are hypothesised to lie in the pressure range of 50 to 100 bar (5 to 10 MPa), ammonium hydrosulfide clouds in the range of 20 to 40 bar (2 to 4 MPa), ammonia or hydrogen sulfide clouds at between 3 and 10 bar (0.3 and 1 MPa) and finally directly detected thin methane clouds at 1 to 2 bar (0.1 to 0.2 MPa). The troposphere is a dynamic part of the atmosphere, exhibiting strong winds, bright clouds and seasonal changes.

Upper atmosphere

Uranus's upper atmosphere taken during the Outer Planet Atmosphere Legacy (OPAL) program.[107]

The middle layer of the Uranian atmosphere is the stratosphere, where temperature generally increases with altitude from 53 K (−220 °C; −364 °F) in the tropopause to between 800 and 850 K (527 and 577 °C; 980 and 1,070 °F) at the base of the thermosphere. The heating of the stratosphere is caused by absorption of solar UV and IR radiation by methane and other hydrocarbons, which form in this part of the atmosphere as a result of methane photolysis. Heat is also conducted from the hot thermosphere. The hydrocarbons occupy a relatively narrow layer at altitudes of between 100 and 300 km corresponding to a pressure range of 1000 to 10 Pa and temperatures of between 75 and 170 K (−198 and −103 °C; −325 and −154 °F).

The most abundant hydrocarbons are methane, acetylene and ethane with mixing ratios of around 10 relative to hydrogen. The mixing ratio of carbon monoxide is similar at these altitudes. Heavier hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide have mixing ratios three orders of magnitude lower. The abundance ratio of water is around 7×10. Ethane and acetylene tend to condense in the colder lower part of the stratosphere and tropopause (below 10 mBar level) forming haze layers, which may be partly responsible for the bland appearance of Uranus. The concentration of hydrocarbons in the Uranian stratosphere above the haze is significantly lower than in the stratospheres of the other giant planets.

Planet Uranus - North Pole - Cyclone (VLA; October 2021)

The outermost layer of the Uranian atmosphere is the thermosphere and corona, which has a uniform temperature around 800 K (527 °C) to 850 K (577 °C). The heat sources necessary to sustain such a high level are not understood, as neither the solar UV nor the auroral activity can provide the necessary energy to maintain these temperatures. The weak cooling efficiency due to the lack of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere above 0.1 mBar pressure levels may contribute too. In addition to molecular hydrogen, the thermosphere-corona contains many free hydrogen atoms. Their small mass and high temperatures explain why the corona extends as far as 50,000 km (31,000 mi), or two Uranian radii, from its surface.

This extended corona is a unique feature of Uranus. Its effects include a drag on small particles orbiting Uranus, causing a general depletion of dust in the Uranian rings. The Uranian thermosphere, together with the upper part of the stratosphere, corresponds to the ionosphere of Uranus. Observations show that the ionosphere occupies altitudes from 2,000 to 10,000 km (1,200 to 6,200 mi). The Uranian ionosphere is denser than that of either Saturn or Neptune, which may arise from the low concentration of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere. The ionosphere is mainly sustained by solar UV radiation and its density depends on the solar activity. Auroral activity is insignificant as compared to Jupiter and Saturn.

At ultraviolet and visible wavelengths, Uranus's atmosphere is bland in comparison to the other giant planets, even to Neptune, which it otherwise closely resembles. When Voyager 2 flew by Uranus in 1986, it observed a total of 10 cloud features across the entire planet. One proposed explanation for this dearth of features is that Uranus's internal heat is markedly lower than that of the other giant planets, as stated previously Uranus is the coldest planet in the Solar System.

Banded structure, winds and clouds

Voyager 2's timelapse of Uranus's dynamic atmosphere

In 1986, Voyager 2 found that the visible southern hemisphere of Uranus can be subdivided into two regions: a bright polar cap and dark equatorial bands. Their boundary is located at about −45° of latitude. A narrow band straddling the latitudinal range from −45 to −50° is the brightest large feature on its visible surface. It is called a southern "collar". The cap and collar are thought to be a dense region of methane clouds located within the pressure range of 1.3 to 2 bar (see above). Besides the large-scale banded structure, Voyager 2 observed ten small bright clouds, most lying several degrees to the north from the collar. In all other respects, Uranus looked like a dynamically dead planet in 1986.

Voyager 2 arrived during the height of Uranus's southern summer and could not observe the northern hemisphere. At the beginning of the 21st century, when the northern polar region came into view, the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and Keck telescope initially observed neither a collar nor a polar cap in the northern hemisphere. So Uranus appeared to be asymmetric: bright near the south pole and uniformly dark in the region north of the southern collar. In 2007, when Uranus passed its equinox, the southern collar almost disappeared, and a faint northern collar emerged near 45° of latitude. In 2023, a team employing the Very Large Array observed a dark collar at 80° latitude, and a bright spot at the north pole, indicating the presence of a polar vortex.

The first dark spot observed on Uranus. Image obtained by the HST ACS in 2006.

In the 1990s, the number of the observed bright cloud features grew considerably, partly because new high-resolution imaging techniques became available. Most were found in the northern hemisphere as it started to become visible. An early explanation-that bright clouds are easier to identify in its dark part, whereas in the southern hemisphere the bright collar masks them - was shown to be incorrect. Nevertheless, there are differences between the clouds of each hemisphere. The northern clouds are smaller, sharper and brighter. They appear to lie at a higher altitude. The lifetime of clouds spans several orders of magnitude. Some small clouds live for hours; at least one southern cloud may have persisted since the Voyager 2 flyby. Recent observation also discovered that cloud features on Uranus have a lot in common with those on Neptune. For example, the dark spots common on Neptune had never been observed on Uranus before 2006, when the first such feature dubbed Uranus Dark Spot was imaged. The speculation is that Uranus is becoming more Neptune-like during its equinoctial season.

The tracking of numerous cloud features allowed determination of zonal winds blowing in the upper troposphere of Uranus. At the equator winds are retrograde, which means that they blow in the reverse direction to the planetary rotation. Their speeds are from −360 to −180 km/h (−220 to −110 mph). Wind speeds increase with the distance from the equator, reaching zero values near ±20° latitude, where the troposphere's temperature minimum is located. Closer to the poles, the winds shift to a prograde direction, flowing with Uranus's rotation. Wind speeds continue to increase reaching maxima at ±60° latitude before falling to zero at the poles. Wind speeds at −40° latitude range from 540 to 720 km/h (340 to 450 mph). Because the collar obscures all clouds below that parallel, speeds between it and the southern pole are impossible to measure. In contrast, in the northern hemisphere maximum speeds as high as 860 km/h (540 mph) are observed near +50° latitude.

Seasonal variation

For a short period from March to May 2004, large clouds appeared in the Uranian atmosphere, giving it a Neptune-like appearance. Observations included record-breaking wind speeds of 820 km/h (510 mph) and a persistent thunderstorm referred to as "Fourth of July fireworks". On 23 August 2006, researchers at the Space Science Institute (Boulder, Colorado) and the University of Wisconsin observed a dark spot on Uranus's surface, giving scientists more insight into Uranus atmospheric activity. Why this sudden upsurge in activity occurred is not fully known, but it appears that Uranus's extreme axial tilt results in extreme seasonal variations in its weather. Determining the nature of this seasonal variation is difficult because good data on Uranus's atmosphere has existed for less than 84 years, or one full Uranian year. Photometry over the course of half a Uranian year (beginning in the 1950s) has shown regular variation in the brightness in two spectral bands, with maxima occurring at the solstices and minima occurring at the equinoxes. A similar periodic variation, with maxima at the solstices, has been noted in microwave measurements of the deep troposphere begun in the 1960s. Stratospheric temperature measurements beginning in the 1970s also showed maximum values near the 1986 solstice. The majority of this variability is thought to occur owing to changes in viewing geometry.

There are some indications that physical seasonal changes are happening in Uranus. Although Uranus is known to have a bright south polar region, the north pole is fairly dim, which is incompatible with the model of the seasonal change outlined above. During its previous northern solstice in 1944, Uranus displayed elevated levels of brightness, which suggests that the north pole was not always so dim. This information implies that the visible pole brightens some time before the solstice and darkens after the equinox. Detailed analysis of the visible and microwave data revealed that the periodical changes in brightness are not completely symmetrical around the solstices, which also indicates a change in the meridional albedo patterns.

In the 1990s, as Uranus moved away from its solstice, Hubble and ground-based telescopes revealed that the south polar cap darkened noticeably (except the southern collar, which remained bright), whereas the northern hemisphere demonstrated increasing activity, such as cloud formations and stronger winds, bolstering expectations that it should brighten soon. This indeed happened in 2007 when it passed an equinox: a faint northern polar collar arose, and the southern collar became nearly invisible, although the zonal wind profile remained slightly asymmetric, with northern winds being somewhat slower than southern.

The mechanism of these physical changes is still not clear. Near the summer and winter solstices, Uranus's hemispheres lie alternately either in full glare of the Sun's rays or facing deep space. The brightening of the sunlit hemisphere is thought to result from the local thickening of the methane clouds and haze layers located in the troposphere. The bright collar at −45° latitude is also connected with methane clouds. Other changes in the southern polar region can be explained by changes in the lower cloud layers. The variation of the microwave emission from Uranus is probably caused by changes in the deep tropospheric circulation, because thick polar clouds and haze may inhibit convection. Now that the spring and autumn equinoxes are arriving on Uranus, the dynamics are changing and convection can occur again.

Magnetosphere

The magnetic field of Uranus
(animated; 25 March 2020)

Before the arrival of Voyager 2, no measurements of the Uranian magnetosphere had been taken, so its nature remained a mystery. Before 1986, scientists had expected the magnetic field of Uranus to be in line with the solar wind, because it would then align with Uranus's poles that lie in the ecliptic.

Voyager's observations revealed that Uranus's magnetic field is peculiar, both because it does not originate from its geometric centre, and because it is tilted at 59° from the axis of rotation. In fact, the magnetic dipole is shifted from Uranus's centre towards the south rotational pole by as much as one-third of the planetary radius. This unusual geometry results in a highly asymmetric magnetosphere, where the magnetic field strength on the surface in the southern hemisphere can be as low as 0.1 gauss (10 µT), whereas in the northern hemisphere it can be as high as 1.1 gauss (110 µT). The average field at the surface is 0.23 gauss (23 µT).

Studies of Voyager 2 data in 2017 suggest that this asymmetry causes Uranus's magnetosphere to connect with the solar wind once a Uranian day, opening the planet to the Sun's particles. In comparison, the magnetic field of Earth is roughly as strong at either pole, and its "magnetic equator" is roughly parallel with its geographical equator. The dipole moment of Uranus is 50 times that of Earth. Neptune has a similarly displaced and tilted magnetic field, suggesting that this may be a common feature of ice giants. One hypothesis is that, unlike the magnetic fields of the terrestrial and gas giants, which are generated within their cores, the ice giants' magnetic fields are generated by motion at relatively shallow depths, for instance, in the water-ammonia ocean. Another possible explanation for the magnetosphere's alignment is that there are oceans of liquid diamond in Uranus's interior that would deter the magnetic field.

Despite its curious alignment, in other respects the Uranian magnetosphere is like those of other planets: it has a bow shock at about 23 Uranian radii ahead of it, a magnetopause at 18 Uranian radii, a fully developed magnetotail, and radiation belts. Overall, the structure of Uranus's magnetosphere is different from Jupiter's and more similar to Saturn's. Uranus's magnetotail trails behind it into space for millions of kilometres and is twisted by its sideways rotation into a long corkscrew.

Aurorae on Uranus taken by the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) installed on Hubble.[135]

Uranus's magnetosphere contains charged particles: mainly protons and electrons, with a small amount of ions. Many of these particles probably derive from the thermosphere. The ion and electron energies can be as high as 4 and 1.2 megaelectronvolts, respectively. The density of low-energy (below 1 kiloelectronvolt) ions in the inner magnetosphere is about 2 cm −3. The particle population is strongly affected by the Uranian moons, which sweep through the magnetosphere, leaving noticeable gaps. The particle flux is high enough to cause darkening or space weathering of their surfaces on an astronomically rapid timescale of 100,000 years. This may be the cause of the uniformly dark colouration of the Uranian satellites and rings.

Uranus has relatively well developed aurorae, which are seen as bright arcs around both magnetic poles. Unlike Jupiter's, Uranus's aurorae seem to be insignificant for the energy balance of the planetary thermosphere. In March 2020, NASA astronomers reported the detection of a large atmospheric magnetic bubble, also known as a plasmoid, released into outer space from the planet Uranus, after reevaluating old data recorded by the space probe during a flyby of the planet in 1986.

Major moons of Uranus in order of increasing distance (left to right), at their proper relative sizes and albedos (collage of Voyager 2 photographs)

Uranus and six moons taken by the James Webb Space Telescope NIRCam.

Uranus has 27 known natural satellites. The names of these satellites are chosen from characters in the works of Shakespeare and Alexander Pope. The five main satellites are Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon. The Uranian satellite system is the least massive among those of the giant planets; the combined mass of the five major satellites would be less than half that of Triton (largest moon of Neptune) alone. The largest of Uranus's satellites, Titania, has a radius of only 788.9 km (490.2 mi), or less than half that of the Moon, but slightly more than Rhea, the second-largest satellite of Saturn, making Titania the eighth-largest moon in the Solar System. Uranus's satellites have relatively low albedos; ranging from 0.20 for Umbriel to 0.35 for Ariel (in green light). They are ice-rock conglomerates composed of roughly 50% ice and 50% rock. The ice may include ammonia and carbon dioxide.

Among the Uranian satellites, Ariel appears to have the youngest surface, with the fewest impact craters, and Umbriel the oldest. Miranda has fault canyons 20 km (12 mi) deep, terraced layers, and a chaotic variation in surface ages and features. Miranda's past geologic activity is thought to have been driven by tidal heating at a time when its orbit was more eccentric than currently, probably as a result of a former 3:1 orbital resonance with Umbriel. Extensional processes associated with upwelling diapirs are the likely origin of Miranda's 'racetrack'-like coronae. Ariel is thought to have once been held in a 4:1 resonance with Titania.

Uranus has at least one horseshoe orbiter occupying the Sun-Uranus Lagrangian point-a gravitationally unstable region at 180° in its orbit, 83982 Crantor. Crantor moves inside Uranus's co-orbital region on a complex, temporary horseshoe orbit. is also a promising Uranus horseshoe librator candidate.

Uranus's rings and atmosphere as imaged by the James Webb Space Telescope's near-infrared camera.

The Uranian rings are composed of extremely dark particles, which vary in size from micrometres to a fraction of a metre. Thirteen distinct rings are presently known, the brightest being the ε ring. All except the two rings of Uranus are extremely narrow - they are usually a few kilometres wide. The rings are probably quite young; the dynamics considerations indicate that they did not form with Uranus. The matter in the rings may once have been part of a moon (or moons) that was shattered by high-speed impacts. From numerous pieces of debris that formed as a result of those impacts, only a few particles survived, in stable zones corresponding to the locations of the present rings.

William Herschel described a possible ring around Uranus in 1789. This sighting is generally considered doubtful, because the rings are quite faint, and in the two following centuries none were noted by other observers. Still, Herschel made an accurate description of the epsilon ring's size, its angle relative to Earth, its red colour, and its apparent changes as Uranus travelled around the Sun. The ring system was definitively discovered on 10 March 1977 by James L. Elliot, Edward W. Dunham, and Jessica Mink using the Kuiper Airborne Observatory. The discovery was serendipitous; they planned to use the occultation of the star SAO 158687 (also known as HD 128598) by Uranus to study its atmosphere. When their observations were analysed, they found that the star had disappeared briefly from view five times both before and after it disappeared behind Uranus. They concluded that there must be a ring system around Uranus. Later they detected four additional rings. The rings were directly imaged when Voyager 2 passed Uranus in 1986. Voyager 2 also discovered two additional faint rings, bringing the total number to eleven.

In December 2005, the Hubble Space Telescope detected a pair of previously unknown rings. The largest is located twice as far from Uranus as the previously known rings. These new rings are so far from Uranus that they are called the "outer" ring system. Hubble also spotted two small satellites, one of which, Mab, shares its orbit with the outermost newly discovered ring. The new rings bring the total number of Uranian rings to 13. In April 2006, images of the new rings from the Keck Observatory yielded the colours of the outer rings: the outermost is blue and the other one red. One hypothesis concerning the outer ring's blue colour is that it is composed of minute particles of water ice from the surface of Mab that are small enough to scatter blue light. In contrast, Uranus's inner rings appear grey.

Although the Uranian rings are very difficult to directly observe from Earth, advances in digital imaging have allowed several amateur astronomers to successfully photograph the rings with red or infrared filters; telescopes with apertures as small as 36 cm (14 inches) may be able to detect the rings with proper imaging equipment.

Exploration

Uranus as seen from the Cassini spacecraft at Saturn

Launched in 1977, Voyager 2 made its closest approach to Uranus on 24 January 1986, coming within 81,500 km (50,600 mi) of the cloudtops, before continuing its journey to Neptune. The spacecraft studied the structure and chemical composition of Uranus's atmosphere, including its unique weather, caused by its axial tilt of 97.77°. It made the first detailed investigations of its five largest moons and discovered 10 new ones. Voyager 2 examined all nine of the system's known rings and discovered two more. It also studied the magnetic field, its irregular structure, its tilt and its unique corkscrew magnetotail caused by Uranus's sideways orientation.

No other spacecraft has flyby Uranus since then, though there has been many proposed missions to revisit the Uranus system. The possibility of sending the Cassini spacecraft from Saturn to Uranus was evaluated during a mission extension planning phase in 2009, but was ultimately rejected in favour of destroying it in the Saturnian atmosphere, as it would have taken about twenty years to get to the Uranian system after departing Saturn. A Uranus entry probe could use Pioneer Venus Multiprobe heritage and descend to 1-5 atmospheres. A Uranus orbiter and probe was recommended by the 2013-2022 Planetary Science Decadal Survey published in 2011; the proposal envisaged launch during 2020-2023 and a 13-year cruise to Uranus. The committee's opinion was reaffirmed in 2022, when a Uranus probe/orbiter mission was placed at the highest priority, due to the lack of knowledge about ice giants.

In astrology, the planet Uranus (symbol ) is the ruling planet of Aquarius. Because Uranus is cyan and Uranus is associated with electricity, the colour electric blue, which is close to cyan, is associated with the sign Aquarius[161] (see Uranus in astrology).

The chemical element uranium, discovered in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth, was named after the then-newly discovered Uranus.[162]

Lydia Sigourney included her poem The Georgian Planet in her 1827 collection of poetry.

"Uranus, the Magician" is a movement in Gustav Holst's orchestral suite The Planets, written between 1914 and 1916.

Operation Uranus was the successful military operation in World War II by the Red Army to take back Stalingrad and marked the turning point in the land war against the Wehrmacht.

The lines "Then felt I like some watcher of the skies/When a new planet swims into his ken", from John Keats's "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer", are a reference to Herschel's discovery of Uranus.[163]

In English language popular culture, humor is often derived from the common pronunciation of Uranus' name, which resembles that of the phrase "your anus".[164]

1. ^ These are the mean elements from VSOP87, together with derived quantities.

2. Calculated using data from Seidelmann, 2007.^ [11]

3. ^ Based on the volume within the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure.

4. Calculation of He, H^ ₂ and CH₄ molar fractions is based on a 2.3% mixing ratio of methane to hydrogen and the 15/85 He/H₂ proportions measured at the tropopause.

5. Because, in the English-speaking world, the latter sounds like "your ^ anus", the former pronunciation also saves embarrassment: as Pamela Gay, an astronomer at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, noted on her podcast, to avoid "being made fun of by any small schoolchildren ... when in doubt, don't emphasise anything and just say /ˈjʊərənəs/. And then run, quickly."[41]

6. Cf. ^ (not supported by all fonts)

7. Cf. ^ (not supported by all fonts)

8. ^ Mixing ratio is defined as the number of molecules of a compound per a molecule of hydrogen.

References

Further reading

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Discovered by William Herschel Discovery date 13 March 1781 Pronunciation [1] or [2] the Latin form Ūranus of the Greek god Οὐρανός Ouranos Adjectives Uranian ()[3] Symbol (mostly astronomical), (mostly astrological) Epoch J2000 Aphelion 20.0965 AU (3006.39 Gm) Perihelion 18.2861 AU (2735.56 Gm) 19.19126 AU (2870.972 Gm) Eccentricity 0.04717 142.238600°

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Planet 7 is a compilation album by dance/ ambient band System 7 available only as a download from the iTunes Store. Four of the tracks were previously available on a download-only EP, AAWDLC002, available from the A-Wave online store, released simultaneously with .

Planet 7 * discography on the official System 7 website

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Planet 7 is a compilation album by dance/ ambient band System 7 available only as a download from the iTunes Store. Four of the tracks were previously available on a download-only EP, AAWDLC002, available from the A-Wave online store, released simultaneously with .

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The New York Times wrote that "System 7 makes cheerful midtempo dance music that usually relies on a bouncy, chugging beat ... Removed from the dance floor, the music has too little happening for too long."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Toggle the table of contents

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Space music, also called spacemusic or space ambient, is a subgenre of new-age music and is described as "tranquil, hypnotic and moving". It is derived from ambient music and is associated with lounge music, easy listening, and elevator music.[3]

According to Stephen Hill, co-founder of a radio show called Hearts of Space, the term is used to describe music that evokes a feeling of contemplative spaciousness.[4][5][6] Hill states that space music can range in character, the sonic texture of the music can be simple or complex, it can be instrumental or electronic, it may lack conventional melodic, harmonic, or rhythmic features, and may be less concerned with the formal compositional schemes associated with other styles of music.[7][8] Hill proposes that space music can be found within a wide range of genres.[7][9] Space music may have influences from western classical, world, Celtic, traditional and experimental music.[10][11][12]

Hill believes that space music can evoke a "continuum of spatial imagery and emotion",[13] which can be beneficial for introspection, and for developing, through a practice of deep listening, an awareness of the spatiality of sound phenomenon.[14] This type of psychonautic listening can produce a subtle trance-like state in certain individuals[15][16][17] which can in turn lead to sensations of flying, floating, cruising, gliding, or hovering.[18][19]

Hill states that space music is used by some individuals for both background enhancement and foreground listening, often with headphones, to enable states of relaxation, contemplation, inspiration, and generally peaceful expansive moods; it may promote health through relaxation, atmospherics for bodywork therapies, and effectiveness of meditation.[20] Space music appears in many film soundtracks and is commonly played in planetariums.[21]

According to Hill space music is an eclectic music produced almost exclusively by independent labels and it occupies a small niche in the marketplace, supported and enjoyed by a relatively small audience of loyal enthusiastic listeners.[22]

AllMusic defines space music as a subgenre of New Age music.[23] Similarly, mainstream retailer Barnes & Noble, independent online music retailer CD Baby, and RealNetwork's music download service Rhapsody all classify space music as a subgenre of new-age music.[24][25][26] Rhapsody's editorial staff writes in their music genre description for space music (listed as a subgenre of new-age music) that "New Age composers have looked upward for inspiration, creating an abstract notion of the sounds of interstellar music."[27]

Stephen Hill, co-founder of the radio show Music from the Hearts of Space (syndicated nationally in the United States on National Public Radio) uses the phrase "contemplative music, broadly defined" as an overview to describe the music played on his station, along with the term "spacemusic".[10] He states that the "genre spans historical, ethnic, and contemporary styles",[5] and that it combines elements from many cultures and genres, blended with varieties of acoustic and electronic ambient music, "woven into a seamless sequence unified by sound, emotion, and spatial imagery."[10] In his essay "New Age Music Made Simple", and in introducing the 200th broadcast of the Hearts of Space radio program, Hill has referred to space music as a sub-category of New Age.[19]

Hill's partner Anna Turner (co-host and original co-producer of Music from the Hearts of Space) wrote in her 1989 essay entitled "Space Music" that "New Age Space music carries visions in its notes; it is transcendent inner and outer space music that opens, allows and creates space... this music speaks to our present moment, to the great allegory of moving out beyond our boundaries into space, and reflexively, to the unprecedented adventures of the psyche that await within."[28]

Gerardo "Pkx" Martinez-Casas, original host, producer and creator of KUSF's 90.3 FM, University of San Francisco in California, "Moondance (The Beyond Within)" 1981- 198?, described space music as electronic, environmental and spiritual fine art fashion cosmic sounds as an aid and tool for cultural, contemplative, meditative, social and spiritual awareness.[29]

In her book The New Age Music Guide, author, editor and music critic P. J. Birosik classifies space music as a subgenre of new-age music,[30] as does Dallas Smith, writer, teacher and recording artist in his essay New Age Jazz/Fusion.[31] Steven Halpern, noted recording artist and workshop leader writes that space music has been considered a synonym for new-age music: " 'Space' is a vital dimension of new-age music; so much so that one of the early appellations for the genre was simply 'space music', referring both to its texture and to the state that it tended to evoke in the listener."[32]

John Diliberto, the host of the radio show, Echoes, and creator of WXPN's Star's End, has stated that space music is related to electronic music,[8] as has Bay Area musician, composer and sound designer Robert Rich, who considers space music to be a combination of Electronic music influences from the 1970s with world music and "modern compositional methods".[33] Forest, host of Musical Starstreams refers to space music as a separate genre along with Ambient music, and others including dub, downtempo, trip hop, and acid jazz in the list of genres he calls "exotic electronica".[34] Similarly, WXPN Radio's Star's End, programming ambient music since 1976, on its website lists space music as a separate genre, along with Ambient, new-age, and others.

Steve Sande, freelance writer for the San Francisco Chronicle considers space music to be "Anything but New Age," and writes that "spacemusic [is] also known as ambient, chill-out, mellow dub, down-tempo."[35] In the same article, he describes Stephen Hill's "Hearts of Space" spacemusic program as streaming ambient, electronic, world, new-age and classical music.[11] In contrast to this, according to author and National Endowment for the Arts researcher Judith H. Balfe, Billboard editor Jerry Wood describes space music as one of several "genres within the genre" of new-age music.[36]

As described by Stephen Hill, the predominant defining element of spacemusic is its contemplative nature.[5][10] Within that overview, Hill's definition of space music includes a wide variety of styles, instrumentation and influences - both acoustic or electronic.[7][9]

Many space music recording artists specialize in electronic forms, evolving out of the traditional Kosmische musik of the Berlin School (also known as Krautrock).[37]

Author and classical music critic David Hurwitz describes Joseph Haydn's choral and chamber orchestra piece, The Creation, composed in 1798, as space music, both in the sense of the sound of the music, ("a genuine piece of 'space music' featuring softly pulsating high violins and winds above low cellos and basses, with nothing at all in the middle ... The space music gradually drifts towards a return to the movement's opening gesture ... "); and in the manner of its composition, relating that Haydn conceived The Creation after discussing music and astronomy with William Herschel, oboist and astronomer (discoverer of the planet Uranus).[12]

In 1928, the German composer [ Robert Beyer de] published a paper about "Raummusik" ( spatial music),[38] which is an entirely different sense of the term. Karlheinz Stockhausen, who became a colleague of Beyer in Cologne in 1953, used the expression "space music" in this sense when describing his early development as a composer: "The first revolution occurred from 1952/53 as musique concrète, electronic tape music, and space music, entailing composition with transformers, generators, modulators, magnetophones, etc., the integration of all concrete and abstract (synthetic) possibilities within sound (also all noises) and the controlled projection of sound in space."[39] In the sense meant here, he stated in 1967, "Several have commented that my electronic music sounds 'like on a different star', or 'like in outer space.' Many have said that when hearing this music, they have sensations as if flying at an infinitely high speed, and then again, as if immobile in an immense space."[40] A number of Stockhausen's later compositions (not all of them electronic music) take outer space as their theme: Sternklang (Star Sound, 1971), Ylem (1972), Sirius (1975-77), several components of the opera-cycle Licht (Weltraum (Outer Space, 1991-92/1994), Michaelion (1997), Komet (Comet, 1994/1999), Lichter-Wasser (Lights-Waters, 1998-99)), and the so-called " Urantia" subcycle of Klang (Sound, 2006-2007), extending from its thirteenth "hour", Cosmic Pulses to its twenty-first "hour" Paradies.

Music historian Joseph Lanza described the emerging light music style during the early 1950s as a precursor to modern space music. He wrote that orchestra conductor Mantovani used new studio technologies to "create sound tapestries with innumerable strings" and in particular, "the sustained hum of Mantovani's reverberated violins produced a sonic vaporizor foreshadowing the synthesizer harmonics of space music."[41]

Jazz artist Sun Ra used the term to describe his music in 1956, when he stated that the music allowed him to translate his experience of the void of space into a language people could enjoy and understand.[42]

Physicist Werner Meyer-Eppler had been inspired by Homer Dudley's 1948 invention of the Vocoder and began in 1951 to work with a device known as a Melochord, in conjunction with magnetic tape recorders, leading to a decade of working at the Studio for Electronic Music (WDR) specializing in "elektronische Musik" using magnetic tape recorders, sine wave generators and serial composition techniques.[43]

In 1969, Miles Davis was introduced to the music of Stockhausen by young arranger and cellist, and later Grammy award winner, Paul Buckmaster, leading to a period of new creative exploration for Davis. Biographer J. K. Chambers wrote that "The effect of Davis's study of Stockhausen could not be repressed for long. ... Davis's own 'space music' shows Stockhausen's influence compositionally."[44] His recordings and performances during this period were described as "space music" by fans, by music critic Leonard Feather, and by Buckmaster who stated: "a lot of mood changes - heavy, dark, intense - definitely space music."[45]

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Grateful Dead developed a new form of improvisational space music in their extended formless jam sessions during live concerts (which their fans referred to as "Space" though the band did not formally assign that title), and their experimental space music albums such as Aoxomoxoa, and later in the 1980s, Infrared Roses, and Grayfolded.[46][47] Band member Phil Lesh released experimental space music recording Seastones with computer music pioneer Ned Lagin in 1975, one of the first albums to be issued in the innovative but commercially unsuccessful format SQ-Quadwith. Lagin used in real-time stage and studio performance of minicomputers driving real-time digital to analog converters, prior to the commercial availability of digital synthesizers in the early 1980s.

The Czech-American composer Václav Nelhýbel, released in 1974 a record named Outer Space: Music by Vaclav Nelybel. From the liner notes: "Ingenious use of echo, artificial reverberation and electronic alterations gives the music in this category a weird, spooky futuristic, 'out of this world' quality, well-suited to super-natural happenings of any kind. Piano, drums and electronic instruments are used to achieve the strange atmosphere and spatial sounds." Vaclav Nelhybel crafts a supernatural world, describing nebulae, meteors, star clusters and craters on Mars with sounds natural and manipulated to tell the story of cosmic space.

Beginning in the early 1970s, the term "space music" was applied to some of the output of such artists as Vangelis, Jean-Michel Jarre, Klaus Schulze and Tangerine Dream,[37] due to the transcendent cosmic feelings of space evoked by the sound of the music and enhanced by the use of the emerging new instrument, the synthesizer,[48][49][50][51] and also in part to the "outer space" themes that are apparent in some of their works. These space music explorations diverged from traditional pop-song formats into longer less structured compositions.[52] Following their early influence on the development of space music, Tangerine Dream later produced increasingly rock-influenced works that are not generally described as space music.[53]

In 1971-72, Sun Ra brought his "space music" philosophy to UC Berkeley where he taught as artist-in-residence for the school year, creating notoriety among the students by devoting the second half-hour of each class to solo or band performances. In 1972, San Francisco public TV station KQED producer John Coney, producer Jim Newman, and screenwriter Joshua Smith worked with Sun Ra to produce a 30-minute documentary film, expanded into a feature film released in 1974, entitled Space Is the Place, featuring Sun Ra's Arkestra and filmed in Golden Gate Park.[54]

In 1973, KPFA Berkeley, California radio producers Anna Turner and Stephen Hill used the phrase in the title of their local public radio show Music from the Hearts of Space. They developed an innovative segue music assembly technique, cross-mixing "spacey" instrumental pieces to create a sustained mood. The term began to be used more widely when the show was syndicated nationally in 1983.[55] Other US-based radio programmers adopted the term as well, among them, John Diliberto, Steve Pross, and Gino Wong with Star's End, launched in 1976, Frank J. Forest (a.k.a. "Forest") with Musical Starstreams, launched in 1981 and nationally syndicated in 1983, and John Diliberto again with Echoes, launched in 1989.[56]

Examples of space music in film soundtracks include the Vangelis score to Blade Runner,[57][58]Tangerine Dream's moody soundtracks for Legend, Sorcerer and Risky Business,[59][60]Jonn Serrie's surround-sound score for the IMAX short film, Hubble: Galaxies Across Space and Time,[61] Brian Eno's score for the 1989 film For All Mankind,[62] and Michael Stearns' soundtrack for the 1985 IMAX film, Chronos, broadcast on Stephen Hill's Hearts of Space radio, on the film's opening night[63]

Television science-fiction series Babylon 5 was scored by former Tangerine Dream member Christopher Franke, released on compact disc in 1996 on Franke's independent label Sonic Images. The scores for many of the Babylon 5 TV movies and numerous Babylon 5 episodes[64] were also released by Sonic Images.[65] In 1994, the German TV station Bayerischer Rundfunk launched the television program Space Night,[66] featuring a constant flow of satellite and space images accompanied by space music programmed by European chill-out-DJ Alex Azary.

1. ^ Holmes, Thom (2008). "Live Electronic Music and Ambient Music". Electronic and experimental music: technology, music, and culture (3rd ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 403. ISBN 978-0-415-95781-6.

2. Thom Holmes (2015), ^ Electronic and Experimental Music: Technology, Music, and Culture, page 453, Routledge

3. ^ "When you listen to space and ambient music you are connecting with a tradition of contemplative sound experience whose roots are ancient and diverse. The genre spans historical, ethnic, and contemporary styles. In fact, almost any music with a slow pace and space-creating sound images could be called spacemusic." Stephen Hill, co-founder, Hearts of Space, What is spacemusic?

4. ^ Lanza, Joseph (2004). Elevator Music: A Surreal History of Muzak, Easy-listening, and Other Moodsong. University of Michigan Press. p. 184. ISBN 0-472-08942-0. space music evokes vague images of regal landscapes perhaps encountered in past lives or the tones of a harmonic convergence between earth and other celestial bodies...

5. ^ "A timeless experience...as ancient as the echoes of a simple bamboo flute or as contemporary as the latest ambient electronica. Any music with a generally slow pace and space-creating sound image can be called spacemusic. Generally quiet, consonant, ethereal, often without conventional rhythmic and dynamic contrasts, spacemusic is found within many historical, ethnic, and contemporary genres."Stephen Hill, co-founder, Hearts of Space, sidebar "What is Spacemusic?" in essay Contemplative Music, Broadly Defined

6. "The early innovators in electronic "space music" were mostly located around Berlin. The term has come to refer to music in the style of the early and mid-1970s works of Klaus Schulze, Tangerine Dream, Ash Ra Tempel, Popol Vuh and others in that scene. The music is characterized by long compositions, looping sequencer patterns, and improvised lead melody lines." - John Diliberto, Berlin School, Echoes Radio on-line music glossary Archived 2007-06-14 at the Wayback Machine

7. Herberlein, L. A. (2002). The Rough Guide to Internet Radio. Rough Guides. p. 95. ISBN 1-85828-961-0.

8. ^ "The program has defined its own niche - a mix of ambient, electronic, world, new-age, classical and experimental music...Slow-paced, space-creating music from many cultures - ancient bell meditations, classical adagios, creative space jazz, and the latest electronic and acoustic ambient music are woven into a seamless sequence unified by sound, emotion, and spatial imagery." Stephen Hill, co-founder, Hearts of Space, essay titled Contemplative Music, Broadly Defined

9. "Hill's Hearts of Space Web site provides streaming access to an archive of hundreds of hours of spacemusic artfully blended into one-hour programs combining ambient, electronic, world, New Age and classical music." Steve Sande, The Sky's the Limit with Ambient Music, San Francisco Chronicle (Sunday, January 11, 2004).

10. Hurwitz, David (2005). Exploring Haydn: A Listener's Guide to Music's Boldest Innovator. Amadeus Press Unlocking the Masters Series. Hal Leonard. pp. 78-81. ISBN 1-57467-116-2.

11. ^ Lanza, Joseph (2004). Elevator Music: A Surreal History of Muzak, Easy-listening, and Other Moodsong. University of Michigan Press. p. 184. ISBN 0-472-08942-0. Space music is just as important for its ability to confound our spoon-fed sense of time and place. Its mercurial stirrings create openings between worlds: inner and outer space; ancestral rhythms and ultra-civilized electronics, the clock on the wall and the hallucinatory "psyhonaut" time that drifts in and out of waking life.

12. ^ Lanza, Joseph (2004). Elevator Music: A Surreal History of Muzak, Easy-listening, and Other Moodsong. University of Michigan Press. p. 185. ISBN 0-472-08942-0. The mystique of communing with some larger, transpersonal, extraterretrial Gaia is commonly included as part of space music's packaging. Explaining compositions such as 'The Galactic Chalice' and 'Celestial Communion', Constance Demby refers to the 'transformative journey' with 'sounds to awaken and activate soul memory of our true origin.'

13. ^ Lancaster, Kurt; Brooks McNamara (1999). Warlocks and Warpdrive: Contemporary Fantasy Entertainments With Interactive and Virtual Environments. McFarland & Company. p. 29. ISBN 0-7864-0634-8. Space music presents a virtual fantasy of traveling in outer space.

14. "Space And Travel Music: Celestial, Cosmic, & Terrestrial... This New Age sub-category has the effect of outward psychological expansion. Celestial or cosmic music removes listeners from their ordinary acoustical surroundings by creating stereo sound images of vast, virtually dimensionless spatial environments. In a word - spacey. Rhythmic or tonal movements animate the experience of flying, floating, cruising, gliding, or hovering within the auditory space."Stephen Hill, co-founder, Hearts of Space, in an essay titled New Age Music Made Simple

15. ^ Allmusic New Age music page - includes space music as subgenre of New Age music.; Allmusic Space music page - subgenre of New Age music; Allmusic Electronica music page - does not list space music as a subgenre; Allmusic Ambient music page - does not list space music as a subgenre.

16. Barnes & Noble website - Space music is not listed on the ^ main music genres page. Space music is listed as a subgenre of New Age music on the New Age music genre page Archived 2007-08-09 at the Wayback Machine, as is Ambient music. Ambient also appears as a subgenre on the Dance & DJ genre page Archived 2007-08-09 at the Wayback Machine, along with Electronic music.

17. Space music is listed on the Rhapsody Music Service ^ New Age music genre page as a subgenre of New Age. Space music is not listed on Rhapsody electronica/dance genre page or Rhapsody Ambient music subgenre page.

18. CD Baby - Space music is listed as a subgenre of New Age music. Both Electronic music and New Age music list Ambient as a subgenre. ^ Electronic genre page, New Age genre page.

19. "Currently no less than fourteen separate subgenres are being called New Age music. These include New Age East/West, Electronic/Computer, Environmental/Nature, Folk, Jazz/Fusion, Meditation, Native American/Indigenous, New Age Pop, New Age Progressive, Solo Instrumental, Sound Health, Space Music, Traditional. New Age, Vocal, and World Music." P. J. Birosik, "Preface", in ^ The New Age Music Guide, edited by P. J. Birosik, p. vii (New York: Collier Books; London: Collier Macmillan Publishing Company, 1989).

20. "New Age Jazz/Fusion is distinguished from other New Age subgenres, especially space music, by its rhythm and identifiable melodies." Dallas Smith, ^ New Age Jazz/Fusion, p. 46, The New Age Music Guide: Profiles and Recordings of 500 Top New Age Musicians, edited by Patti Jean Birosik, p. 46 (New York: Collier Books; London: Collier MacMillan Publishing Company, 1989).

21. "I got into space music in the '70s as a teenager and I wanted to play with those clichés again-the cyclic, repetitive structures of '70s electronic music-but steer away from the formula by using some of the compositional methods of Steve Reich and Terry Riley, for example. It's a combination of world music, modern compositional methods and '70s schlock." ^ Robert Rich, quoted in Plugged in to the Joy of Ambient Music, by j. poet, San Francisco Chronicle (May 28, 2006).

22. "spacemusic, also known as ambient, chill-out, mellow dub, down-tempo ...Anything but New Age." Steve Sande, ^ The sky's the Limit with Ambient Music, San Francisco Chronicle (Sunday, January 11, 2004).

23. Ulrich D. Einbrodt (2001). "Space, Mysticism, Romantic Music, Sequencing, and the Widening of Form in German Krautrock during the 70's" (PDF). Justus Liebig University, Giessener Electronic Library.

24. [^ Beyer, Robert de], "Das Problem der 'kommenden Musik' ", Die Musik 20, no. 12 (1928): 861-866. See also p. 36 in Lowell Cross, "Electronic Music, 1948-1953", Perspectives of New Music (Autumn-Winter 1968): 32-65, and p. 7 of David Dunn, "A History of Electronic Music Pioneers" Archived 2015-01-28 at the Wayback Machine, from the catalog of the exhibition Eigenwelt der Apparatewelt: Pioneers of Electronic Art, presented as part of Ars Electronica 1992 in Linz, Austria.

25. ^ Schwartz, Elliott; Barney Childs (1998). Contemporary Composers on Contemporary Music. Da Capo Press. p. 380. ISBN 0-306-80819-6.

26. "In 1967, just following the world premier of ^ Hymnen, Stockhausen said this about the electronic music experience: '... Many listeners have projected that strange new music which they experienced-especially in the realm of electronic music-into extraterrestrial space. Even though they are not familiar with it through human experience, they identify it with the fantastic dream world. Several have commented that my electronic music sounds "like on a different star," or "like in outer space". Many have said that when hearing this music, they have sensations as if flying at an infinitely high speed, and then again, as if immobile in an immense space. Thus, extreme words are employed to describe such experience, which are not "objectively" communicable in the sense of an object description, but rather which exist in the subjective fantasy and which are projected into the extraterrestrial space.' " Electronic and Experimental Music: Pioneers in Technology and Composition, p. 145, Thomas B. Holmes, Routledge Music/Songbooks, 2002, ISBN 0-415-93643-8

27. According to Author Norman Mailer in 1956, quoted on p. 154: "a friend took me to hear a jazz musician named Sun Ra who played 'space music.' " and according to Sun Ra himself, also in 1956, quoted on p. 384: "When I say space music, I'm dealing with the void, because that is of space too... So I leave the word space open, like space is supposed to be." and on p. 247, in an interview, Sun Ra states: "sometimes when I'm playing for a band, playing space music... I'm using ordinary instruments, but actually I'm using them in a manner... transforming certain ideas over into a language which the world can understand." - ^ Space is the Place by John F. Szwed, 1998, Da Capo Press

28. ^ A History of Electronic Music Pioneers by David Dunn, in the catalog of the exhibition: Eigenwelt der Apparatewelt: Pioneers of Electronic Art, presented as part of Ars Electronica 1992, in Linz, Austria.

29. ^ Carr, Ian (1998). Miles Davis: The Definitive Biography. Thunder's Mouth Press. pp. 284, 303, 304, 306. ISBN 1-56025-241-3.

30. "purveyors of freely improvised space music," - ^ Blender Magazine, May 2003 Archived 2007-06-08 at the Wayback Machine

31. "a quartet of albums, Phaedra, Rubycon, Ricochet and Stratosfear, established the Dream's modus operandi with throbbing, cosmic rubber band rhythms thrumming like galactic space basses through floating mellotron pads, ghost flutes and electronic effects whirling by at hyperspeed. This was the soundtrack for countless planetarium shows... the first electronic music to shed the synthesizers reputation as cold and unfeeling... beyond emotion, into the sensual and the transcendent. It was as if the universe were wrapping you up in a warm velvet glove and showing you the wonders of existence." ^ Time Warped in Space by Echoes Radio producer and host, John Diliberto Archived 2007-04-07 at the Wayback Machine.

32. Listed in "A Classic Space Music Countdown to Liftoff: 10 Essential classic space music albums, counting down from 10 to 1" ^ Time Warped in Space by Echoes Radio producer and host, John Diliberto Archived 2007-04-07 at the Wayback Machine.

33. "At its most abstract - solo albums by Klaus Schulze and by Tangerine Dream's leader Edgar Froese - these were clouds of sounds to lose yourself in, a Rorschach mindscreen for projecting fantasies onto." ^ Simon Reynolds, "Kings of the cosmos", The Guardian, April 22, 2007, retrieved May 13, 2007]

34. "The Dream's sound started getting a lot more rock 'n' roll in the 1980s, especially once the dreaded Private Music years set in. They'd record good music after that, but it never had the impact, cultural resonance or lasting import of their 1970s output." ^ Time Warped in Space by Echoes Radio producer and host, John Diliberto Archived 2007-04-07 at the Wayback Machine.

35. "Hill began the program as a volunteer at KPFA-FM, Berkeley, in 1973, and worked with Anna Turner as co-producer. Ten years later - January 8, 1983 - the program went national." ^ Hearts of Space: a mellow carriage leader after a decade on the public radio satellite - published February 1, 1993 in Current, "the newspaper about public television and radio in the United States" Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine

36. ^ "Hearts of Space News". Hearts of Space News. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016.

37. "...includes music in his 'classic' style, ethnically influenced e-music, deep sequences, symphonic synths, and sci-fi space music." ^ Blade Runner soundtrack album review (Multi-CD extended version), Jim Brenholts, Windows Media Guide, from Allmusic

38. "Vangelis...composes and performs mainly instrumental music and film scores. ...he has flirted with many genres and has proved to be very hard to categorize. His music has been filed as 'synthesizer music', 'new age', 'progressive rock', 'Symphonic rock', 'Space music', 'electronic music', etc." ^ Vangelis Papathanassiou Biography, Newsfinder, A literary favour to world culture Archived 2016-03-10 at the Wayback Machine, Gus Leous, July 2003

39. "The terms^ New Age and Space Music have been aptly applied to the ethereal improvisational electronic work of Tangerine Dream... Tangerine Dream lends itself to movie soundtracks; their music graces dozens of popular motion pictures." Tangerine Dream Biography Contemporary Musicians, Ed. Suzanne M. Bourgoin. Vol. 12. Archived 2006-11-15 at the Wayback Machine Thomson Gale, 1994. eNotes.com. 2006

40. " In 1983 the group made a substantial contribution to the soundtrack for the film ^ Risky Business, ... the title piece, also known as Love On A Real Train involved repetitive elements that were close to the minimalism of Steve Reich... 'we stumbled upon a minimal kind of thing, like Steve Reich or Philip Glass. It was a new way of drawing a romantic theme, which we still get credit for today.' " Tangerine Dream - Their Changing Use Of Technology Part 2: 1977-1994, Sound on Sound Magazine, January 1995

41. "the award-winning IMAX short film, ^ Hubble: Galaxies Across Space and Time, ... transforms images and data from NASA's Hubble Space Telescope into a voyage that sweeps viewers across the cosmos. ... space music composer Jonn Serrie wrote the surround-sound score." Hubble IMAX Film Takes Viewers on Ride Through Space and Time Hubble Telescope News Release, June 24, 2004

42. ^ Harpole, Charles; Charles Musser; Eileen Bowser; Richard Koszarski; Donald Crafton; Tino Balio; Thomas Schatz; Stephen Prince; David A. Cook; Paul Monaco; Peter Lev (2004). History of the American Cinema. Simon and Schuster. p. 385. ISBN 0-684-80493-X.

43. ^ "Christopher Franke - Albums".

44. "don't get confused and start thinking that classically crafted space music is a thing of the past. We recently received several releases from Sonic Images, an independent Los Angeles label operated by synthesist Christopher Franke, who played with Tangerine Dream for 17 years during the apex of the German group's popularity. Franke, who now resides in L.A., is represented on the label by two recent albums: a compilation of soundtrack music for the sci-fi TV series ^ Babylon 5 and Klemania, "Declarations of Independents"[dead link ] , Billboard, January 27, 1996 Archived September 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine

45. ^ Space night official website Archived 2012-07-01 at the Wayback Machine

Prendergast, Mark. Eno, Brian (Foreword) (2001). The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Trance: The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age. Bloomsbury USA. ISBN 1-58234-134-6.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Toggle the table of contents From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Space music, also called spacemusic or space ambient, is a subgenre of new-age music and is described as "tranquil, hypnotic and moving".

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Satellite radio is defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)'s ITU Radio Regulations (RR) as a broadcasting-satellite service. The satellite's signals are broadcast nationwide, across a much wider geographical area than terrestrial radio stations, and the service is primarily intended for the occupants of motor vehicles. It is available by subscription, mostly commercial free, and offers subscribers more stations and a wider variety of programming options than terrestrial radio.

Satellite radio technology was inducted into the Space Foundation Space Technology Hall of Fame in 2002. Satellite radio uses the 2.3 GHz S band in North America for nationwide digital radio broadcasting. In other parts of the world, satellite radio uses the 1.4 GHz L band allocated for DAB.

The first satellite radio broadcasts occurred in Africa and the Middle East in 1999. The first US broadcasts were in 2001 followed by Japan in 2004 and Canada in 2005.

There have been three (not counting MobaHo! of Japan) major satellite radio companies: WorldSpace, Sirius Satellite Radio and XM Satellite Radio, all founded in the 1990s in the United States. WorldSpace operated in the Africa and Asia region, whereas Sirius and XM competed in the North American (USA and Canada) market. Of the three companies, WorldSpace went bankrupt in 2009 and Sirius and XM merged in 2008 to form Sirius XM. The merger was done to avoid bankruptcy. The new company had financial problems and was within days of bankruptcy in 2009, but was able to find investors. The company did not go bankrupt and Sirius XM Satellite radio continues (as of 2023) to operate.

WorldSpace was founded by Ethiopia-born lawyer Noah Samara in Washington, D.C., in 1990, with the goal of making satellite radio programming available to the developing world. On June 22, 1991, the FCC gave WorldSpace permission to launch a satellite to provide digital programming to Africa and the Middle East. WorldSpace first began broadcasting satellite radio on October 1, 1999, in Africa. India would ultimately account for over 90% of WorldSpace's subscriber base. In 2008, WorldSpace announced plans to enter Europe, but those plans were set aside when the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in November 2008. In March 2010, the company announced it would be de-commissioning its two satellites (one served Asia, the other served Africa). Liberty Media, which owns 50% of Sirius XM Radio, had considered purchasing WorldSpace's assets, but talks between the companies collapsed. The satellites are now transmitting educational data and operate under the name of Yazmi USA, LLC.

Ondas Media was a Spanish company which had proposed to launch a subscription-based satellite radio system to serve Spain and much of Western Europe, but failed to acquire licenses throughout Europe.[citation needed ]

Onde Numérique was a French company which had proposed to launch a subscription-based satellite radio system to serve France and several other countries in Western Europe but has suspended its plans indefinitely, effective December, 2016.[citation needed ]

Sirius Satellite Radio was founded by Martine Rothblatt, who served as the new company's Chairman of the Board. Co-founder David Margolese served as Chief Executive Officer with former NASA engineer Robert Briskman serving as President and Chief Operating Officer. In June 1990, Rothblatt's shell company, Satellite CD Radio, Inc., petitioned the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to assign new frequencies for satellites to broadcast digital sound to homes and cars. The company identified and argued in favor of the use of the S-band frequencies that the FCC subsequently decided to allocate to digital audio broadcasting. The National Association of Broadcasters contended that satellite radio would harm local radio stations.

In April 1992, Rothblatt resigned as CEO of Satellite CD Radio; Briskman, who designed the company's satellite technology, was then appointed chairman and CEO. Six months later, Rogers Wireless co-founder Margolese, who had provided financial backing for the venture, acquired control of the company and succeeded Briskman. Margolese renamed the company CD Radio, and spent the next five years lobbying the FCC to allow satellite radio to be deployed, and the following five years raising $1.6 billion, which was used to build and launch three satellites into elliptical orbit from Kazakhstan in July 2000. In 1997, after Margolese had obtained regulatory clearance and "effectively created the industry," the FCC also sold a license to the American Mobile Radio Corporation, which changed its name to XM Satellite Radio in October 1998. XM was founded by Lon Levin and Gary Parsons, who served as chairman until November 2009.

CD Radio purchased their license for $83.3 million, and American Mobile Radio Corporation bought theirs for $89.9 million. Digital Satellite Broadcasting Corporation and Primosphere were unsuccessful in their bids for licenses. Sky Highway Radio Corporation had also expressed interest in creating a satellite radio network, before being bought out by CD Radio in 1993 for $2 million. In November 1999, Margolese changed the name of CD Radio to Sirius Satellite Radio. In November 2001, Margolese stepped down as CEO, remaining as chairman until November 2003, with Sirius issuing a statement thanking him "for his great vision, leadership and dedication in creating both Sirius and the satellite radio industry."

XM's first satellite was launched on March 18, 2001 and its second on May 8, 2001. Its first broadcast occurred on September 25, 2001, nearly four months before Sirius. Sirius launched the initial phase of its service in four cities on February 14, 2002, expanding to the rest of the contiguous United States on July 1, 2002. The two companies spent over $3 billion combined to develop satellite radio technology, build and launch the satellites, and for various other business expenses. Stating that it was the only way satellite radio could survive, Sirius and XM announced their merger on February 19, 2007, becoming Sirius XM. The FCC approved the merger on July 25, 2008, concluding that it was not a monopoly, primarily due to Internet audio-streaming competition.

MobaHo! was a mobile satellite digital audio/video broadcasting service based in Japan which offered different services to Japan and the Republic of Korea and whose services began on October 20, 2004, and ended on March 31, 2009.

XM satellite radio was launched in Canada on November 29, 2005. Sirius followed two days later on December 1, 2005. Sirius Canada and XM Radio Canada announced their merger into Sirius XM Canada on November 24, 2010. It was approved by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission on April 12, 2011.

Satellite radio uses the 2.3 GHz S band in North America for nationwide digital radio broadcasting. MobaHO! operated at 2.6 GHz. In other parts of the world, satellite radio uses part of the 1.4 GHz L band allocated for DAB.

Satellite radio subscribers purchase a receiver and pay a monthly subscription fee to listen to programming. They can listen through built-in or portable receivers in automobiles; in the home and office with a portable or tabletop receiver equipped to connect the receiver to a stereo system; or on the Internet. Reception is activated by obtaining the radio's unique ID and giving this to the service provider.

Ground stations transmit signals to the satellites which are 35,786 kilometers (22,236 miles) above the Equator in geostationary orbits. The satellites send the signals back down to radio receivers in cars and homes. This signal contains scrambled broadcasts, along with meta data about each specific broadcast. The signals are unscrambled by the radio receiver modules, which display the broadcast information. In urban areas, ground repeaters enable signals to be available even if the satellite signal is blocked. The technology allows for nationwide broadcasting, so that, for instance US listeners can hear the same stations anywhere in the country.

Content, availability and market penetration

Satellite radio in the US offers commercial-free music stations, as well as news, sports, and talk, some of which include commercials. In 2004, satellite radio companies in the United States began providing background music to hotels, retail chains, restaurants, airlines and other businesses. On April 30, 2013, SiriusXM CEO Jim Meyer stated that the company would be pursuing opportunities over the next few years to provide in-car services through their existing satellites, including telematics (automated security and safety, such as stolen vehicle tracking and roadside assistance) and entertainment (such as weather and gas prices).

As of December 2020, SiriusXM had 34.7 million subscribers. This was primarily due to the company's partnerships with automakers and car dealers. Roughly 60% of new cars sold come equipped with SiriusXM, and just under half of those units gain paid subscriptions. The company has long-term deals with General Motors, Ford, Toyota, Kia, Bentley, BMW, Volkswagen, Nissan, Hyundai and Mitsubishi. The presence of Howard Stern, whose show attracts over 12 million listeners per week, has also been a factor in the company's steady growth. As of 2013, the main competition to satellite radio is streaming Internet services, such as Pandora and Spotify, as well as FM and AM Radio.

Satellite radio differs from AM, FM radio, and digital television radio (DTR) in the following ways (the table applies primarily to the United States):

Radio format

Satellite radio

AM/FM

Digital television radio (DTR)

Monthly fees
US$10.99 and up

Free

Free for terrestrial. Very low for cable television or satellite-DTR represents a small portion of the total monthly television fee.

Portability
Available

Prominent

None-a typical set consists of a stereo attached to a television set-top box (the primary function of the set top-box is normally designed for viewing digital television on an analogue set).

Listening availability
Very high-a satellite signal's footprint covers millions of square kilometres.

Low to moderate[citation needed ] - implementation of FM service requires moderate to high population densities and is thus not practical in rural and/or remote locales; AM travels great distances at night.

Very high

Variety and depth of programming
Highest

Variable-highly dependent upon economic/demographic factors

Variable-dependent on location and the television provider for cable and satellite, dependent on the various packages they provide and on the user's subscription.

Frequency of programming interruptions (by DJs or commercial advertising)
None to high-mostly dependent on the channels, some of which have DJs; most channels are advertisement-free because of the paid subscription model of satellite radio.

None to low-dependent on the provider; however, it is common that some stations will have DJs. Usually no advertisements on subscription services ( DirecTV and Dish Network both claim to provide advertisement-free content).

Governmental regulation
Significant governmental regulations regarding content

Yes for terrestrial. For cable and satellite, low to none.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Satellite radio is defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)'s ITU Radio Regulations (RR) as a broadcasting-satellite service . The satellite's signals are broadcast nationwide, across a much wider geographical area than terrestrial radio stations, and the service is primarily intended for the occupants of motor vehicles.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Chill-out (shortened as ; also typeset as or chill out) is a loosely defined form of popular music characterized by slow tempos and relaxed moods. The definition of "chill-out music" has evolved throughout the decades, and generally refers to anything that might be identified as a modern type of easy listening. Some of the genres associated with "chill" include downtempo, classical, dance, jazz, hip hop, world, pop, lounge, and ambient.

The term "chill-out music" - originally conflated with " ambient house" - came from an area called "The White Room" at the Heaven nightclub in London in 1989. There, DJs played ambient mixes from sources such as Brian Eno and Pink Floyd to allow dancers a place to "chill out" from the faster-paced music of the main dance floor. Ambient house became widely popular over the next decade before it declined due to market saturation.

In the early 2000s, DJs in Ibiza's Café Del Mar began creating ambient house mixes that drew on jazz, classical, Hispanic, and New Age sources. The popularity of chill-out subsequently expanded to dedicated satellite radio channels, outdoor festivals, and thousands of compilation albums. "Chill-out" was also removed from its ambient origins and became its own distinct genre.

" Chillwave" was an ironic term coined in 2009 for music that could already be described with existing labels such as dream pop. Despite the facetious intent behind the term, chillwave was the subject of serious, analytical articles by mainstream newspapers, and became one of the first genres to acquire an identity online. As on-demand music streaming services grew in the 2010s, a form of downtempo tagged as "lo-fi hip hop" or "chillhop" became popular among YouTube users.

There is no exact definition of chill-out music. The term, which has evolved throughout the decades, generally refers to anything that might be identified as a modern type of easy listening. Some of the genres associated with "chill" include downtempo, classical, dance, jazz, hip hop, world, pop, lounge, and ambient. Chill-out typically has slow rhythms, sampling, a " trance-like nature", "drop-out beats", and a mixture of electronic instruments with acoustic instruments. In the "Ambient/Chill Out" chapter of Rick Snoman's 2013 book Dance Music Manual, he writes, "it could be said that as long as the tempo remains below 120 BPM and it employs a laid-back groove, it could be classed as chill out."

The term originated from an area called "The White Room" at the Heaven nightclub in London in 1989. Its DJs were Jimmy Cauty and Alex Patterson, later of the Orb. They created ambient mixes from sources such as Brian Eno, Pink Floyd, the Eagles, Mike Oldfield, 10cc, and War. The room's purpose was to allow dancers a chance to "chill out" from the more emphatic and fast-tempo music played on the main dance floor. This also coincided with the short-lived fad of ambient house, also known as "New Age house". Cauty's KLF subsequently released an album called (February 1990), featuring uncredited contributions from Patterson. In addition, during the early 1990s, the Beach Boys' Smiley Smile (1967) was reputed as one of the best "chill-out" albums to listen to during an LSD comedown.

Ambient house declined after the mid-1990s due to market saturation. In the early 2000s, DJs in Ibiza's Café Del Mar began creating ambient house mixes that drew on jazz, classical, Hispanic, and New Age sources. They called their product "chill-out music", and it sparked a revived interest in ambient house from the public and record labels. The popularity of chill-out subsequently expanded to dedicated satellite radio channels, outdoor festivals, and the release of thousands of compilation albums offering ambient sounds and "muffled" beats. Consequently, the popular understanding of "chill-out music" shifted away from "ambient" and into its own distinct genre. Music critics to that point were generally dismissive of the music.

In 2009, a genre called " chillwave" was invented by the satirical blog Hipster Runoff for music that could already be described with existing labels such as dream pop. The pseudonymous author, known as "Carles", later explained that he was only "[throwing] a bunch of pretty silly names on a blog post and saw which one stuck." Chillwave became one of the first genres to acquire an identity online, although the term did not gain mainstream currency until early 2010, when it was the subject of serious, analytical articles by The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times. In 2011, Carles said it was "ridiculous that any sort of press took it seriously" and that although the bands he spoke to "get annoyed" by the tag, "they understand that it's been a good thing. What about iTunes making it an official genre? It's now theoretically a marketable indie sound."

Spotify playlists

Streaming became the dominant source of music industry revenue in 2016. During that decade, Spotify engendered a trend that became known among the industry as "lean back listening", which refers to a listener who "thinks less about the artist or album they are seeking out, and instead connects with emotions, moods, and activities". As of 2017, the front page of the service's "browse" screen included many algorithmically-selected playlists with names such as "Chilled Folk", "Chill Hits", "Evening Chill", "Chilled R&B", "Indie Chillout", and "Chill Tracks". In 2014, the service reported that throughout the year "Chill Out" playlists had trended much higher than the national average on campuses across Colorado, where marijuana had been legalized in January of that year. In an editorial piece for The Baffler titled "The Problem with Muzak", writer Liz Pelly criticized the "chill" playlists as "the purest distillation of [Spotify's] ambition to turn all music into emotional wallpaper".

In 2013, YouTube began allowing its users to host live streams, which resulted in a host of 24-hour "radio stations" dedicated to microgenres such as vaporwave, a derivation of chillwave. Music streaming platform Spotify added to the popular "lo-fi beats" wave by generating "Spotified genres", including "Chill Hits", "Bedroom Pop" playlists, and promoting numerous "chill pop" artists. In 2017, a form of downtempo music tagged as " chillhop" or " lo-fi hip hop" became popular among YouTube music streamers. By 2018, several of these channels had attracted millions of followers. One DJ, Ryan Celsius, theorized that they were inspired by a nostalgia for the commercial bumpers used by Toonami and Adult Swim in the 2000s, and that this "created a cross section of people that enjoyed both anime and wavy hip-hop beats." These channels equally functioned as chatrooms, with participants often discussing their personal struggles. As of 2018, Spotify's "Chill Hits" playlist had 5.4 million listeners and had been growing rapidly.

Chillhop became one of the most widely known microgenres and may also be viewed as chill-out music fused with hip-hop. Nujabes and J Dilla have been referred to as the "godfathers of Lo-Fi Hip Hop". Vice contributor Luke Winkie credited YouTube user ChilledCow as "the person who first featured a studious anime girl as his calling card, which set up the aesthetic framework for the rest of the people operating in the genre" and suggested that "if there is one shared touchstone for lo-fi hip-hop, it's probably [the 2004 MF Doom and Madlib album] Madvillainy".

Some YouTube streams, including those by Chillhop Records and ChilledCow, faced issues such as copyright strikes and bans. In February 2018, Chillhop Records received a copyright strike from anime house Studio Chizu for the use of a character from the feature film, Wolf Children. Though Chillhop Records only used a five-second loop of one character, the popularity of the video caught the attention of Studio Chizu. The founder of Chillhop Records and owner of the YouTube channel, Bas Van Leeuwen told the gaming magazine, Polygon, that the company worked with Studio Chizu in order to bring the livestream back on. ChilledCow received another notice from YouTube, in February 2020, detailing that the channel had violated YouTube's Terms of Service. According to , soon after the shutdown of ChilledCow's channel, a large influx of support from fans of the longstanding lo-fi curator was recognized as the reason why the popular lo-fi hip hop livestream was resumed after the mishap.

Viewership of lo-fi hip hop streams grew significantly during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. In April, MTV News noted, "there might be something to be said for lo-fi hip-hop's composition, and the way its creators mix simplistic melodies with a judicious use of words to create intense memories, feelings, and nostalgia" and stated that the quarantine in place in various countries "has led people to log more hours online due to boredom or virtual workplaces and schools, and livestreamed music performances are reaching their full potential."

Lo-fi hip hop is considered an Internet meme. Many producers in the genre later distanced themselves from the label or drifted into other music styles. Common criticisms of the genre included the music's simplicity and clichéd sound.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Chill-out (shortened as ; also typeset as or chill out) is a loosely defined form of popular music characterized by slow tempos and relaxed moods. The definition of "chill-out music" has evolved throughout the decades, and generally refers to anything that might be identified as a modern type of easy listening.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Blue Pearl are an English electronic music duo consisting of American female singer Durga McBroom and British musician Youth (Martin Glover). They charted six times on the UK singles chart and had two songs reach the US Hot Dance Club Play chart.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sun Electric is a German electronic music group, hailing from Berlin. Their first release was the single "O'Locco" on the Wau! Mr. Modo label in 1990, with numerous subsequent releases on the R&S / Apollo labels throughout the following decade. According to Philipp Sherburne, Sun Electric initially released "straight-ahead Frankfurt trance, but by the mid '90s they were masters of elastic rhythms and silvery leads. Their albums Present and Via Nostra [...] are underrated masterpieces of late-'90s electronica." The band has been influential within techno, trance, ambient and intelligent dance music (IDM) genres.

Principal members of the band are Tom Thiel and Max Loderbauer, with Thomas Fehlmann acting as executive producer on all their releases. Notable releases include Kitchen (1993), Aaah! (1994), 30.7.94 Live (1994), (1996), and Via Nostra (1999). The band has also recorded under the name S.E. Berlin.

The band has worked with graphic artist and videographer Nick Philip on their music videos, and their video "Meccano" was created for and the first video to be played on the MTV series Amp.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sun Electric is a German electronic music group, hailing from Berlin. Their first release was the single "O'Locco" on the Wau! Mr. Modo label in 1990, with numerous subsequent releases on the R&S / Apollo labels throughout the following decade.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
WAU/Mr. Modo Records was a record label set up by Alex Paterson and Youth. "WAU" stands for "What About Us?" (although in a 2016 interview Glover stated that it stood for "weird and unusual") and "Mr. Modo" is Adam Morris, Paterson's manager.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Chill Out is the third studio album by British electronic music group The KLF, released on 5 February 1990. It is an ambient-styled concept album featuring an extensive selection of samples, portraying a mythical night-time journey throughout the U.S. Gulf Coast states, beginning in Texas and ending in Louisiana. Chill Out was conceived as a continuous piece of music, with original KLF music interwoven with samples from songs by Elvis Presley, Fleetwood Mac, Acker Bilk, Van Halen, 808 State and field recordings of Tuvan throat singers.

Chill Out was released during the KLF's ambient phase, and was credited by Bob Stanley for pioneering ambient house, drawing attention to the album's mix of "train noises, post-punk dub and pre-punk Floyd. It has also been described as a sound collage, with its blend of sound effects, environmental noise, throat singing and musical samples.

Composition and recording

"Madrugada Eterna " first appeared on the 1989 single " Kylie Said to Jason".

According to the sleeve notes, Chill Out was recorded "live on location" at Trancentral, the "spiritual home of the KLF", their studio in the basement of KLF member Jimmy Cauty's squat in Stockwell, South London.

The KLF have stated that the album was recorded in a 44-minute live take. In an interview Jimmy Cauty stated that, "There's no edits on it. Quite a few times we'd get near the end and make a mistake and so we'd have to go all the way back to the beginning and set it all up again". According to Cauty's co-founder of The KLF, Bill Drummond, the album took two days to put together. Record Collector compared The KLF's production method to that of established electronic musicians: "While electronic dinosaurs like Jean Michel Jarre and Klaus Schulze were walling themselves in with banks and banks of synthesizers, computers and electronic gadgetry the KLF were doing the opposite-making a crafted work like Chill Out with the bare necessities of musical survival."

After recording, the duo thought the sound to be evocative of a trip through the American Deep South. Drummond said "I've never been to those places. I don't know what those places are like, but in my head, I can imagine those sounds coming from those places, just looking at the map." The titles of the parts are poetic descriptions-often complete sentences-incorporating statements of time, place and situation along the Gulf Coast journey.

Chill Out is a single continuous musical piece having many distinctive sections, each of which either segues into or introduces the next. The album as a whole is a progression, with percussion gradually introduced during the second half. The album has many recurring musical elements, which unify and merge the parts into the collective whole. Common characteristics of most parts include ethereal background synthesizers, the use of echo and pitch bend, samples of nature and transport, and the punctuation of soft synthesizer loops by sudden flourishes of harmonious sound. The Deep South is variously represented using original pedal steel contributions from Graham Lee and emotionally charged samples of US radio broadcasts: an evangelist's sermon, a range of samples of a very intense salesman, and, in "Madrugada Eterna ", the detailed news report of a fatal road accident.

Despite the specific US settings, Chill Out is multi-ethnic, its journey taking in pastoral shepherds, Russian broadcasts, Tuvan throat singers ("Dream Time in Lake Jackson"), exotic birds, and an African-sounding original female vocal from The JAMs' 1987 (What the Fuck Is Going On?) that later became The KLF's " Justified and Ancient".

Elements of The KLF's "Pure Trance" singles " 3 a.m. Eternal" and " Last Train to Trancentral" are brought to the fore during the second half of the album, progressing from the minimalist synths of the opening half. Similarly, samples of other artists' work appear as the composition develops, harmonising with The KLF's original instrumentation.

Identified samples

The samples used in Chill Out contribute fundamentally to the character of the composition. In particular, the recurring sampled sound effects of rolling stock and other transport illustrate the journey concept, often during segues between parts of the composition. Many of these effects are taken from the 1987 CD version of Elektra Records' Authentic Sound Effects Volume 2. The tracks used are "Crossing Bells and Horn with Electric Train Pass" and "Short Freight Train Pass", along with processed versions of "F18 Diamond Fly-By", "Dodge Van Starts, Drives Out", and "Surf". Samples of American, British and Russian radio stations are also used, including the BBC pips and a jingle from Tommy Vance's Friday Rock Show on BBC Radio 1: "Rock radio into the nineties and beyond". Some of the more obscure sounds (Tuvan throat singers and Basque shepherds in the Pyrenees) come from the Saydisc Records soundtrack of the 1980s Disappearing World series on Granada TV in the UK. The phrase "Your feeling of helplessness is your best friend, savage" is taken from the 1957 science fiction film The Brain from Planet Arous.

The album features samples of distinctive melodies from the musical recordings of other artists: Elvis Presley's 1969 UK No. 2 single " In the Ghetto", Fleetwood Mac's 1968 UK No. 1 single " Albatross", as well as " Oh Well Part II", and Acker Bilk's 1961 US No. 1 single " Stranger on the Shore" all feature prominently, in each case set to an accompaniment of original music. The composers of these hits receive co-writing credit for "Elvis on the Radio Steel Guitar in My Soul", "3am Somewhere out of Beaumont", and "A Melody from a Past Life Keeps Pulling Me Back" respectively, and the performers are thanked in the Chill Out sleevenotes. Boy George's band Jesus Loves You is also thanked for a sample from the single "After the Love", which also features on "3am Somewhere out of Beaumont". Short samples from the Van Halen instrumental " Eruption" emerge throughout the song "A Melody from a Past Life Keeps Pulling Me Back". Shortly after the 2:00 mark of "The Lights of Baton Rouge Pass By", a sample from the theme music of the 1958 film The Big Country can be heard as well as " Pacific State" by 808 State.

Ian Cranna of , reviewing Chill Out at the time of its release, described the album as an "impressionist soundtrack" whose "spartan but melodic electronic strains ease gently through wide open spaces", and concluded that it is "both imaginative in itself and successful in inducing a blissed out mood of peace and relaxation (at least at night)." called Chill Out "a riot of running water, birdsong and electronic womb music"; reviewer Helen Mead said that the album, with its variety of sampled sounds, "not so much... distracts you as envelops you". Record Mirror's Phil Cheeseman summarised Chill Out as "one long piece of flowing synthesised relaxation dotted with some very witty samples", recommending that it be listened to "as a prelude to a long night in, preferably not alone." Ian McCann of proposed that if the listener is not under the influence of drugs, the album sounds "hopelessly pompous and almost classical." In , Russell Brown panned it as "too arbitrary and formless; it contains virtually no ozone-destroying beats at all."

In a 1994 retrospective review, Q's Andrew Collins described The KLF as "ahead of their time" and added that "the fact that Chill Out was seen largely as a urinary extraction exercise at the time when such sound-painting now shapes young careers lends poignancy to its more balmy yet knowing moments." called the album The KLF's "comedown classic", while John Bush of AllMusic awarded it five stars and cited it as "one of the essential ambient albums". In an "On Second Thought" review in Stylus Magazine, writer Scott Plagenhoef found Chill Out to be "less a morning after and more the slow awakening to a new day" and an album which "slowly unfolds its charms". Ira Robbins of Trouser Press was less favourable, likening it to "an accidental recording of 1970 Pink Floyd sessions during which all the participants have either left or fallen asleep" and calling it "the pleasantly attenuated soundtrack to a non-existent film that is easily forgotten."

In a 1996 feature, named Chill Out the fifth best dance album of all time, citing Jimmy Cauty and Alex Paterson as having "kickstarted" ambient music with their DJ sets at the "seminal" house night "Land of Oz". Dom Philips of Mixmag described Chill Out as "a gorgeous patchwork of sound, noise and melody ... the samples are carefully woven into a beautiful spider's web of sound." In 2008, included "Wichita Lineman Was a Song I Once Heard" in The Pitchfork 500, their list of the 500 greatest songs between 1977 and 2006, and later ranked the track at number 80 in their "Top 200 Tracks of the 1990s" list in 2010. In 2022, Pitchfork ranked the album at number 76 in their list of "The 150 Best Albums of the 1990s".

The use of a journey as a unifying musical or conceptual thread featured several times in Cauty and Drummond's work, including The White Room, " Last Train to Trancentral", " Justified and Ancient" and " America: What Time Is Love?". Cauty's and The Orb's debut album, The Orb's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld also employ the journey concept.

Sheep, which appear both on the recording of Chill Out-as guest vocalists according to Scott Piering's press release-and in its sleeve artwork, became a theme of The KLF's output, featuring in the ambient video , The White Room album artwork, and later-in a macabre gesture-after their controversial appearance at the 1992 Brit Awards ceremony. Drummond credits the sleeve of Pink Floyd's Atom Heart Mother as providing inspiration for the artwork of Chill Out.

Drummond has documented his affinity for pedal steel and country music, stating that although he has "loved all sorts of music, ... country music is the only music [he's] been totally able to identify with", and declaring: "the weep of a pedal steel guitar is the sound of heartstrings being torn".

According to Drummond, the album and album sleeve has "the vibe of the rave scene over here [in the UK]. When we're having the big Orbital raves out in the country, and you're dancing all night and then the sun would come up in the morning, and then you'd be surrounded by this English rural countryside ... we wanted something that kind of reflected that, that feeling the day after the rave, that's what we wanted the music for".

The sleeve notes that the album was "Composed Compiled and Collated by the KLF". Simon Reynolds (1999) and Mark Prendergast (2003) report the uncredited involvement of Alex Paterson, whereas a 1993 piece in -in which Paterson was interviewed-claimed that Chill Out was a "spin-off" from the Cauty/Paterson sessions at Trancentral. However, in a 2011 interview with Magnetic Magazine, Paterson corroborated his involvement and contribution to the album and said he had in fact been "ripped off" by The KLF and notably Cauty, stating; "KLF put the Chill Out album out, which was basically a bunch of my DJ sessions at Trancentral which I never got credited for. That was one of the major reasons why Jimi and I split up. It was becoming apparent to me that everything he said he had given me, he never gave me. That shaped quite a lot of things in my head. Never to be ripped off again, I suppose. Don't worry, I got ripped off again. But as Jimi said to me, you're never really famous until you've been ripped off."

In August 1990, the single " What Time Is Love? (Remodelled & Remixed)" was released. It included the ambient house "Virtual Reality Mix", reprising many elements of Chill Out.

Elements of Chill Out also featured heavily in The KLF's "UFO Mix" of "It Must Be Obvious" by Pet Shop Boys, released in September 1990 and incorporating "What Time Is Love?", a "Pure Trance" track not used on the LP.

In July 2004, UK performance collective Popdamage "reconstructed" Chill Out as a live performance at The Big Chill music festival, recreating many of the album's vocal and musical samples live on-stage.

In February 2021, the KLF released Come Down Dawn, a reworking of Chill Out with a selection of prominent but unlicensed samples from the original release removed.

The track listing of Chill Out uses the start- and end-points of the parts, instead of the conventional track numbering system, indicating that the album be treated as a single composition. For the original KLF Communications CD release, the entire album was written to one track.

1. A "urinary extraction exercise" is (in convoluted ^ British slang) a "piss take" - a targeted joke disguised as something serious.

2. ^ Paterson and Cauty were the original incarnation of The Orb; they split in April 1990, with Paterson retaining the name. The subsequent release of the ambient LP-originally intended to be The Orb's debut album -was credited only to Cauty.

1. Luck, Richard (1999). "The KLF". In Buckley, Jonathan; Duane, Orla; Ellingham, Mark; Spicer, Al (eds.). The Rough Guide to Rock (2nd ed.). London: Rough Guides. pp. 538-539. ISBN 1-85828-457-0. From #1 to number nowhere, Cauty and Drummond turned their attention away from the mainstream and concentrated, instead, upon ambient music. While Cauty founded The Orb, Chill Out (1990), an album still regarded highly by dance-trance aficionados, was released by the band under the new name of The KLF. Sadly, like the other records the band released during their ambient phase, it didn't sell particularly well.

2. Stanley, Bob (2013). "1991: Time for the Mu Mu". Yeah Yeah Yeah: The Story of Modern Pop. Faber & Faber. p. 645. ISBN 978-0-571-28198-5. The KLF's 1990 Chill Out album had pioneered the tautological 'ambient house', mixing train noises, post-punk dub and pre-punk Floyd.

3. Future Music (17 March 2021). "The beginner's guide to: chillout". Music Radar. An audio collage of everything from Elvis to the Tuvan throat singing of Siberia, the album tells the story of an imaginary night-time journey from Texas to Louisiana.

4. Howard, Vicki; Lawrence, Pete, eds. (2004). "Stripped Pine and Swedish Furniture: A Defence of Chill-Out". Crossfade: A Big Chill Anthology. London: Serpent's Tail. p. 29. ISBN 9781852428754. The KLF's extraordinary 1990 ambient sonic collage Chill Out was the landmark: a forty-five-minute, distinctly tongue-in-cheek odyssey through sound effects and environmental noise..

5. ^ Longmire, Ernie; et al. (2020) [1998]. "Discography: The KLF (including The JAMS, The Timelords, 2K etc.)". Archived from the original on 29 February 2020.

6. ^ The KLF (1990). Chill Out (Media notes). KLF Communications. JAMS LP5.

7. ^ "The KLF: Enigmatic Dance Duo". Record Collector. 1 April 1991. Archived (via the Library of Mu) on 16 September 2016.

8. ^ Longmire, Ernie ("Lazlo Nibble") (1 April 1991). "KLF is Gonna Rock Ya!". X Magazine. Archived (via the Library of Mu) on 16 September 2016.

9. Collins, Andrew (June 1994). "The KLF: Chill Out". . No. 93. Archived (via the Library of Mu) on 3 September 2007.

10. Cheeseman, Phil (10 February 1990). "KLF: Chill Out". Record Mirror. p. 14.

11. Brown, Russell (20 January 1990). "KLF: The Chillout Album". . p. 26.

12. ^ Plagenhoef, Scott (1 September 2003). "On Second Thought - The KLF - Chill Out". Stylus Magazine. Archived from the original on 22 June 2017.

13. ^ Phillips, Dom (1 March 1996). "50 greatest dance albums - No. 5, Chill Out - The KLF". . Archived (via the Library of Mu) on 16 September 2016.

14. ^ "Wichita Lineman Was a Song I Once Heard". Acclaimed Music. Archived from the original on 14 September 2017.

15. ^ Pitchfork Staff (28 September 2022). "The 150 Best Albums of the 1990s". . ...the record exalted the gathering obsession with musical borrowing in...pop...the KLF's most listenable album also sounded-quite literally-like a dream...Chill Out [provides a] hypnagogic fantasy of a twilight trawl across the Deep South...

16. ^ "The White Room - Information Sheet Eight". KLF Communications. August 1990. Archived (via the Library of Mu) on 5 October 2007.

17. ^ Reynolds, Simon (1999). Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture. Routledge. p. 191. ISBN 0-415-92373-5. After appearing uncredited on the KLF's Chill Out, Paterson collaborated with Jimmy Cauty on "A Huge Ever Growing Brain."

18. ^ Prendergast, Mark (2003). The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Moby-The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. pp. 407-412. ISBN 1-58234-323-3. The year 1990 began with the release of The KLF's Ambient manifesto, Chill Out. Coming direct from the same Trancentral sessions that had produced 'Loving You', Chill Out featured no credit to Paterson and soon after its release Jimmy Cauty split from The Orb.

19. ^ Thomas, Rich. "In About Four Seconds A Teacher Will Begin To Speak-Dr. Alex Paterson Of The Orb". Magnetic Magazine.

20. ^ "The KLF release new reworked album 'Come Down Dawn'". NME | Music, Film, TV, Gaming & Pop Culture News. 4 February 2021.

21. ^ Monroe, Jazz (4 February 2021). "The KLF's Chill Out Finally Comes to Streaming-Sort Of". Pitchfork.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Chill Out is the third studio album by British electronic music group The KLF, released on 5 February 1990. It is an ambient-styled concept album featuring an extensive selection of samples, portraying a mythical night-time journey throughout the U.S. Gulf Coast states, beginning in Texas and ending in Louisiana.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Pronunciation
[1]

Jupiter

Adjectives

Jovian

Symbol

Epoch J2000

Aphelion

816.363 Gm (5.4570 AU)

Perihelion

740.595 Gm (4.9506 AU)

Eccentricity

0.0489

398.88 d

Inclination

Known satellites

95 (as of 2023)[7]

69,911 km (43,441 mi)[a]
10.973 of Earth's

71,492 km (44,423 mi)11.209 0.10045 [a]
R🜨 ( of Earth's) R☉ (
of Sun's)

66,854 km (41,541 mi)[a]
10.517 of Earth's

Flattening

0.06487

6.1469×10 ¹⁰ km ² (2.3733×10 ¹⁰ sq mi)
120.4 of Earth's

Volume

1.4313×10 ¹⁵ km ³ (3.434×10 ¹⁴ cu mi)[a]
1,321 of Earth's

Mass

1.8982×10 ²⁷ kg (4.1848×10 ²⁷ lb)

317.8 of Earth's

1/1047 of Sun's[10]

1,326 kg/m³ (2,235 lb/cu yd)[b]

24.79 m/s² (81.3 ft/s²)[a]
2.528 g

0.2756±0.0006 [11]

9.9258 h (9 h 55 m 33 s)[3]

Equatorial rotation velocity

12.6 km/s (7.8 mi/s; 45,000 km/h)

268.057°; 17 h 52 m 14 s

Albedo

0.503 ( Bond)[12]
0.538 ( geometric)[13]

Temperature

88 K (−185 °C) ( blackbody temperature)

Surface temp.

min

mean

max

1 bar

165 K

0.1 bar

78 K

128 K

−2.94[14] to −1.66[14]

−9.4[15]

200-600 kPa (30-90 psi)
(opaque cloud deck)[16]

Composition by volume

11.86 Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, and slightly less than one one-thousandth the mass of the Sun. Jupiter orbits the Sun at a distance of 5.20 AU (778.5 Gm) with an orbital period of years. Jupiter is the third brightest natural object in the Earth's night sky after the Moon and Venus, and it has been observed since prehistoric times. It was named after Jupiter, the chief deity of ancient Roman religion.

Jupiter was the first planet to form, and its inward migration during the primordial Solar System impacted much of the formation history of the other planets. Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen (90% by volume), followed by helium, which makes up a quarter of its mass and a tenth of its volume. The ongoing contraction of Jupiter's interior generates more heat than the planet receives from the Sun. Its internal structure is believed to comprise an outer mantle of liquid metallic hydrogen, and a diffuse inner core of denser material. Because of its rapid rotation rate of 1 rotation per 10 hours, Jupiter's shape is an oblate spheroid: it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator. The outer atmosphere is divided into a series of latitudinal bands, with turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries. The most obvious result of this is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm which has been observed since 1831 and possibly earlier.

Jupiter is surrounded by a faint planetary ring system and has a powerful magnetosphere, the second largest contiguous structure in the Solar System (after the heliosphere). Jupiter forms a system of 95 known moons and probably many more, including the four large moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Ganymede, the largest of the four, is larger than the planet Mercury. Callisto is the second largest; Io and Europa are approximately the size of Earth's Moon.

Since 1973, Jupiter has been visited by nine robotic probes: seven flybys and two dedicated orbiters, with one more en route and one awaiting launch.

Name and symbol

In both the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, Jupiter was named after the chief god of the divine pantheon: Zeus to the Greeks and Jupiter to the Romans.[17] The International Astronomical Union formally adopted the name Jupiter for the planet in 1976, and has since named its newly discovered satellites for the god's lovers, favourites, and descendants.[18] The planetary symbol for Jupiter, , descends from a Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke, ⟨Ƶ⟩, as an abbreviation for Zeus.[19][20]

In Latin, Iovis is the genitive case of , i.e. Jupiter. It is associated with the etymology of Zeus ('sky father'). The English equivalent, Jove, is only known to have come into use as a poetic name for the planet around the 14th century.

Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older adjectival form jovial, employed by astrologers in the Middle Ages, has come to mean 'happy' or 'merry', moods ascribed to Jupiter's influence in astrology.

The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno-, which is used to form some Jupiter-related words, such as zenographic.

Formation and migration

Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar System. Current models of Solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond the snow line: a distance from the early Sun where the temperature was sufficiently cold for volatiles such as water to condense into solids. The planet began as a solid core, which then accumulated its gaseous atmosphere. As a consequence, the planet must have formed before the solar nebula was fully dispersed. During its formation, Jupiter's mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass of the Earth, approximately half of which was made up of silicates, ices and other heavy-element constituents. When the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula. Thereafter, the growing planet reached its final mass in 3-4 million years.

According to the " grand tack hypothesis", Jupiter began to form at a distance of roughly 3.5 AU (520 million km; 330 million mi) from the Sun. As the young planet accreted mass, interaction with the gas disk orbiting the Sun and orbital resonances with Saturn caused it to migrate inward. This upset the orbits of several super-Earths orbiting closer to the Sun, causing them to collide destructively. Saturn would later have begun to migrate inwards too, much faster than Jupiter, until the two planets became captured in a 3:2 mean motion resonance at approximately 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) from the Sun. This changed the direction of migration, causing them to migrate away from the Sun and out of the inner system to their current locations. All of this happened over a period of 3-6 million years, with the final migration of Jupiter occurring over several hundred thousand years. Jupiter's migration from the inner solar system eventually allowed the inner planets-including Earth-to form from the rubble.

There are several unresolved issues with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured elemental composition. It is likely that Jupiter would have settled into an orbit much closer to the Sun if it had migrated through the solar nebula. Some competing models of Solar System formation predict the formation of Jupiter with orbital properties that are close to those of the present day planet. Other models predict Jupiter forming at distances much farther out, such as 18 AU (2.7 billion km; 1.7 billion mi).

According to the Nice model, infall of proto- Kuiper belt objects over the first 600 million years of Solar System history caused Jupiter and Saturn to migrate from their initial positions into a 1:2 resonance, which caused Saturn to shift into a higher orbit, disrupting the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, depleting the Kuiper belt, and triggering the Late Heavy Bombardment.

Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation outside the molecular nitrogen (N ₂) snowline, which is estimated at 20-30 AU (3.0-4.5 billion km; 1.9-2.8 billion mi) from the Sun, and possibly even outside the argon snowline, which may be as far as 40 AU (6.0 billion km; 3.7 billion mi). Having formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter would then have, over a roughly 700,000-year period, migrated inwards to its current location. during an epoch approximately 2-3 million years after the planet began to form. In this model, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn would also have migrated inwards.

Physical characteristics

Jupiter is a gas giant, being primarily composed of gas and liquid rather than solid matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, with a diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator, giving it a volume 1,321 times that of the Earth. Its average density, 1.326 g/cm ³, is lower than those of the four terrestrial planets.

Composition

By mass, Jupiter's atmosphere is approximately 76% hydrogen and 24% helium, though, because helium atoms are more massive than hydrogen molecules, Jupiter's upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium by volume. The atmosphere also contains trace amounts of methane, water vapour, ammonia, and silicon-based compounds as well as fractional amounts of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia. Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements, trace amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have also been found. The interior of Jupiter contains denser materials-by mass it is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements.

The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula. Neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun. Jupiter's helium abundance is about 80% that of the Sun due to precipitation of these elements as helium-rich droplets, a process that happens deep in the planet's interior.

Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more of the next most common elements, including oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. Those planets are known as ice giants, because the majority of their volatile compounds are in solid form.

Size and mass

Jupiter with its moon Europa on the left. Earth's diameter is 11 times smaller than Jupiter, and 4 times larger than Europa.

Jupiter's mass is 318 times that of Earth; 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. It is so massive that its barycentre with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's centre. Jupiter's radius is about one tenth the radius of the Sun, and its mass is one thousandth the mass of the Sun, as the densities of the two bodies are similar. A " Jupiter mass" ( M J or M Jup) is often used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs. For example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0.69 M J, while the brown dwarf Gliese 229 b has a mass of 60.4 M J.

Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40% more mass, the interior would be so compressed that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. For smaller changes in its mass, the radius would not change appreciably. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved. Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, its diameter is sufficient as the smallest red dwarf may be only slightly larger in radius than Saturn.

Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation, due to the Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism within its contracting interior. This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm (0.039 in)/yr. At the time of its formation, Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter.

Internal structure

Diagram of Jupiter, its interior, surface features, rings, and inner moons.

Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the formation of Jupiter. If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a dense core, a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending outward to about 80% of the radius of the planet, and an outer atmosphere consisting primarily of molecular hydrogen. Alternatively, if the planet collapsed directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk, it was expected to completely lack a core, consisting instead of a denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the centre. Data from the Juno mission showed that Jupiter has a diffuse core that mixes into its mantle, extending for 30-50% of the planet's radius, and comprising heavy elements with a combined mass 7-25 times the Earth. This mixing process could have arisen during formation, while the planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula. Alternatively, it could have been caused by an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's formation, which would have disrupted an originally solid Jovian core.

Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.3 MPa and critical temperature of 33 K (−240.2 °C; −400.3 °F). In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases-hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward from the cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers, possibly resembling something akin to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids. Physically, the gas gradually becomes hotter and denser as depth increases.

Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere. Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius of 60,000 km (37,000 mi) (11,000 km (6,800 mi) below the cloud tops) and merge again at 50,000 km (31,000 mi) (22,000 km (14,000 mi) beneath the clouds). Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune.

The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward as the heat of planetary formation can only escape by convection. At a surface depth where the atmospheric pressure level is 1 bar (0.10 MPa), the temperature is around 165 K (−108 °C; −163 °F). The region where supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of 50-400 GPa with temperatures of 5,000-8,400 K (4,730-8,130 °C; 8,540-14,660 °F), respectively. The temperature of Jupiter's diluted core is estimated to be 20,000 K (19,700 °C; 35,500 °F) with a pressure of around 4,000 GPa.

Atmosphere

Timelapse of Jupiter's cloud system moving over the course of one month (photographed during Voyager 1 flyby in 1979)

The atmosphere of Jupiter extends to a depth of 3,000 km (2,000 mi) below the cloud layers.

Cloud layers

Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia crystals, which may contain ammonium hydrosulfide as well. The clouds are located in the tropopause layer of the atmosphere, forming bands at different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are subdivided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 metres per second (360 km/h; 220 mph) are common in zonal jet streams. The zones have been observed to vary in width, colour and intensity from year to year, but they have remained stable enough for scientists to name them.

The cloud layer is about 50 km (31 mi) deep, and consists of at least two decks of ammonia clouds: a thin clearer region on top with a thick lower deck. There may be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia clouds, as suggested by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth. The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior. The Juno mission revealed the presence of "shallow lightning" which originates from ammonia-water clouds relatively high in the atmosphere. These discharges carry "mushballs" of water-ammonia slushes covered in ice, which fall deep into the atmosphere. Upper-atmospheric lightning has been observed in Jupiter's upper atmosphere, bright flashes of light that last around 1.4 milliseconds. These are known as "elves" or "sprites" and appear blue or pink due to the hydrogen.

The orange and brown colours in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be made up of phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons. These colourful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer clouds of the lower deck. The light-coloured zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallising ammonia that hides the chromophores from view.

Jupiter has a low axial tilt, thus making it that the poles always receive less solar radiation than the planet's equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports energy to the poles, balancing out temperatures at the cloud layer.

Great Red Spot and other vortices

Close-up of the Great Red Spot imaged by the Juno spacecraft in April 2018

A well-known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot, a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22° south of the equator. It was first observed in 1831, and possibly as early as 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown two more "red spots" adjacent to the Great Red Spot. The storm is visible through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger. The oval object rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about six days. The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km (5 mi) above the surrounding cloud tops. The Spot's composition and the source of its red colour remain uncertain, although photodissociated ammonia reacting with acetylene is a likely explanation.

The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth. Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and will be a permanent feature of the planet. However, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in the late 1800s showed it to be approximately 41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. By the time of the flybys in 1979, the storm had a length of 23,300 km (14,500 mi) and a width of approximately 13,000 km (8,000 mi). Hubble observations in 1995 showed it had decreased in size to 20,950 km (13,020 mi), and observations in 2009 showed the size to be 17,910 km (11,130 mi). As of 2015, the storm was measured at approximately 16,500 by 10,940 km (10,250 by 6,800 mi), and was decreasing in length by about 930 km (580 mi) per year. In October 2021, a Juno flyby mission measured the depth of the Great Red Spot, putting it at around 300-500 kilometres (190-310 mi).

Juno missions show that there are several polar cyclone groups at Jupiter's poles. The northern group contains nine cyclones, with a large one in the centre and eight others around it, while its southern counterpart also consists of a centre vortex but is surrounded by five large storms and a single smaller one for a total of 7 storms.

Formation of Oval BA from three white ovals

In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form a single feature-these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939-1940. The merged feature was named Oval BA. It has since increased in intensity and changed from white to red, earning it the nickname "Little Red Spot".

In April 2017, a "Great Cold Spot" was discovered in Jupiter's thermosphere at its north pole. This feature is 24,000 km (15,000 mi) across, 12,000 km (7,500 mi) wide, and 200 °C (360 °F) cooler than surrounding material. While this spot changes form and intensity over the short term, it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere for more than 15 years. It may be a giant vortex similar to the Great Red Spot, and appears to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth's thermosphere. This feature may be formed by interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the strong magnetic field of Jupiter, resulting in a redistribution of heat flow.

Magnetosphere

Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest of any planet in the Solar System, with a dipole moment of 4.170 gauss (0.4170 mT) that is tilted at an angle of 10.31° to the pole of rotation. The surface magnetic field strength varies from 2 gauss (0.20 mT) up to 20 gauss (2.0 mT). This field is thought to be generated by eddy currents-swirling movements of conducting materials-within the liquid, metallic hydrogen core. At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock. Surrounding Jupiter's magnetosphere is a magnetopause, located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath-a region between it and the bow shock. The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter's lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. The four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magnetosphere, which protects them from solar wind.

The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide, forming a gas torus along its orbit. The gas is ionized in Jupiter's magnetosphere, producing sulfur and oxygen ions. They, together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter's equatorial plane. The plasma in the sheet co-rotates with the planet, causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of a magnetodisk. Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature, with short, superimposed bursts in the range of 0.6-30 MHz that are detectable from Earth with consumer-grade shortwave radio receivers. As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism, and the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped surface. When Earth intersects this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the radio output of the Sun.

Planetary rings

Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring. These rings appear to be made of dust, whereas Saturn's rings are made of ice. The main ring is most likely made out of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis, which is drawn into Jupiter because of the planet's strong gravitational influence. New material is added by additional impacts. In a similar way, the moons Thebe and Amalthea are believed to produce the two distinct components of the dusty gossamer ring. There is evidence of a fourth ring that may consist of collisional debris from Amalthea that is strung along the same moon's orbit.

Orbit and rotation

Orbit of Jupiter and other outer Solar System planets

Jupiter is the only planet whose barycentre with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by only 7% of the Sun's radius. The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km (5.2 AU) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This is approximately two-fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forming a near orbital resonance. The orbital plane of Jupiter is inclined 1.30° compared to Earth. Because the eccentricity of its orbit is 0.049, Jupiter is slightly over 75 million km nearer the Sun at perihelion than aphelion, which means that its orbit is nearly circular. This low eccentricity is at odds with exoplanet discoveries, which have revealed Jupiter-sized planets with very high eccentricities. Models suggest this may be due to there being only two giant planets in our Solar System, as the presence of a third or more giant planets tends to induce larger eccentricities.

The axial tilt of Jupiter is relatively small, only 3.13°, so its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars.

Jupiter's rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System's planets, completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen through an amateur telescope. Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation. The rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphere is about 5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere. The planet is an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles. On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is 9,276 km (5,764 mi) longer than the polar diameter.

Three systems are used as frames of reference for tracking planetary rotation, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies to latitudes from 7° N to 7° S; its period is the planet's shortest, at 9h 50 m 30.0s. System II applies at latitudes north and south of these; its period is 9h 55 m 40.6s. System III was defined by radio astronomers and corresponds to the rotation of the planet's magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter's official rotation.

Observation

Jupiter and four Galilean moons seen through an amateur telescope

Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon, and Venus), although at opposition Mars can appear brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter's position with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visual magnitude from as bright as −2.94 at opposition down to −1.66 during conjunction with the Sun. The mean apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33. The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 30.5 arc seconds. Favourable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through the perihelion of its orbit, bringing it closer to Earth. Near opposition, Jupiter will appear to go into retrograde motion for a period of about 121 days, moving backward through an angle of 9.9° before returning to prograde movement.

Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth is always less than 11.5°; thus, Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was only during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained. A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the prominent cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere. A larger telescope with an aperture of 4-6 inches (10-15 cm) will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth.

Pre-telescopic research

Model in the Almagest of the longitudinal motion of Jupiter (☉) relative to Earth (🜨)

Observation of Jupiter dates back to at least the Babylonian astronomers of the 7th or 8th century BC. The ancient Chinese knew Jupiter as the " Suì Star" ( Suìxīng ) and established their cycle of 12 earthly branches based on the approximate number of years it takes Jupiter to rotate around the Sun; the Chinese language still uses its name ( simplified as ) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these observations had developed into the Chinese zodiac, and each year became associated with a Tai Sui star and god controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter's position in the night sky. These beliefs survive in some Taoist religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac's twelve animals. The Chinese historian Xi Zezong has claimed that Gan De, an ancient Chinese astronomer, reported a small star "in alliance" with the planet, which may indicate a sighting of one of Jupiter's moons with the unaided eye. If true, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two millennia.

A 2016 paper reports that trapezoidal rule was used by Babylonians before 50 BCE for integrating the velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic. In his 2nd century work the , the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years.

Ground-based telescope research

Galileo's drawings of Jupiter and its "Medicean Stars" from Sidereus Nuncius

In 1610, Italian polymath Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter (now known as the Galilean moons) using a telescope. This is thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other than Earth's. Just one day after Galileo, Simon Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter, though he did not publish his discovery in a book until 1614. It was Marius's names for the major moons, however, that stuck: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery was a major point in favour of Copernicus' heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets; Galileo's outspoken support of the Copernican theory led to him being tried and condemned by the Inquisition.

In the autumn of 1639, the Neapolitan optician Francesco Fontana tested a 22-palm telescope of his own making and discovered the characteristic bands of the planet's atmosphere.

During the 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots in Jupiter's atmosphere, observe that the planet appeared oblate, and estimate its rotation period. In 1692, Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes a differential rotation.

The Great Red Spot may have been observed as early as 1664 by Robert Hooke and in 1665 by Cassini, although this is disputed. The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced the earliest known drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831. The Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on several occasions between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quite conspicuous in 1878. It was recorded as fading again in 1883 and at the start of the 20th century.

Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the motions of Jupiter's moons, which allowed predictions of when the moons would pass before or behind the planet. By the 1670s, Cassini observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes later than expected. Ole Rømer deduced that light does not travel instantaneously (a conclusion that Cassini had earlier rejected), and this timing discrepancy was used to estimate the speed of light.

In 1892, E. E. Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36-inch (910 mm) refractor at Lick Observatory in California. This moon was later named Amalthea. It was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by a visual observer through a telescope. An additional eight satellites were discovered before the flyby of the Voyager 1 probe in 1979.

Jupiter viewed in infrared by JWST
(July 14, 2022)

In 1932, Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter. Three long-lived anticyclonic features called "white ovals" were observed in 1938. For several decades they remained as separate features in the atmosphere, sometimes approaching each other but never merging. Finally, two of the ovals merged in 1998, then absorbed the third in 2000, becoming Oval BA.

Radiotelescope research

Image of Jupiter and its radiation belts in radio

In 1955, Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin discovered that Jupiter emits bursts of radio waves at a frequency of 22.2 MHz. The period of these bursts matched the rotation of the planet, and they used this information to determine a more precise value for Jupiter's rotation rate. Radio bursts from Jupiter were found to come in two forms: long bursts (or L-bursts) lasting up to several seconds, and short bursts (or S-bursts) lasting less than a hundredth of a second.

Scientists have discovered three forms of radio signals transmitted from Jupiter:

Decametric radio bursts (with a wavelength of tens of metres) vary with the rotation of Jupiter, and are influenced by the interaction of Io with Jupiter's magnetic field.

Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths measured in centimetres) was first observed by Frank Drake and Hein Hvatum in 1959. The origin of this signal is a torus-shaped belt around Jupiter's equator, which generates cyclotron radiation from electrons that are accelerated in Jupiter's magnetic field.

Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter.

Exploration

Jupiter has been visited by automated spacecraft since 1973, when the space probe passed close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about its properties and phenomena. Missions to Jupiter are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v. Entering a Hohmann transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit requires a delta-v of 6.3 km/s, which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit. Gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reach Jupiter.

Flyby missions

Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft performed planetary flyby manoeuvres that brought them within observation range of Jupiter. The Pioneer missions obtained the first close-up images of Jupiter's atmosphere and several of its moons. They discovered that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than expected, but both spacecraft managed to survive in that environment. The trajectories of these spacecraft were used to refine the mass estimates of the Jovian system. Radio occultations by the planet resulted in better measurements of Jupiter's diameter and the amount of polar flattening.

Six years later, the Voyager missions vastly improved the understanding of the Galilean moons and discovered Jupiter's rings. They also confirmed that the Great Red Spot was anticyclonic. Comparison of images showed that the Spot had changed hues since the Pioneer missions, turning from orange to dark brown. A torus of ionized atoms was discovered along Io's orbital path, which were found to come from erupting volcanoes on the moon's surface. As the spacecraft passed behind the planet, it observed flashes of lightning in the night side atmosphere.

The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the solar probe. In February 1992, it performed a flyby manoeuvre to attain a polar orbit around the Sun. During this pass, the spacecraft studied Jupiter's magnetosphere, although it had no cameras to photograph the planet. The spacecraft passed by Jupiter six years later, this time at a much greater distance.

In 2000, the Cassini probe flew by Jupiter on its way to Saturn, and provided higher-resolution images.

The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity assist en route to Pluto. The probe's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail.

Galileo in preparation for mating with the rocket, 1989

The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the mission, which reached the planet on December 7, 1995. It remained in orbit for over seven years, conducting multiple flybys of all the Galilean moons and Amalthea. The spacecraft also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 when it collided with Jupiter in 1994. Some of the goals for the mission were thwarted due to a malfunction in Galileo' s high-gain antenna.

A 340-kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995, entering Jupiter's atmosphere on December 7. It parachuted through 150 km (93 mi) of the atmosphere at a speed of about 2,575 km/h (1600 mph) and collected data for 57.6 minutes until the spacecraft was destroyed. The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21, 2003. NASA destroyed the spacecraft to avoid any possibility of the spacecraft crashing into and possibly contaminating the moon Europa, which may harbour life.

Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90% of Jupiter's atmosphere. The recorded temperature was more than 300 °C (570 °F) and the windspeed measured more than 644 km/h (>400 mph) before the probes vaporized.

Juno preparing for testing in a rotation stand, 2011

NASA's mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016 with the goal of studying the planet in detail from a polar orbit. The spacecraft was originally intended to orbit Jupiter thirty-seven times over a period of twenty months. During the mission, the spacecraft will be exposed to high levels of radiation from Jupiter's magnetosphere, which may cause future failure of certain instruments. On August 27, 2016, the spacecraft completed its first fly-by of Jupiter and sent back the first-ever images of Jupiter's north pole.

Juno completed 12 orbits before the end of its budgeted mission plan, ending July 2018. In June of that year, NASA extended the mission operations plan to July 2021, and in January of that year the mission was extended to September 2025 with four lunar flybys: one of Ganymede, one of Europa, and two of Io. When Juno reaches the end of the mission, it will perform a controlled deorbit and disintegrate into Jupiter's atmosphere. This will avoid the risk of collision with Jupiter's moons.

Cancelled missions and future plans

There is great interest in missions to study Jupiter's larger icy moons, which may have subsurface liquid oceans. Funding difficulties have delayed progress, causing NASA's ( Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) to be cancelled in 2005. A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA/ ESA mission called EJSM/Laplace, with a provisional launch date around 2020. EJSM/Laplace would have consisted of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter and the ESA-led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter. However, the ESA formally ended the partnership in April 2011, citing budget issues at NASA and the consequences on the mission timetable. Instead, ESA planned to go ahead with a European-only mission to compete in its L1 Cosmic Vision selection. These plans have been realized as the European Space Agency's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), launched on April 14, 2023, followed by NASA's Europa Clipper mission, scheduled for launch in 2024.

Views of Jupiter from JunoCam

Other proposed missions include the Chinese National Space Administration's mission which aims to launch an orbiter to the Jovian system and possibly Callisto around 2035, and CNSA's Interstellar Express and NASA's Interstellar Probe, which would both use Jupiter's gravity to help them reach the edges of the heliosphere.

Jupiter has 95 known natural satellites, and it is likely that this number would go up in the future due to improved instrumentation. Of these, 79 are less than 10 km in diameter. The four largest moons are Ganymede, Callisto, Io and Europa (in order of decreasing size), collectively known as the " Galilean moons", and are visible from Earth with binoculars on a clear night.

Galilean moons

The moons discovered by Galileo-Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto-are among the largest in the Solar System. The orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede form a pattern known as a Laplace resonance; for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter, Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one. This resonance causes the gravitational effects of the three large moons to distort their orbits into elliptical shapes, because each moon receives an extra tug from its neighbours at the same point in every orbit it makes. The tidal force from Jupiter, on the other hand, works to circularize their orbits.

The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flexing of the three moons' shapes, with Jupiter's gravity stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes as they swing away. The friction created by this tidal flexing generates heat in the interior of the moons. This is seen most dramatically in the volcanic activity of Io (which is subject to the strongest tidal forces), and to a lesser degree in the geological youth of Europa's surface, which indicates recent resurfacing of the moon's exterior.

Name

IPA

Diameter

Mass

Orbital radius

Orbital period

km

D☾

kg

M☾

km

a☾

days

T☾

The Galilean moons. From left to right, in order of increasing distance from Jupiter: Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto.

The Galilean moons Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto (in order of increasing distance from Jupiter)

Classification

Jupiter's moons were traditionally classified into four groups of four, based on their similar orbital elements. This picture has been complicated by the discovery of numerous small outer moons since 1999. Jupiter's moons are currently divided into several different groups, although there are several moons which are not part of any group.

The eight innermost regular moons, which have nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter's equator, are thought to have formed alongside Jupiter, whilst the remainder are irregular moons and are thought to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids. The irregular moons within each group may have a common origin, perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up.

Regular moons

These four moons, discovered by Galileo Galilei and by Simon Marius in parallel, orbit between 400,000 and 2,000,000 km, and are some of the largest moons in the Solar System.

Irregular moons

Himalia group

A tightly clustered group of prograde-orbiting moons with orbits around 11,000,000-12,000,000 km from Jupiter.

Ananke group

This group of retrograde-orbiting moons has rather indistinct borders, averaging 21,276,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 149 degrees.

Interaction with the Solar System

As the most massive of the eight planets, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. With the exception of Mercury, the orbits of the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's orbital plane than the Sun's equatorial plane. The Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by Jupiter, and the planet may have been responsible for the purported Late Heavy Bombardment in the inner Solar System's history.

In addition to its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field controls numerous asteroids that have settled around the Lagrangian points that precede and follow the planet in its orbit around the Sun. These are known as the Trojan asteroids, and are divided into Greek and Trojan "camps" to honour the . The first of these, 588 Achilles, was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906; since then more than two thousand have been discovered. The largest is 624 Hektor.

The Jupiter family is defined as comets that have a semi-major axis smaller than Jupiter's; most short-period comets belong to this group. Members of the Jupiter family are thought to form in the Kuiper belt outside the orbit of Neptune. During close encounters with Jupiter, they are perturbed into orbits with a smaller period, which then becomes circularized by regular gravitational interactions with the Sun and Jupiter.

Brown spots mark Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9's impact sites on Jupiter

Jupiter has been called the Solar System's vacuum cleaner because of its immense gravity well and location near the inner Solar System. There are more impacts on Jupiter, such as comets, than on any other planet in the Solar System. For example, Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth. In the past, scientists believed that Jupiter partially shielded the inner system from cometary bombardment. However, computer simulations in 2008 suggest that Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System, as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as it accretes or ejects them. This topic remains controversial among scientists, as some think it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper belt, while others believe that Jupiter protects Earth from the Oort cloud.

In July 1994, the Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet collided with Jupiter. The impacts were closely observed by observatories around the world, including the Hubble Space Telescope and Galileo spacecraft. The event was widely covered by the media.

Surveys of early astronomical records and drawings produced eight examples of potential impact observations between 1664 and 1839. However, a 1997 review determined that these observations had little or no possibility of being the results of impacts. Further investigation by this team revealed a dark surface feature discovered by astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1690 may have been an impact scar.

Jupiter, woodcut from a 1550 edition of Guido Bonatti's Liber Astronomiae

The existence of the planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can occasionally be seen in the daytime when the Sun is low. To the Babylonians, this planet represented their god Marduk, chief of their pantheon from the Hammurabi period. They used Jupiter's roughly 12-year orbit along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac.

The mythical Greek name for this planet is (Ζεύς), also referred to as Dias (Δίας), the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek. The ancient Greeks knew the planet as Phaethon (), meaning "shining one" or "blazing star". The Greek myths of Zeus from the Homeric period showed particular similarities to certain Near-Eastern gods, including the Semitic El and Baal, the Sumerian Enlil, and the Babylonian god Marduk. The association between the planet and the Greek deity Zeus was drawn from Near Eastern influences and was fully established by the fourth century BCE, as documented in the of Plato and his contemporaries.

The god Jupiter is the Roman counterpart of Zeus, and he is the principal god of Roman mythology. The Romans originally called Jupiter the "star of Jupiter" ( Iuppiter Stella), as they believed it to be sacred to its namesake god. This name comes from the Proto-Indo-European vocative compound * Dyēu-pəter (nominative: *Dyēus-pətēr, meaning "Father Sky-God", or "Father Day-God"). As the supreme god of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter was the god of thunder, lightning, and storms, and was appropriately called the god of light and sky.

In Vedic astrology, Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati, the religious teacher of the gods, and often called it " Guru", which means the "Teacher". In Central Asian Turkic myths, Jupiter is called Erendiz or Erentüz, from eren (of uncertain meaning) and yultuz ("star"). The Turks calculated the period of the orbit of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days. They believed that some social and natural events connected to Erentüz's movements on the sky. The Chinese, Vietnamese, Koreans, and Japanese called it the "wood star" ( Chinese: 木星; pinyin: ), based on the Chinese Five Elements. In China it became known as the "Year-star" (Sui-sing) as Chinese astronomers noted that it jumped one zodiac constellation each year (with corrections). In some ancient Chinese writings the years were named, at least in principle, in correlation with the Jovian zodiac signs.

Infrared view of Jupiter, imaged by the Gemini North telescope in Hawaiʻi, January 11, 2017

Jupiter imaged in visible light by the Hubble Space Telescope, January 11, 2017

Ultraviolet view of Jupiter by Hubble, January 11, 2017[244]

Jupiter and Europa, taken by Hubble on 25 August 2020, when the planet was 653 million kilometres from Earth.[245]

Infrared photo by James Webb Space Telescope, August 2022[246]

References

External links

Lohninger, Hans; et al. (November 2, 2005). "Jupiter, As Seen By Voyager 1". A Trip into Space. Virtual Institute of Applied Science.

Dunn, Tony (2006). "The Jovian System". Gravity Simulator. - A simulation of the 62 moons of Jupiter.

Jupiter in Motion - album of Juno imagery stitched into short videos (on Flickr)

June 2010 impact video on YouTube

Photographs of Jupiter circa 1920s from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections. Archived September 4, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.

Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Jovian system. Archived June 11, 2020, at the Wayback Machine.

Video (animation; 4:00): Flyby of Ganymede and Jupiter (NASA; 15 July 2021).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
King of the Gods God of the sky and diurnal thunder

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

" Little Fluffy Clouds" is a single released by the British ambient house group the Orb. It was originally released in November 1990 on the record label Big Life and peaked at number 87 on the UK Singles Chart. The Orb also included it on their 1991 double album The Orb's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld. "Little Fluffy Clouds" was re-released several times with different B-sides, with its 1993 re-release reaching number 10 in the UK.

It ranked number 275 in s list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. Pitchfork Media ranked it at number 40 on their list of the Top 200 Tracks of the 1990s.

Alex Paterson had previously worked with Jimmy Cauty as the Orb. Upon Cauty's departure from the Orb, Paterson began work on "Little Fluffy Clouds" with ex- Killing Joke member Martin "Youth" Glover. However, because of other production obligations, Glover did not become a permanent member of the Orb. Kris "Thrash" Weston joined the Orb soon after. Weston mixed and engineered several versions of "Little Fluffy Clouds", including the version on The Orb's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld.

"Little Fluffy Clouds" makes extensive use of clips from an interview with American singer Rickie Lee Jones in which she recalls picturesque images of her childhood. The samples are widely believed to have come from a conversation between Jones and LeVar Burton on the children's television program Reading Rainbow, but in fact originated from an interview disc that was issued with some promotional boxed copies of her album Flying Cowboys. The interview was not conducted by Burton. The interviewer is not identified on the recording or in the boxed set's liner notes, though a 1993 profile in The Independent identifies him as "an American DJ" with a "syrupy, Simon Bates-style tone."

Interviewer: "What were the skies like when you were young?"

Jones: "They went on forever - They - When I w- We lived in Arizona, and the skies always had little fluffy clouds in 'em, and, uh... they were long... and clear and... there were lots of stars at night. And, uh, when it would rain, it would all turn - it- They were beautiful, the most beautiful skies as a matter of fact. Um, the sunsets were purple and red and yellow and on fire, and the clouds would catch the colours everywhere. That's uh, neat 'cause I used to look at them all the time, when I was little. You don't see that. You might still see them in the desert."

Jones' record company was upset at the unauthorized use of her voice and initially sought to pursue a claim via the legal system. Big Life chose to settle out of court for an undisclosed sum of money for use of her voice on the Orb's recording: in 2016, Paterson said the record company paid $5,000 to use the sample. Asked about the sample in an interview years later, Jones referred to the Orb as "those fuckers."

The song also uses a harmonica sample from Ennio Morricone's The Man With The Harmonica (from the film Once Upon a Time in the West) and parts of Electric Counterpoint, a piece for multi-tracked guitars composed by Steve Reich and recorded by Pat Metheny. According to Glover, the inspiration for the track came when an Orb fan who worked in a Birmingham record shop sent him a tape with Electric Counterpoint on one side and the Rickie Lee Jones interview on the other. Reich was "genuinely flattered" by the Orb's use of his work and instructed his record company not to sue. Despite this, the Orb did receive a letter from Reich's lawyers several years later, but Paterson described Reich as "a proper gentleman: he wanted 20% from then on and asked us to do a remix of one of his tunes, which we did". Alex Paterson also suggested that the drum track is sampled: "If anyone actually knew where the drums on 'Little Fluffy Clouds' came from, they'd all just die, but I'm not at liberty to tell. Record companies have always warned me, 'Don't tell anyone where you got your samples until we get them cleared!'". He later said that the drum track was sampled from Harry Nilsson's album Nilsson Schmilsson, and others have specifically identified this as a sample of Jim Gordon's drum solo from " Jump Into the Fire", slowed down approximately from 45 to 33 rpm. The use of a slowed-down "Jump Into the Fire" was acknowledged by Paterson in a 2016 interview with The Guardian, in which he also said the track included a Lee "Scratch" Perry sample.

In 2006 a previously uncredited sample from "Little Fluffy Clouds" was recognised by MTV label director Dan Waite, who identified the first voice heard on the song as that of his cousin John Waite. A 1990 John Waite BBC Radio 4 broadcast for the programme You and Yours was sampled and features at the beginning of the track. John Waite can clearly be heard saying, "Over the past few years, to the traditional sounds of an English summer, the drone of lawnmowers, the smack of leather on willow, has been added a new noise...". In 2013, the Orb's management asked John Waite to join them on their 25th Anniversary tour to read the classic line live on stage.

"Little Fluffy Clouds" reached number 87 on the UK Singles Chart and was a dancefloor success. After the popularity of following Orb albums, "Little Fluffy Clouds" was re-released several times, including a 1993 edition which peaked at number 10 on the UK chart.

7-inch: Big Life / BLR 33 (UK)

1. "Little Fluffy Clouds [seven inch mk 1]" (4:05)

2. "Little Fluffy Clounds [ambient mk 1]" (4:29)

12-inch: Big Life / BLR 33T (UK)

1. "Little Fluffy Clouds [dance mk 2]" (8:26)

2. "Into the Fourth Dimension [edit]" (7:03)

3. "Little Fluffy Clounds [ambient mk 1]" (4:29)

12-inch: Big Life / BLR 33R (UK)

1. "Little Fluffy Clouds (drum & vox version)" (7:10)

2. "Little Fluffy Clouds [seven inch mk 1]" (4:05)

3. "Into the Fourth Extension" (9:05)

CD: Big Life / BLRD 98 (UK)

1. "Little Fluffy Clouds [seven inch mk 1]" (4:05)

2. "Little Fluffy Clouds [dance mk 2]" (8:26)

3. "Into the Fourth Dimension [edit]" (7:03)

4. "Little Fluffy Clounds [ambient mk 1]" (4:29)

12-inch: Mercury / 865139-1 (US)

1. "Little Fluffy Clouds [Cumulonimbus Mix]" (6:10)

2. "Little Fluffy Clouds [Dis joint don't argue mix]" (6:38)

3. "Little Fluffy Clouds [Seven Inch MK 1]" (4:05)

4. "Little Fluffy Clouds [Inner Master Mix]" (3:58)

5. "Outlands [Fountain of Elisha]" (8:00)

CD: Mercury / 865139-2 (US)

1. "Little Fluffy Clouds [Seven Inch MK 1]" (4:05)

2. "Little Fluffy Clouds [Inner Master Mix]" (3:58)

3. "Little Fluffy Clouds [Cumulonimbus Mix]" (6:10)

4. "Little Fluffy Clouds [Dance MK 2]" (8:26)

5. "Little Fluffy Clouds [Heavyweight Dub]" (6:30)

6. "Outlands [Fountain of Elisha]" (8:00)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia " Little Fluffy Clouds" is a single released by the British ambient house group the Orb. It was originally released in November 1990 on the record label Big Life and peaked at number 87 on the UK Singles Chart.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Mercury

God of financial gain, commerce, eloquence, messages, communication, travelers, boundaries, luck, trickery, merchants, thieves

Member of the Dii Consentes

Planet
Mercury

Symbol

Caduceus, winged sandals, winged hat, tortoise, ram and rooster

Day

Wednesday ( dies Mercurii)

Parents

Maia and Jupiter or Caelus and Dies ( Cicero and Hyginus)[1]

Consort
Larunda

Children
Lares

Greek equivalent
Hermes

Etruscan equivalent
Turms

( Mercury (; Latin: Mercurius [mɛrˈkʊrijʊs] listen )) is a major god in Roman religion and mythology, being one of the 12 Dii Consentes within the ancient Roman pantheon. He is the god of financial gain, commerce, eloquence, messages, communication (including divination), travelers, boundaries, luck, trickery and thieves; he also serves as the guide of souls to the underworld.[2][3]

In Roman mythology, he was considered to be either the son of Maia, one of the seven daughters of the Titan Atlas, and Jupiter, or of Caelus and Dies. In his earliest forms, he appears to have been related to the Etruscan deity Turms; both gods share characteristics with the Greek god Hermes. He is often depicted holding the caduceus in his left hand. Similar to his Greek equivalent Hermes, he was awarded a magic wand by Apollo, which later turned into the caduceus, the staff with intertwined snakes.

The name "Mercury" is possibly related to the Latin word merx ("merchandise"; cf. merchant, commerce, etc.), mercari ( to trade), and merces ( wages); another possible connection is the Proto-Indo-European root merĝ- for "boundary, border" (cf. Old English "mearc", Old Norse "mark" and Latin "margō") and Greek οὖρος (by analogy of Arctūrus/Ἀρκτοῦρος), as the "keeper of boundaries," referring to his role as bridge between the upper and lower worlds.[citation needed ]

Mercury did not appear among the numinous di indigetes of early Roman religion. Rather, he subsumed the earlier Dei Lucrii as Roman religion was syncretized with Greek religion during the time of the Roman Republic, starting around the 4th century BC. His cult was introduced also by influence of Etruscan religion in which Turms had similar characteristics. From the beginning, Mercury had essentially the same aspects as Hermes, wearing winged shoes ( talaria) and a winged hat ( petasos), and carrying the caduceus, a herald's staff with two entwined snakes that was Apollo's gift to Hermes. He was often accompanied by a rooster, herald of the new day, a ram or goat, symbolizing fertility, and a tortoise, referring to Mercury's legendary invention of the lyre from a tortoise shell.

Like Hermes, he was also a god of messages, eloquence and of trade, particularly of the grain trade. He was the patron of travelers and the god of thievery as well. Mercury was also considered a god of abundance and commercial success, particularly in Gaul, where he was said to have been particularly revered. He was also, like Hermes, the Romans' psychopomp, leading newly deceased souls to the afterlife. Additionally, Ovid wrote that Mercury carried Morpheus' dreams from the valley of Somnus to sleeping humans.

Archeological evidence from Pompeii suggests that Mercury was among the most popular of Roman gods. The god of commerce was depicted on two early bronze coins of the Roman Republic, the Sextans and the Semuncia.

When they described the gods of Celtic and Germanic tribes, rather than considering them separate deities, the Romans interpreted them as local manifestations or aspects of their own gods, a cultural trait called the interpretatio Romana. Mercury, in particular, was reported as becoming extremely popular among the nations the Roman Empire conquered; Julius Caesar wrote of Mercury being the most popular god in Britain and Gaul, regarded as the inventor of all the arts. This is probably because, in the Roman syncretism, Mercury was equated with the Celtic god Lugus, and in this aspect was commonly accompanied by the Celtic goddess Rosmerta. Although Lugus may originally have been a deity of light or the sun (though this is disputed), similar to the Roman Apollo, his importance as a god of trade made him more comparable to Mercury, and Apollo was instead equated with the Celtic deity Belenus.

Romans associated Mercury with the Germanic god Wotan, by interpretatio Romana; 1st-century Roman writer Tacitus identifies him as the chief god of the Germanic peoples.

In his infamous contemporary fringe theories, Zecharia Sitchin identifies both Mercury and his namesake planet with Mummu, a character in the creation epic.

Mercury is known to the Romans as Mercurius and occasionally in earlier writings as Merqurius, Mirqurios or Mircurios, had a number of epithets representing different aspects or roles, or representing syncretisms with non-Roman deities. The most common and significant of these epithets included the following:

Mercurius Artaios, a syncretism of Mercury with the Celtic god Artaios, a deity of bears and hunting who was worshiped at Beaucroissant, France.

Mercurius Arvernus, a syncretism of the Celtic Arvernus with Mercury. Arvernus was worshiped in the Rhineland, possibly as a particular deity of the Arverni tribe, though no dedications to Mercurius Arvernus occur in their territory in the Auvergne region of central France.

Mercurius Cimbrianus, a syncretism of Mercury with a god of the Cimbri sometimes thought to represent Odin.

Mercurius Cissonius, a combination of Mercury with the Celtic god Cissonius, who is written of in the area spanning from Cologne, Germany to Saintes, France.

Mercurius Esibraeus, a syncretism of the Iberian deity Esibraeus with the Roman deity Mercury. Esibraeus is mentioned only in an inscription found at Medelim, Portugal, and is possibly the same deity as Banda Isibraiegus, who is invoked in an inscription from the nearby village of Bemposta.

Mercurius Gebrinius, a syncretism of Mercury with the Celtic or Germanic Gebrinius, known from an inscription on an altar in Bonn, Germany.

Mercurius Moccus, from a Celtic god, Moccus, who was equated with Mercury, known from evidence at Langres, France. The name Moccus ("pig") implies that this deity was connected to boar-hunting.

Mercurius Sobrius ("Mercury the Teetotaler"), a syncretism of Mercury with a Carthaginian god of commerce.

Mercurius Visucius, a syncretism of the Celtic god Visucius with the Roman god Mercury, attested in an inscription from Stuttgart, Germany. Visucius was worshiped primarily in the frontier area of the empire in Gaul and Germany. Although he was primarily associated with Mercury, Visucius was also sometimes linked to the Roman god Mars, as a dedicatory inscription to "Mars Visucius" and Visucia, Visicius' female counterpart, was found in Gaul.

In Virgil's , Mercury reminds Aeneas of his mission to found the city of Rome. In Ovid's , Mercury is assigned to escort the nymph Larunda to the underworld. Mercury, however, falls in love with Larunda and makes love to her on the way. Larunda thereby becomes mother to two children, referred to as the Lares, invisible household gods.

Mercury's temple in Rome was situated in the Circus Maximus, between the Aventine and Palatine hills, and was built in 495 BC.

That year saw disturbances at Rome between the patrician senators and the plebeians, which led to a secession of the plebs in the following year. At the completion of its construction, a dispute emerged between the consuls Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis and Publius Servilius Priscus Structus as to which of them should have the honour of dedicating the temple. The senate referred the decision to the popular assembly, and also decreed that whichever was chosen should also exercise additional duties, including presiding over the markets, establish a merchants' guild, and exercising the functions of the pontifex maximus. The people, because of the ongoing public discord, and in order to spite the senate and the consuls, instead awarded the honour of dedicating the temple to the senior military officer of one of the legions named Marcus Laetorius. The senate and the consuls, in particular the conservative Appius, were outraged at this decision, and it inflamed the ongoing situation.

The dedication occurred on 15 May, 495 BC.

The temple was regarded as a fitting place to worship a swift god of trade and travel, since it was a major center of commerce as well as a racetrack. Since it stood between the plebeian stronghold on the Aventine and the patrician center on the Palatine, it also emphasized the role of Mercury as a mediator.[citation needed ]

Because Mercury was not one of the early deities surviving from the Roman Kingdom, he was not assigned a ("priest"), but he did have his own major festival, on 15 May, the Mercuralia. During the Mercuralia, merchants sprinkled water from his sacred well near the Porta Capena on their heads.

Mercury features in the first published comic book story of comics legend Jack Kirby, Mercury in the 20th Century, published in Red Raven Comics 1, 1940.

The United States' so-called Mercury dime, issued from 1916 to 1945, actually features a Winged Liberty and not the god Mercury, but despite wearing a Phrygian cap instead of a Winged Helm, the coin bears his name due to resemblance.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mercury God of financial gain, commerce, eloquence, messages, communication, travelers, boundaries, luck, trickery, merchants, thieves Member of the Dii Consentes Planet Mercury Symbol Caduceus, winged sandals, winged hat, tortoise, ram and rooster Day Wednesday ( dies Mercurii) Parents Maia and Jupiter or Caelus and Dies ( Cicero and Hyginus)[1] Consort Larunda Children Lares Greek equivalent Hermes Etruscan equivalent Turms ( Mercury (; Latin: Mercurius [mɛrˈkʊrijʊs] listen )) is a major god in Roman religion and mythology, being one of the 12 Dii Consentes within the ancient Roman pantheon.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
" Shine On You Crazy Diamond" is a nine-part Pink Floyd composition written by David Gilmour, Roger Waters, and Richard Wright, which appeared on Pink Floyd's 1975 concept album Wish You Were Here. The song is written about and dedicated to founder member Syd Barrett, who departed from the band in 1968 after becoming mentally ill.

The song was conceived and written as a tribute and remembrance to Pink Floyd founding member Syd Barrett. Barrett was eased out of the band in 1968 because his drug use and deteriorating mental health were affecting his ability to integrate with the other band members and create and perform as a musician. He was replaced by his former school friend David Gilmour, who had initially been brought in as second guitarist. The remaining band members felt guilty about having removed him, but although they admired Barrett's creativity, they were concerned about his severe mental decline and felt it had been necessary. "Shine on You Crazy Diamond" was first performed on Pink Floyd's 1974 French tour and was recorded for their 1975 concept album Wish You Were Here. The track was originally intended to be a side-long composition, like " Atom Heart Mother" and " Echoes", but was ultimately split into two parts and used to bookend the album, with other newly composed material acting as a bridge.

Bassist Roger Waters commented, as the sessions were underway, that "at times the group was there only physically. Our bodies were there, but our minds and feelings somewhere else." Eventually an idea was raised to split the song in two, Parts I-V and Parts VI-IX.

According to guitarist David Gilmour and drummer Nick Mason on the Wish You Were Here episode of In the Studio with Redbeard, Pink Floyd recorded a satisfactory take of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" but because of a new mixing console which was installed at Abbey Road Studios, it needed to be re-recorded because excessive 'bleed' from other instruments could be heard on the drum tracks. As explained by Gilmour,

We originally did the backing track over the course of several days, but we came to the conclusion that it just wasn't good enough. So we did it again in one day flat and got it a lot better. Unfortunately nobody understood the desk properly and when we played it back we found that someone had switched the echo returns from monitors to tracks one and two. That affected the tom-toms and guitars and keyboards which were playing along at the time. There was no way of saving it, so we just had to do it yet again.

On part 3, a piano part seems to have been added "live" to the final mix, making it absent from multitrack masters. That part was re-recorded at British Grove Studios by pianist Richard Wright during the multi-channel mix used for the album Immersion Edition and the SACD release.

Nick Mason said:

With the invention of 16-track and 2-inch tape there was the belief for quite a while that there would be something wrong with editing tape that big. Consequently whenever we played these pieces, they had to be played from beginning to end. Particularly for Roger [Waters] and myself being the rhythm section, which would be laid down first, this was [chuckling] a fairly tough business because the whole thing had to be sort of right.

The song would be the first song to be started and the last song to be recorded for the album. On 24 February, a sequence that was titled "Wine Glasses" was overdubbed onto part 1 of the song, titled after how the band used wine glasses to record it. The sequence was recorded on 5 January 1971, originally intended to be a part of a series of musical experiments the band conducted titled "Nothings".

Barrett's studio visit

On 5 June 1975, Barrett, now heavyset, with a completely shaved head and eyebrows, wandered into the studio where the band were recording. They did not recognise him for some time because of his drastically changed appearance. When they eventually realised who the withdrawn man in the corner was, Roger Waters became so distressed about Barrett's appearance that he was reduced to tears. Someone asked to play the suite again for Barrett and he said a second playback was not needed when they had just heard it. When asked what he thought of the song, Barrett said it sounded a "bit old". He subsequently slipped away during celebrations for Gilmour's wedding to Ginger Hasenbein, which took place later that day. Gilmour confirmed this story, although he could not recall which composition they were working on when Barrett showed up. Mason has also stated that he is not certain whether "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" was the piece being recorded when Barrett was there.

The episode is related by Wright as follows:

Roger was there, and he was sitting at the desk, and I came in and I saw this guy sitting behind him - huge, bald, fat guy. I thought, "He looks a bit... strange..." Anyway, so I sat down with Roger at the desk and we worked for about ten minutes, and this guy kept on getting up and brushing his teeth and then sitting - doing really weird things, but keeping quiet. And I said to Roger, "Who is he?" and Roger said "I don't know." And I said "Well, I assumed he was a friend of yours," and he said "No, I don't know who he is." Anyway, it took me a long time, and then suddenly I realised it was Syd, after maybe 45 minutes. He came in as we were doing the vocals for "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", which was basically about Syd. He just, for some incredible reason picked the very day that we were doing a song which was about him. And we hadn't seen him, I don't think, for two years before. That's what's so incredibly... weird about this guy. And a bit disturbing, as well, I mean, particularly when you see a guy, that you don't, you couldn't recognise him. And then, for him to pick the very day we want to start putting vocals on, which is a song about him. Very strange.

As neither the original 1975 vinyl release nor the CD re-release actually delineate the various parts precisely, the make-up of the parts below is based on a comparison of the recorded timings with the identifications in the published sheet music.

The song is in G natural minor ( Aeolian) scale, but with hints of the G Dorian mode with the inclusion of the E (raised sixth) note in various parts throughout, most prominently in the four-note theme in Part II. Gilmour's solos are largely blues-inspired, with a few notes hinting the inclusion of the G melodic minor scale.

Part I (Wright, Gilmour, Waters; from 0:00 to 3:54) There are no lyrics in Part I. The instrumental begins with a fade-in of a G minor chord created with an EMS VCS 3, ARP Solina string synthesizer, a Hammond organ, and a wine glass harp (recycled from an earlier project known as Household Objects). This is followed by Wright's Minimoog passages leading into a lengthy, bluesy guitar solo played by Gilmour on a Fender Stratocaster (neck pickup) using a heavily compressed sound and reverb. Part I ends with the synthesizer chord fading into the background. During the fade-out, some very faint conversation in the studio can be heard on the left channel, although this has not been confirmed.

Part II (Gilmour, Waters, Wright; from 3:54 to 6:27) begins with a four-note theme (B♭, F, G [below the B♭], E) (known informally as "Syd's theme") repeated throughout much of the entire section. This theme leads the harmony to C major (in comparison to the use of C minor in Part I). Mason starts his drumming and Waters his bass playing after the fourth playing of the four-note theme, which is the point where the riffs get into a fixed tempo, in 6/8 time. The chord leads back to G minor (as from Part I), followed by E♭ major and D major back to a coda from G minor. This part includes another solo by Gilmour.

Part III (Wright, Gilmour, Waters; from 6:27 to 8:41) begins with a Minimoog solo by Wright accompanied by a less complex variation of Mason's drums from Part II. This part includes Gilmour's third guitar solo, in the G natural minor scale, and ends with a fade into Part IV. When performed on the tour, Gilmour added distortion to the guitar for this solo. This solo is often dropped in live performances while the rest of part III is still played-notably on Delicate Sound of Thunder and .

Part IV (Gilmour, Wright, Waters; from 8:41 to 11:08) Waters sings his lyrics, with Gilmour, Wright and backing vocalists Venetta Fields and Carlena Williams on harmonies.

Part V (Waters, Gilmour, Wright; from 11:08 to 13:33) Part IV is followed by two guitars repeating an arpeggio variation on the main theme for about a minute with the theme of Part II. A baritone saxophone overlays the sounds, played by Dick Parry. The saxophone changes from a baritone to a tenor saxophone, as a time signature switch from 6/8 to 12/8 creates the feeling that the tempo doubles up. The sax solo is accompanied by a Solina string synthesizer keyboard sound. A machine-like hum fades in with musique concrète and segues into " Welcome to the Machine".

Parts VI-IX

Part VI (Wright, Waters, Gilmour; from 0:00 to 4:35) begins with a howling wind from the preceding song " Wish You Were Here". As the wind fades away, Gilmour comes in on the bass guitar. Waters adds another bass with a continuing riff pattern. Then Wright comes in playing a Solina String Ensemble Synthesizer and after a few measures, several rhythm guitar parts (Gilmour played the power chord rhythm part using his black Fender Stratocaster before switching to lap steel guitar for the solo in live performances from 1974-77. Snowy White performed the rhythm guitar parts on this track on the band's 1977 "In the Flesh" tour) and drums come in, as well as a Minimoog to play the opening solo. At the two-minute mark, Wright's Minimoog and Gilmour's lap steel guitar play notes in unison before Gilmour performs a lap steel guitar solo (the lap steel had open G tuning with the high D string tuned to E) with some counterpointing from Wright's synthesizers. It lasts for about three minutes (four when played on the band's "In the Flesh" tour) and Gilmour played each section an octave higher than the previous one. The highest note he hit on the lap steel/slide solo was a B♭6, followed by a reprise of the guitar solo from Part IV (which was played by White live on Pink Floyd's 1977 tour so Gilmour could switch back to his Fender Stratocaster). The song then switches time signatures to 6/8 (found in Parts II-V), giving the appearance of a slower tempo and reintroducing the vocals.

Part VII (Gilmour, Wright, Waters; from 4:35 to 5:58) contains the vocals, in a similar vein to Part IV though half the length, before segueing into Part VIII. Waters again sings the lead vocals with Gilmour, Wright, Fields and Williams providing backing vocals.

Part VIII (Gilmour, Wright, Waters; from 5:58 to 9:03) brings in Waters to play a second electric guitar for a high-noted sound riff while Gilmour plays the arpeggio riff that bridges Parts VII and VIII. A solid progression of funk in 4/4 plays for about two minutes before very slowly fading out as a single sustained keyboard note fades in around the nine-minute mark. Throughout this section, Wright's keyboards dominate, with the use of a Minimoog synthesizer, and a Hohner Clavinet. Originally the section clocked in at 8 minutes before it was edited down to three minutes on the final version (the unedited Part 8 without the electric piano and Minimoog overdubs surfaced on a bootleg called The Extraction Tapes). When performed on the "In the Flesh" tour in 1977, the section would be extended to between 5 and 10 minutes as it would feature guitar solos from Gilmour (which would vary from funky power chords to a proper solo as the Animals tour progressed) and Snowy White. In addition to their guitar solos, there was also occasional trading of leads from Gilmour and White instead of the keyboard sounds as heard on record.

Part IX (Wright, from 9:03 to 12:24) is played in 4/4 time. Gilmour described Part IX as "a slow 4/4 funeral march... the parting musical eulogy to Syd". Again, Wright's keyboards dominate, with little guitar input from Gilmour. Mason's drums play for much of this part, and the keyboards play for the final minute before fading out. On the fade-out, a short keyboard part of the melody of " See Emily Play" (at 12:07), one of Barrett's signature Pink Floyd songs, can be heard.[citation needed ] Part IX, and the album, ends in G major, a Picardy third. When performed early on the Animals tour, the part begins with the piano (as heard on record) then the synth solo is played (as on record) by Dick Parry with some slide guitar accompaniment by Snowy White would then change to half synthesizer/half harmony lead guitar solo for the remainder of European leg and first US leg. For the final US leg, after the piano began it was a bluesy guitar solo from Gilmour then harmony guitars from Gilmour and White (Gilmour playing the highest parts) and then ending like on record. This was the final solo writing credit Wright would receive in Pink Floyd during his lifetime, as well as his last writing credit of any kind until The Division Bell in 1994.

The song series was first performed as "Shine On", during the band's French tour in June 1974. It was introduced as "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" on the British tour in November 1974. The set was originally performed as one whole suite with some of the parts differing from the album versions, and samplings of Barrett's solo song " Dark Globe" during the opening of the performance. The version from the British tour was included on the 2011 Experience and Immersion editions of Wish You Were Here. The multi-part version of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" was first performed on the band's 1975 North American tour with " Have a Cigar" in between the two halves of the piece. The 1975 versions were close to the final versions, except parts one and nine were still not refined yet. The band performed the whole nine-part "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" as part of the Wish You Were Here portion of their 1977 In the Flesh Tour, with extra musicians White on guitar and backing vocals and Parry on saxophones.

Parts I-V became a staple of Floyd's performances from 1987 to 1994. The track opened shows for most of the A Momentary Lapse of Reason tour of 1987-89 and the tour closing performance at Knebworth in 1990 with Candy Dulfer on saxophone. The first eleven performances had " Echoes" as the show opener before the band proceeded to play all of A Momentary Lapse of Reason in the rest of the first half in a slightly different sequence to the album. A condensed edition of the track (without the Gilmour solo in Part III) would then open the second half of the shows on the group's 1994 The Division Bell tour, except in shows where all of The Dark Side of the Moon was performed, in which case "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" opened the first half of the concert. In the last month and a half of the tour, the band added part VII to Parts I-V (as documented on the live album ). A similar version was also played during David Gilmour's Rattle That Lock Tour in 2015 with the according screen film on display.

Gilmour performed almost the whole suite (save part IX) at his 2001 and 2002 semi-unplugged concerts (documented on his 2002 David Gilmour in Concert DVD). "There was," he said, "a moment of thinking, 'Shall I attempt an acoustic guitar version of the long, synthesised opening?' It came to me one day how I could do it, and it worked out not too badly."

Gilmour performed parts I-II and IV-V (in a new arrangement) on his 2006 On an Island solo tour. Part III was omitted and Parts I and II were simplified and more guitar-focused. Gilmour performed Parts I-V on his Live in Gdańsk album on disc two and on the DVD in the four-disc edition of the album. The five-disc edition and the online downloads available in the three and four-disc editions include Parts I-V recorded in Venice and Vienne in 2006. In many of his performances, solo and with Pink Floyd, Gilmour alters the vocal melody to avoid the higher notes that were originally sung by Waters.

Waters has also performed the epic on his 1999 and 2000 tours documented on his In the Flesh - Live album and DVD which was a condensed parts I, II, IV, VI, VII, and IX. Part VI on these performances had a lap steel solo from Jon Carin then guitar solos from Doyle Bramhall II and White. Then on Waters' 2002 tour, he played all nine parts like on record (although part VIII was shortened). An abridged version of parts I-V was performed on Waters' 2006-07 The Dark Side of the Moon Live tour, Waters also performed the song on the 2016 concerts, including the free concert of the Mexico City's Zócalo, and the concert at the Desert Trip festival; besides the parts VI-IX, Waters performed all the Wish You Were Here album live in order. During Waters' 2022-2023 tour, he played the B side of Wish You Were Here in order, including the epic's parts VI through VIII (excluding part IX) but dropped Part VIII after a few shows to end with Part V.

Roger Waters - bass guitar, lead vocals, additional electric guitar on Part VIII, glass harp

David Gilmour - electric guitars, backing vocals, Fender Stringmaster pedal steel guitar, additional bass guitar on Part VI, EMS Synthi AKS, glass harp

Richard Wright - Hammond organ, ARP String Ensemble, Minimoog, quadruple-tracked EMS VCS 3, clavinet and electric piano on Part VIII, Steinway piano on Parts III and IX, glass harp, backing vocals, Bösendorfer piano on the multi-channel re-release (recorded in 2008).

Nick Mason - drums, percussion

with:

"Shine On You Crazy Diamond" features on all the below releases:

Wish You Were Here (Original release) - Pink Floyd, 1975

A Collection of Great Dance Songs (Edited version) - Pink Floyd, 1981

Delicate Sound of Thunder (Live version, Parts I-V) - Pink Floyd, 1988

PULSE (Live version, Parts I-V and VII) - Pink Floyd, 1995

In the Flesh - Live (Live version, Parts I-VIII) - Roger Waters, 2000

Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd (Edited version, Parts I-VII) - Pink Floyd, 2001

Live in Gdańsk (Live version, Parts I, II, IV & V) - David Gilmour, 2008

Wish You Were Here 2011 remastered "Experience" and "Immersion" sets (early live version recorded in November 1974) - Pink Floyd, 2011

A Foot in the Door - The Best of Pink Floyd (Edited version, Parts I-V) - Pink Floyd, 2011

Live at Pompeii (Live version, Parts I-II, IV-V) - David Gilmour, 2017

Video/DVD/BD

Delicate Sound of Thunder (VHS, Part I only) - Pink Floyd, 1988

PULSE (VHS and DVD, Parts I-V and VII) - Pink Floyd, 1995 (VHS) 2006 (DVD)

In the Flesh - Live (DVD, Parts I-VIII) - Roger Waters, 2000

David Gilmour in Concert (DVD, Parts I-II, IV-V and VI-VII, reprise of Part V) - David Gilmour, 2002

Remember That Night (DVD and BD, Parts I-II and IV-V) - David Gilmour, 2007

Live in Gdańsk 3-disc, 4-disc and deluxe editions (Parts I-II, IV-V) - David Gilmour, 2008

Live at Pompeii (DVD, BD and deluxe edition, Parts I-II, IV-V) - David Gilmour, 2017

In December 2018, the song was the subject of an episode of BBC Radio 4's Soul Music, examining its cultural influence, including an interview with Gilmour about how the song was created.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
" Shine On You Crazy Diamond" is a nine-part Pink Floyd composition written by David Gilmour, Roger Waters, and Richard Wright, which appeared on Pink Floyd's 1975 concept album Wish You Were Here . The song is written about and dedicated to founder member Syd Barrett, who departed from the band in 1968 after becoming mentally ill.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
“The Tea Set” and “The T-Set” redirect here. For tea service, see tea set. For the Dutch band, see Tee-Set. For other uses, see T Set (disambiguation).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Pronunciation

Adjectives

Mercurian ,[1]
Mercurial [2]

Symbol

Epoch J2000

Aphelion

0.466697 AU (69.82 million km)

Perihelion

0.307499 AU (46.00 million km)

0.387098 AU (57.91 million km)

Eccentricity

0.205630 [4]

174.796°

Inclination

48.331°

29.124°

Satellites

None

4,880 km

2,439.7±1.0 km [6][7]

0.3829 Earths

Flattening

0.0009[4]

7.48×10⁷ km² [6]

0.147 Earths

Volume

6.083×10¹⁰ km³ [6]

0.056 Earths

Mass

3.3011×10²³ kg [8]

0.055 Earths

5.427 g/cm ³ [6]

0.346±0.014 [9]

176 d [10]

Equatorial rotation velocity

10.892 km/h (3.026 m/s)

2.04′ ± 0.08′ (to orbit)[9]
(0.034°)[4]

Albedo

Temperature

437 K (164 °C) ( blackbody temperature)[13]

Surface temp.

min

mean

max

0°N, 0°W [14]

−173 °C

67 °C

427 °C

85°N, 0°W[14]

−193 °C

−73 °C

106.85 °C

−0.4[16]

trace (≲ 0.5 nPa)

Composition by volume

Mercury is the first planet from the Sun and the smallest in the Solar System. It is a terrestrial planet with a heavily cratered surface due to overlapping impact events. These features are well preserved since the planet has no geological activity and an extremely tenuous atmosphere called an exosphere. Despite being the smallest planet in the Solar System with a mean diameter of 4,880 km (3,030 mi), 38% of that of Earth, Mercury is dense enough to have roughly the same surface gravity as Mars. Mercury has a dynamic magnetic field with a strength about 1% of that of Earth's and has no natural satellites.

According to current models, Mercury may have a solid silicate crust and mantle overlying a solid outer core, a deeper liquid core layer, and a solid inner core. Having almost no atmosphere to retain heat, Mercury has surface temperatures that change wildly during the day, ranging from 100 K (−173 °C; −280 °F) at night to 700 K (427 °C; 800 °F) during sunlight across the equator regions. At Mercury's poles there are large reservoirs of water ices that are never exposed to direct sunlight, which has an estimated mass of about 0.025-0.25% the Antarctic ice sheet. There are many competing hypotheses about Mercury's origins and development, some of which incorporate collision with planetesimal and rock vaporization.

Because Mercury is very close to the Sun, the intensity of sunlight on its surface is between 4.59 and 10.61 times the Sun's typical energy received by the Earth: the solar constant. Mercury orbits the Sun in a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, meaning that relative to the background stars, it rotates on its axis exactly three times for every two revolutions it makes around the Sun. Counterintuitively, due to Mercury's slow rotation, an observer on the planet would see only one Mercurian solar day (176 Earth days) every two Mercurian solar years (88 Earth days each). Mercury's axis has the smallest tilt of any of the Solar System's planets, about of a degree, and its orbital eccentricity is the largest of all known planets in the Solar System.

Like Venus, Mercury orbits the Sun within Earth's orbit, making it appear in Earth's sky only as a "morning star" or "evening star" that is relatively close to the Sun. In English, it is named after the Roman god Mercurius ( Mercury), god of commerce, communication and the messenger of gods. Mercury is the most difficult planet to reach from Earth because it requires the greatest change in a spacecraft's velocity. Only three spacecraft have visited Mercury as of 2023: flew by in 1974 and 1975; , launched in 2004, flew by Mercury first in 2008 and orbited it over 4,000 times between 2011 and 2015; the BepiColombo spacecraft flew by Mercury first in 2021, and it is scheduled to make its final arrival at Mercury in 2025, where it will then insert two orbiters.

Nomenclature

The ancients knew Mercury by different names depending on whether it was an evening star or a morning star. By about 350 BC, the ancient Greeks had realized the two stars were one.[22] They knew the planet as Στίλβων Stilbōn, meaning "twinkling", and Ἑρμής [23] a name that is retained in modern Hermēs, for its fleeting motion, Greek (Ερμής [24] The Romans named the planet after the swift-footed Roman messenger god, Mercury (Latin Ermis).[22][25] The Mercurius), whom they equated with the Greek Hermes, because it moves across the sky faster than any other planet. astronomical symbol for Mercury is a stylized version of Hermes' caduceus; a Christian cross was added in the 16th century:[26][27] .

Physical characteristics

Mercury is one of four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, which means it is a rocky body like Earth. It is the smallest planet in the Solar System, with an equatorial radius of 2,439.7 kilometres (1,516.0 mi). Mercury is also smaller-albeit more massive-than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede and Titan. Mercury consists of approximately 70% metallic and 30% silicate material.

Internal structure

Mercury appears to have a solid silicate crust and mantle overlying a solid, metallic outer core layer, a deeper liquid core layer, and a solid inner core. The composition of the iron-rich core remains uncertain, but it likely contains nickel, silicon and perhaps sulfur and carbon, plus trace amounts of other elements. The planet's density is the second highest in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm ³, only slightly less than Earth's density of 5.515 g/cm ³. If the effect of gravitational compression were to be factored out from both planets, the materials of which Mercury is made would be denser than those of Earth, with an uncompressed density of 5.3 g/cm ³ versus Earth's 4.4 g/cm ³. Mercury's density can be used to infer details of its inner structure. Although Earth's high density results appreciably from gravitational compression, particularly at the core, Mercury is much smaller and its inner regions are not as compressed. Therefore, for it to have such a high density, its core must be large and rich in iron.

The radius of Mercury's core is estimated to be 2,020 ± 30 km (1,255 ± 19 mi), based on interior models constrained to be consistent with a moment of inertia factor of . Hence, Mercury's core occupies about 57% of its volume; for Earth this proportion is 17%. Research published in 2007 suggests that Mercury has a molten core. The mantle-crust layer is in total 420 km (260 mi) thick. Based on data from the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER missions, in addition to Earth-based observation, Mercury's crust is estimated to be 35 km (22 mi) thick. However, this model may be an overestimate and the crust could be 26 ± 11 km (16.2 ± 6.8 mi) thick based on an Airy isostacy model. One distinctive feature of Mercury's surface is the presence of numerous narrow ridges, extending up to several hundred kilometers in length. It is thought that these were formed as Mercury's core and mantle cooled and contracted at a time when the crust had already solidified.

Mercury's core has a higher iron content than that of any other planet in the Solar System, and several theories have been proposed to explain this. The most widely accepted theory is that Mercury originally had a metal-silicate ratio similar to common chondrite meteorites, thought to be typical of the Solar System's rocky matter, and a mass approximately 2.25 times its current mass. Early in the Solar System's history, Mercury may have been struck by a planetesimal of approximately Mercury's mass and several thousand kilometers across. The impact would have stripped away much of the original crust and mantle, leaving the core behind as a relatively major component. A similar process, known as the giant impact hypothesis, has been proposed to explain the formation of Earth's Moon.

Alternatively, Mercury may have formed from the solar nebula before the Sun's energy output had stabilized. It would initially have had twice its present mass, but as the protosun contracted, temperatures near Mercury could have been between 2,500 and 3,500 K and possibly even as high as 10,000 K. Much of Mercury's surface rock could have been vaporized at such temperatures, forming an atmosphere of "rock vapor" that could have been carried away by the solar wind. A third hypothesis proposes that the solar nebula caused drag on the particles from which Mercury was accreting, which meant that lighter particles were lost from the accreting material and not gathered by Mercury.

Each hypothesis predicts a different surface composition, and two space missions have been tasked with making observations of this composition. The first , which ended in 2015, found higher-than-expected potassium and sulfur levels on the surface, suggesting that the giant impact hypothesis and vaporization of the crust and mantle did not occur because said potassium and sulfur would have been driven off by the extreme heat of these events. BepiColombo, which will arrive at Mercury in 2025, will make observations to test these hypotheses. The findings so far would seem to favor the third hypothesis; however, further analysis of the data is needed.

Surface geology

Mercury's surface is similar in appearance to that of the Moon, showing extensive mare-like plains and heavy cratering, indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years. It is more heterogeneous than the surface of Mars or the Moon, both of which contain significant stretches of similar geology, such as maria and plateaus. Albedo features are areas of markedly different reflectivity, which include impact craters, the resulting ejecta, and ray systems. Larger albedo features correspond to higher reflectivity plains. Mercury has " wrinkle-ridges" (dorsa), Moon-like highlands, mountains (montes), plains (planitiae), escarpments (rupes), and valleys ( valles).

MASCS spectrum scan of Mercury's surface by MESSENGER

The planet's mantle is chemically heterogeneous, suggesting the planet went through a magma ocean phase early in its history. Crystallization of minerals and convective overturn resulted in a layered, chemically heterogeneous crust with large-scale variations in chemical composition observed on the surface. The crust is low in iron but high in sulfur, resulting from the stronger early chemically reducing conditions than is found on other terrestrial planets. The surface is dominated by iron-poor pyroxene and olivine, as represented by enstatite and forsterite, respectively, along with sodium-rich plagioclase and minerals of mixed magnesium, calcium, and iron-sulfide. The less reflective regions of the crust are high in carbon, most likely in the form of graphite.

Names for features on Mercury come from a variety of sources and are set according to the IAU planetary nomenclature system. Names coming from people are limited to the deceased. Craters are named for artists, musicians, painters, and authors who have made outstanding or fundamental contributions to their field. Ridges, or dorsa, are named for scientists who have contributed to the study of Mercury. Depressions or fossae are named for works of architecture. Montes are named for the word "hot" in a variety of languages. Plains or planitiae are named for Mercury in various languages. Escarpments or rupēs are named for ships of scientific expeditions. Valleys or valles are named for abandoned cities, towns, or settlements of antiquity.

Impact basins and craters

Enhanced-color image of craters Munch (left), Sander (center), and Poe (right) amid volcanic plains (orange) near Caloris Basin

Mercury was heavily bombarded by comets and asteroids during and shortly following its formation 4.6 billion years ago, as well as during a possibly separate subsequent episode called the Late Heavy Bombardment that ended 3.8 billion years ago. Mercury received impacts over its entire surface during this period of intense crater formation, facilitated by the lack of any atmosphere to slow impactors down. During this time Mercury was volcanically active; basins were filled by magma, producing smooth plains similar to the maria found on the Moon. One of the most unusual craters is Apollodorus, or "the Spider", which hosts a serious of radiating troughs extending outwards from its impact site.

Craters on Mercury range in diameter from small bowl-shaped cavities to multi-ringed impact basins hundreds of kilometers across. They appear in all states of degradation, from relatively fresh rayed craters to highly degraded crater remnants. Mercurian craters differ subtly from lunar craters in that the area blanketed by their ejecta is much smaller, a consequence of Mercury's stronger surface gravity. According to International Astronomical Union rules, each new crater must be named after an artist who was famous for more than fifty years, and dead for more than three years, before the date the crater is named.

The largest known crater is Caloris Planitia, or Caloris Basin, with a diameter of 1,550 km (960 mi). The impact that created the Caloris Basin was so powerful that it caused lava eruptions and left a concentric mountainous ring ~2 km (1.2 mi) tall surrounding the impact crater. The floor of the Caloris Basin is filled by a geologically distinct flat plain, broken up by ridges and fractures in a roughly polygonal pattern. It is not clear whether they were volcanic lava flows induced by the impact or a large sheet of impact melt.

At the antipode of the Caloris Basin is a large region of unusual, hilly terrain known as the "Weird Terrain". One hypothesis for its origin is that shock waves generated during the Caloris impact traveled around Mercury, converging at the basin's antipode (180 degrees away). The resulting high stresses fractured the surface. Alternatively, it has been suggested that this terrain formed as a result of the convergence of ejecta at this basin's antipode.

Overall, 46 impact basins have been identified. A notable basin is the 400 km (250 mi)-wide, multi-ring Tolstoj Basin that has an ejecta blanket extending up to 500 km (310 mi) from its rim and a floor that has been filled by smooth plains materials. Beethoven Basin has a similar-sized ejecta blanket and a 625 km (388 mi)-diameter rim. Like the Moon, the surface of Mercury has likely incurred the effects of space weathering processes, including solar wind and micrometeorite impacts.

There are two geologically distinct plains regions on Mercury. Gently rolling, hilly plains in the regions between craters are Mercury's oldest visible surfaces, predating the heavily cratered terrain. These inter-crater plains appear to have obliterated many earlier craters, and show a general paucity of smaller craters below about 30 km (19 mi) in diameter.

Smooth plains are widespread flat areas that fill depressions of various sizes and bear a strong resemblance to lunar maria. Unlike lunar maria, the smooth plains of Mercury have the same albedo as the older inter-crater plains. Despite a lack of unequivocally volcanic characteristics, the localisation and rounded, lobate shape of these plains strongly support volcanic origins. All the smooth plains of Mercury formed significantly later than the Caloris basin, as evidenced by appreciably smaller crater densities than on the Caloris ejecta blanket.

Compressional features

An unusual feature of Mercury's surface is the numerous compression folds, or rupes, that crisscross the plains. These exist on the moon, but are much more prominent on Mercury. As Mercury's interior cooled, it contracted and its surface began to deform, creating wrinkle ridges and lobate scarps associated with thrust faults. The scarps can reach lengths of 1,000 km (620 mi) and heights of 3 km (1.9 mi). These compressional features can be seen on top of other features, such as craters and smooth plains, indicating they are more recent. Mapping of the features has suggested a total shrinkage of Mercury's radius in the range of ~1-7 km (0.62-4.35 mi). Most activity along the major thrust systems probably ended about 3.6-3.7 billion years ago. Small-scale thrust fault scarps have been found, tens of meters in height and with lengths in the range of a few kilometers, that appear to be less than 50 million years old, indicating that compression of the interior and consequent surface geological activity continue to the present.

Picasso crater - the large arc-shaped pit located on the eastern side of its floor are postulated to have formed when subsurface magma subsided or drained, causing the surface to collapse into the resulting void.

There is evidence for pyroclastic flows on Mercury from low-profile shield volcanoes. Fifty-one pyroclastic deposits have been identified, where 90% of them are found within impact craters. A study of the degradation state of the impact craters that host pyroclastic deposits suggests that pyroclastic activity occurred on Mercury over a prolonged interval.

A "rimless depression" inside the southwest rim of the Caloris Basin consists of at least nine overlapping volcanic vents, each individually up to 8 km (5.0 mi) in diameter. It is thus a " compound volcano". The vent floors are at least 1 km (0.62 mi) below their brinks and they bear a closer resemblance to volcanic craters sculpted by explosive eruptions or modified by collapse into void spaces created by magma withdrawal back down into a conduit. Scientists could not quantify the age of the volcanic complex system but reported that it could be on the order of a billion years.

Surface conditions and exosphere

Composite of the north pole of Mercury, where NASA confirmed the discovery of a large volume of water ice, in permanently dark craters that are found there.[80]

The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from 100 to 700 K (−173 to 427 °C; −280 to 800 °F). It never rises above 180 K at the poles, due to the absence of an atmosphere and a steep temperature gradient between the equator and the poles. At perihelion, the equatorial subsolar point is located at latitude 0°W or 180°W, and it climbs to a temperature of about 700 K. During aphelion, this occurs at 90° or 270°W, and reaches only 550 K. On the dark side of the planet, temperatures average 110 K. The intensity of sunlight on Mercury's surface ranges between 4.59 and 10.61 times the solar constant (1,370 W·m −2).

Although daylight temperatures at the surface of Mercury are generally extremely high, observations strongly suggest that ice (frozen water) exists on Mercury. The floors of deep craters at the poles are never exposed to direct sunlight, and temperatures there remain below 102 K, far lower than the global average. This creates a cold trap where ice can accumulate. Water ice strongly reflects radar, and observations by the 70-meter Goldstone Solar System Radar and the VLA in the early 1990s revealed that there are patches of high radar reflection near the poles. Although ice was not the only possible cause of these reflective regions, astronomers think it was the most likely. The presence of water ice was confirmed using MESSENGER images of craters at the north pole.

The icy crater regions are estimated to contain about 10 ¹⁴-10 ¹⁵ kg of ice, and may be covered by a layer of regolith that inhibits sublimation. By comparison, the Antarctic ice sheet on Earth has a mass of about 4×10 kg, and Mars's south polar cap contains about 10 ¹⁶ kg of water. The origin of the ice on Mercury is not yet known, but the two most likely sources are from outgassing of water from the planet's interior and deposition by impacts of comets.

Mercury is too small and hot for its gravity to retain any significant atmosphere over long periods of time; it does have a tenuous surface-bounded exosphere at a surface pressure of less than approximately 0.5 nPa (0.005 picobars). It includes hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, silicon, and hydroxide, among others. This exosphere is not stable-atoms are continuously lost and replenished from a variety of sources. Hydrogen atoms and helium atoms probably come from the solar wind, diffusing into Mercury's magnetosphere before later escaping back into space. Radioactive decay of elements within Mercury's crust is another source of helium, as well as sodium and potassium. Water vapor is present, released by a combination of processes such as: comets striking its surface, sputtering creating water out of hydrogen from the solar wind and oxygen from rock, and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice in the permanently shadowed polar craters. The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O⁺, OH, and was a surprise. Because of the quantities of these ions that were detected in Mercury's space environment, scientists surmise that these molecules were blasted from the surface or exosphere by the solar wind.

Sodium, potassium and calcium were discovered in the atmosphere during the 1980s-1990s, and are thought to result primarily from the vaporization of surface rock struck by micrometeorite impacts including presently from Comet Encke. In 2008, magnesium was discovered by MESSENGER. Studies indicate that, at times, sodium emissions are localized at points that correspond to the planet's magnetic poles. This would indicate an interaction between the magnetosphere and the planet's surface.

According to NASA, Mercury is not a suitable planet for Earth-like life. It has a surface boundary exosphere instead of a layered atmosphere, extreme temperatures, and high solar radiation. It is unlikely that any living beings can withstand those conditions. Some parts of the subsurface of Mercury may have been habitable, and perhaps life forms, albeit likely primitive microorganisms, may have existed on the planet.

Magnetic field and magnetosphere

Despite its small size and slow 59-day-long rotation, Mercury has a significant, and apparently global, magnetic field. According to measurements taken by Mariner 10, it is about 1.1% the strength of Earth's. The magnetic-field strength at Mercury's equator is about . Like that of Earth, Mercury's magnetic field is dipolar. Unlike Earth's, Mercury's poles are nearly aligned with the planet's spin axis. Measurements from both the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER space probes have indicated that the strength and shape of the magnetic field are stable.

It is likely that this magnetic field is generated by a dynamo effect, in a manner similar to the magnetic field of Earth. This dynamo effect would result from the circulation of the planet's iron-rich liquid core. Particularly strong tidal heating effects caused by the planet's high orbital eccentricity would serve to keep part of the core in the liquid state necessary for this dynamo effect.

Mercury's magnetic field is strong enough to deflect the solar wind around the planet, creating a magnetosphere. The planet's magnetosphere, though small enough to fit within Earth, is strong enough to trap solar wind plasma. This contributes to the space weathering of the planet's surface. Observations taken by the Mariner 10 spacecraft detected this low energy plasma in the magnetosphere of the planet's nightside. Bursts of energetic particles in the planet's magnetotail indicate a dynamic quality to the planet's magnetosphere.

During its second flyby of the planet on October 6, 2008, MESSENGER discovered that Mercury's magnetic field can be extremely "leaky". The spacecraft encountered magnetic "tornadoes" - twisted bundles of magnetic fields connecting the planetary magnetic field to interplanetary space - that were up to 800 km wide or a third of the radius of the planet. These twisted magnetic flux tubes, technically known as flux transfer events, form open windows in the planet's magnetic shield through which the solar wind may enter and directly impact Mercury's surface via magnetic reconnection This also occurs in Earth's magnetic field. The MESSENGER observations showed the reconnection rate was ten times higher at Mercury, but its proximity to the Sun only accounts for about a third of the reconnection rate observed by MESSENGER.

Orbit, rotation, and longitude

Mercury has the most eccentric orbit of all the planets in the Solar System; its eccentricity is 0.21 with its distance from the Sun ranging from 46,000,000 to 70,000,000 km (29,000,000 to 43,000,000 mi). It takes 87.969 Earth days to complete an orbit. The diagram illustrates the effects of the eccentricity, showing Mercury's orbit overlaid with a circular orbit having the same semi-major axis. Mercury's higher velocity when it is near perihelion is clear from the greater distance it covers in each 5-day interval. In the diagram, the varying distance of Mercury to the Sun is represented by the size of the planet, which is inversely proportional to Mercury's distance from the Sun. This varying distance to the Sun leads to Mercury's surface being flexed by tidal bulges raised by the Sun that are about 17 times stronger than the Moon's on Earth. Combined with a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance of the planet's rotation around its axis, it also results in complex variations of the surface temperature. The resonance makes a single solar day (the length between two meridian transits of the Sun) on Mercury last exactly two Mercury years, or about 176 Earth days.

Mercury's orbit is inclined by 7 degrees to the plane of Earth's orbit (the ecliptic), the largest of all eight known solar planets. As a result, transits of Mercury across the face of the Sun can only occur when the planet is crossing the plane of the ecliptic at the time it lies between Earth and the Sun, which is in May or November. This occurs about every seven years on average.

Mercury's axial tilt is almost zero, with the best measured value as low as 0.027 degrees. This is significantly smaller than that of Jupiter, which has the second smallest axial tilt of all planets at 3.1 degrees. This means that to an observer at Mercury's poles, the center of the Sun never rises more than 2.1 arcminutes above the horizon. By comparison, the angular size of the Sun as seen from Mercury ranges from to 2 degrees across.

At certain points on Mercury's surface, an observer would be able to see the Sun peek up a little more than two-thirds of the way over the horizon, then reverse and set before rising again, all within the same Mercurian day. This is because approximately four Earth days before perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity equals its angular rotational velocity so that the Sun's apparent motion ceases; closer to perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity then exceeds the angular rotational velocity. Thus, to a hypothetical observer on Mercury, the Sun appears to move in a retrograde direction. Four Earth days after perihelion, the Sun's normal apparent motion resumes. A similar effect would have occurred if Mercury had been in synchronous rotation: the alternating gain and loss of rotation over a revolution would have caused a libration of 23.65° in longitude.

For the same reason, there are two points on Mercury's equator, 180 degrees apart in longitude, at either of which, around perihelion in alternate Mercurian years (once a Mercurian day), the Sun passes overhead, then reverses its apparent motion and passes overhead again, then reverses a second time and passes overhead a third time, taking a total of about 16 Earth-days for this entire process. In the other alternate Mercurian years, the same thing happens at the other of these two points. The amplitude of the retrograde motion is small, so the overall effect is that, for two or three weeks, the Sun is almost stationary overhead, and is at its most brilliant because Mercury is at perihelion, its closest to the Sun. This prolonged exposure to the Sun at its brightest makes these two points the hottest places on Mercury. Maximum temperature occurs when the Sun is at an angle of about 25 degrees past noon due to diurnal temperature lag, at 0.4 Mercury days and 0.8 Mercury years past sunrise. Conversely, there are two other points on the equator, 90 degrees of longitude apart from the first ones, where the Sun passes overhead only when the planet is at aphelion in alternate years, when the apparent motion of the Sun in Mercury's sky is relatively rapid. These points, which are the ones on the equator where the apparent retrograde motion of the Sun happens when it is crossing the horizon as described in the preceding paragraph, receive much less solar heat than the first ones described above.

Mercury attains an inferior conjunction (nearest approach to Earth) every 116 Earth days on average, but this interval can range from 105 days to 129 days due to the planet's eccentric orbit. Mercury can come as near as 82,200,000 km (0.549 astronomical units; 51.1 million miles) to Earth, and that is slowly declining: The next approach to within 82,100,000 km (51 million mi) is in 2679, and to within 82,000,000 km (51 million mi) in 4487, but it will not be closer to Earth than 80,000,000 km (50 million mi) until 28,622. Its period of retrograde motion as seen from Earth can vary from 8 to 15 days on either side of an inferior conjunction. This large range arises from the planet's high orbital eccentricity. Essentially, because Mercury is closest to the Sun, when taking an average over time, Mercury is most often the closest planet to the Earth, and-in that measure-it is the closest planet to each of the other planets in the Solar System.

Longitude convention

The longitude convention for Mercury puts the zero of longitude at one of the two hottest points on the surface, as described above. However, when this area was first visited, by Mariner 10, this zero meridian was in darkness, so it was impossible to select a feature on the surface to define the exact position of the meridian. Therefore, a small crater further west was chosen, called Hun Kal, which provides the exact reference point for measuring longitude. The center of Hun Kal defines the 20° west meridian. A 1970 International Astronomical Union resolution suggests that longitudes be measured positively in the westerly direction on Mercury. The two hottest places on the equator are therefore at longitudes 0° W and 180° W, and the coolest points on the equator are at longitudes 90° W and 270° W. However, the MESSENGER project uses an east-positive convention.

Spin-orbit resonance

For many years it was thought that Mercury was synchronously tidally locked with the Sun, rotating once for each orbit and always keeping the same face directed towards the Sun, in the same way that the same side of the Moon always faces Earth. Radar observations in 1965 proved that the planet has a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, rotating three times for every two revolutions around the Sun. The eccentricity of Mercury's orbit makes this resonance stable-at perihelion, when the solar tide is strongest, the Sun is nearly stationary in Mercury's sky.

The 3:2 resonant tidal locking is stabilized by the variance of the tidal force along Mercury's eccentric orbit, acting on a permanent dipole component of Mercury's mass distribution. In a circular orbit there is no such variance, so the only resonance stabilized in such an orbit is at 1:1 (e.g., Earth-Moon), when the tidal force, stretching a body along the "center-body" line, exerts a torque that aligns the body's axis of least inertia (the "longest" axis, and the axis of the aforementioned dipole) to always point at the center. However, with noticeable eccentricity, like that of Mercury's orbit, the tidal force has a maximum at perihelion and therefore stabilizes resonances, like 3:2, ensuring that the planet points its axis of least inertia roughly at the Sun when passing through perihelion.

The original reason astronomers thought it was synchronously locked was that, whenever Mercury was best placed for observation, it was always nearly at the same point in its 3:2 resonance, hence showing the same face. This is because, coincidentally, Mercury's rotation period is almost exactly half of its synodic period with respect to Earth. Due to Mercury's 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, a solar day lasts about 176 Earth days. A sidereal day (the period of rotation) lasts about 58.7 Earth days.

Simulations indicate that the orbital eccentricity of Mercury varies chaotically from nearly zero (circular) to more than 0.45 over millions of years due to perturbations from the other planets. This was thought to explain Mercury's 3:2 spin-orbit resonance (rather than the more usual 1:1), because this state is more likely to arise during a period of high eccentricity. However, accurate modeling based on a realistic model of tidal response has demonstrated that Mercury was captured into the 3:2 spin-orbit state at a very early stage of its history, within 20 (more likely, 10) million years after its formation.

Numerical simulations show that a future secular orbital resonant interaction with the perihelion of Jupiter may cause the eccentricity of Mercury's orbit to increase to the point where there is a 1% chance that the orbit will be destabilized in the next five billion years. If this happens, Mercury may fall into the Sun, collide with Venus, be ejected from the Solar System, or even disrupt the rest of the inner Solar System.

Advance of perihelion

Apsidal precession of Mercury's orbit

In 1859, the French mathematician and astronomer Urbain Le Verrier reported that the slow precession of Mercury's orbit around the Sun could not be completely explained by Newtonian mechanics and perturbations by the known planets. He suggested, among possible explanations, that another planet (or perhaps instead a series of smaller "corpuscules") might exist in an orbit even closer to the Sun than that of Mercury, to account for this perturbation. (Other explanations considered included a slight oblateness of the Sun.) The success of the search for Neptune based on its perturbations of the orbit of Uranus led astronomers to place faith in this possible explanation, and the hypothetical planet was named Vulcan, but no such planet was ever found.

The observed perihelion precession of Mercury is 5,600 arcseconds (1.5556°) per century relative to Earth, or 574.10±0.65 arcseconds per century relative to the inertial ICRF. Newtonian mechanics, taking into account all the effects from the other planets and including 0.0254 arcsecond per century due to the oblateness of the Sun, predicts a precession of 5,557 arcseconds (1.5436°) per century relative to Earth, or 531.63±0.69 arcseconds per century relative to ICRF. In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity provided the explanation for the observed precession, by formalizing gravitation as being mediated by the curvature of spacetime. The effect is small: just 42.980±0.001 arcseconds per century (or 0.43 arcsecond per year, or 0.1035 arcsecond per orbital period) for Mercury; it therefore requires a little over 12.5 million orbits, or 3 million years, for a full excess turn. Similar, but much smaller, effects exist for other Solar System bodies: 8.6247 arcseconds per century for Venus, 3.8387 for Earth, 1.351 for Mars, and 10.05 for 1566 Icarus.

Observation

Image mosaic by Mariner 10, 1974

Mercury's apparent magnitude is calculated to vary between −2.48 (brighter than Sirius) around superior conjunction and +7.25 (below the limit of naked-eye visibility) around inferior conjunction. The mean apparent magnitude is 0.23 while the standard deviation of 1.78 is the largest of any planet. The mean apparent magnitude at superior conjunction is −1.89 while that at inferior conjunction is +5.93. Observation of Mercury is complicated by its proximity to the Sun, as it is lost in the Sun's glare for much of the time. Mercury can be observed for only a brief period during either morning or evening twilight.

Ground-based telescope observations of Mercury reveal only an illuminated partial disk with limited detail. The Hubble Space Telescope cannot observe Mercury at all, due to safety procedures that prevent its pointing too close to the Sun. Because the shift of 0.15 revolutions in a year makes up a seven-year cycle (0.15 × 7 ≈ 1.0), in the seventh year, Mercury follows almost exactly (earlier by 7 days) the sequence of phenomena it showed seven years before.

Like the Moon and Venus, Mercury exhibits phases as seen from Earth. It is "new" at inferior conjunction and "full" at superior conjunction. The planet is rendered invisible from Earth on both of these occasions because of its being obscured by the Sun, except at its new phase during a transit. Mercury is technically brightest as seen from Earth when it is at a full phase. Although Mercury is farthest from Earth when it is full, the greater illuminated area that is visible and the opposition brightness surge more than compensates for the distance. The opposite is true for Venus, which appears brightest when it is a crescent, because it is much closer to Earth than when gibbous.

Mercury is best observed at the first and last quarter, although they are phases of lesser brightness. The first and last quarter phases occur at greatest elongation east and west of the Sun, respectively. At both of these times, Mercury's separation from the Sun ranges anywhere from 17.9° at perihelion to 27.8° at aphelion. At greatest western elongation, Mercury rises at its earliest before sunrise, and at greatest eastern elongation, it sets at its latest after sunset.

False-color image of Carnegie Rupes, a tectonic landform-high terrain (red); low (blue).

Mercury is more often and easily visible from the Southern Hemisphere than from the Northern. This is because Mercury's maximum western elongation occurs only during early autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, whereas its greatest eastern elongation happens only during late winter in the Southern Hemisphere. In both of these cases, the angle at which the planet's orbit intersects the horizon is maximized, allowing it to rise several hours before sunrise in the former instance and not set until several hours after sundown in the latter from southern mid-latitudes, such as Argentina and South Africa.

An alternate method for viewing Mercury involves observing the planet with a telescope during daylight hours when conditions are clear, ideally when it is at its greatest elongation. This allows the planet to be found easily, even when using telescopes with 8 cm (3.1 in) apertures. However, great care must be taken to obstruct the Sun from sight because of the extreme risk for eye damage. This method bypasses the limitation of twilight observing when the ecliptic is located at a low elevation (e.g. on autumn evenings). The planet is higher in the sky and less atmospheric effects affect the view of the planet. Mercury can be viewed as close as 4° to the Sun near superior conjunction when it is almost at its brightest.

Mercury can, like several other planets and the brightest stars, be seen during a total solar eclipse.

Observation history

Ancient astronomers

Mercury, from Liber astronomiae, 1550

The earliest known recorded observations of Mercury are from the MUL.APIN tablets. These observations were most likely made by an Assyrian astronomer around the 14th century BC. The cuneiform name used to designate Mercury on the MUL.APIN tablets is transcribed as UDU.IDIM.GU\U ₄.UD ("the jumping planet"). Babylonian records of Mercury date back to the 1st millennium BC. The Babylonians called the planet Nabu after the messenger to the gods in their mythology.

The Greco- Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy wrote about the possibility of planetary transits across the face of the Sun in his work Planetary Hypotheses. He suggested that no transits had been observed either because planets such as Mercury were too small to see, or because transits were too infrequent.

Ibn al-Shatir's model for the appearances of Mercury, showing the multiplication of epicycles using the Tusi couple, thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and equant.

In ancient China, Mercury was known as "the Hour Star" ( Chen-xing ). It was associated with the direction north and the phase of water in the Five Phases system of metaphysics. Modern Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet literally as the "water star" (), based on the Five elements. Hindu mythology used the name Budha for Mercury, and this god was thought to preside over Wednesday. The god Odin (or Woden) of Germanic paganism was associated with the planet Mercury and Wednesday. The Maya may have represented Mercury as an owl (or possibly four owls; two for the morning aspect and two for the evening) that served as a messenger to the underworld.

In medieval Islamic astronomy, the Andalusian astronomer Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī in the 11th century described the deferent of Mercury's geocentric orbit as being oval, like an egg or a pignon, although this insight did not influence his astronomical theory or his astronomical calculations. In the 12th century, Ibn Bajjah observed "two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun", which was later suggested as the transit of Mercury and/or Venus by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century. (Note that most such medieval reports of transits were later taken as observations of sunspots.)

In India, the Kerala school astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji in the 15th century developed a partially heliocentric planetary model in which Mercury orbits the Sun, which in turn orbits Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century.

Ground-based telescopic research

Transit of Mercury. Mercury is visible as a black dot below and to the left of center. The dark area above the center of the solar disk is a sunspot.

Elongation is the angle between the Sun and the planet, with Earth as the reference point. Mercury appears close to the Sun.

The first telescopic observations of Mercury were made by Thomas Harriot and Galileo from 1610. In 1612, Simon Marius observed the brightness of Mercury varied with the planet's orbital position and concluded it had phases "in the same way as Venus and the Moon". In 1631, Pierre Gassendi made the first telescopic observations of the transit of a planet across the Sun when he saw a transit of Mercury predicted by Johannes Kepler. In 1639, Giovanni Zupi used a telescope to discover that the planet had orbital phases similar to Venus and the Moon. The observation demonstrated conclusively that Mercury orbited the Sun.

A rare event in astronomy is the passage of one planet in front of another ( occultation), as seen from Earth. Mercury and Venus occult each other every few centuries, and the event of May 28, 1737, is the only one historically observed, having been seen by John Bevis at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. The next occultation of Mercury by Venus will be on December 3, 2133.

The difficulties inherent in observing Mercury meant that it was far less studied than the other planets. In 1800, Johann Schröter made observations of surface features, claiming to have observed 20-kilometre-high (12 mi) mountains. Friedrich Bessel used Schröter's drawings to erroneously estimate the rotation period as 24 hours and an axial tilt of 70°. In the 1880s, Giovanni Schiaparelli mapped the planet more accurately, and suggested that Mercury's rotational period was 88 days, the same as its orbital period due to tidal locking. This phenomenon is known as synchronous rotation. The effort to map the surface of Mercury was continued by Eugenios Antoniadi, who published a book in 1934 that included both maps and his own observations. Many of the planet's surface features, particularly the albedo features, take their names from Antoniadi's map.

In June 1962, Soviet scientists at the Institute of Radio-engineering and Electronics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, led by Vladimir Kotelnikov, became the first to bounce a radar signal off Mercury and receive it, starting radar observations of the planet. Three years later, radar observations by Americans Gordon H. Pettengill and Rolf B. Dyce, using the 300-metre-wide (330 yd) Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico, showed conclusively that the planet's rotational period was about 59 days. The theory that Mercury's rotation was synchronous had become widely held, and it was a surprise to astronomers when these radio observations were announced. If Mercury were tidally locked, its dark face would be extremely cold, but measurements of radio emission revealed that it was much hotter than expected. Astronomers were reluctant to drop the synchronous rotation theory and proposed alternative mechanisms such as powerful heat-distributing winds to explain the observations.

In 1965, Italian astronomer Giuseppe Colombo noted that the rotation value was about two-thirds of Mercury's orbital period, and proposed that the planet's orbital and rotational periods were locked into a 3:2 rather than a 1:1 resonance. Data from Mariner 10 subsequently confirmed this view. This means that Schiaparelli's and Antoniadi's maps were not "wrong". Instead, the astronomers saw the same features during every second orbit and recorded them, but disregarded those seen in the meantime, when Mercury's other face was toward the Sun, because the orbital geometry meant that these observations were made under poor viewing conditions.

Ground-based optical observations did not shed much further light on Mercury, but radio astronomers using interferometry at microwave wavelengths, a technique that enables removal of the solar radiation, were able to discern physical and chemical characteristics of the subsurface layers to a depth of several meters. Not until the first space probe flew past Mercury did many of its most fundamental morphological properties become known. Moreover, technological advances have led to improved ground-based observations. In 2000, high-resolution lucky imaging observations were conducted by the Mount Wilson Observatory 1.5-metre (4.9 ft) Hale telescope. They provided the first views that resolved surface features on the parts of Mercury that were not imaged in the Mariner 10 mission. Most of the planet has been mapped by the Arecibo radar telescope, with 5 km (3.1 mi) resolution, including polar deposits in shadowed craters of what may be water ice.

Research with space probes

MESSENGER being prepared for launch

Mercury transiting the Sun as viewed by the Mars rover Curiosity (June 3, 2014).[185]

Reaching Mercury from Earth poses significant technical challenges, because it orbits so much closer to the Sun than Earth. A Mercury-bound spacecraft launched from Earth must travel over 91 million kilometres (57 million miles) into the Sun's gravitational potential well. Mercury has an orbital speed of 47.4 km/s (29.5 mi/s), whereas Earth's orbital speed is 29.8 km/s (18.5 mi/s). Therefore, the spacecraft must make a larger change in velocity ( delta-v) to get to Mercury and then enter orbit, as compared to the delta-v required for, say, Mars planetary missions.

The potential energy liberated by moving down the Sun's potential well becomes kinetic energy, requiring a delta-v change to do anything other than pass by Mercury. Some portion of this delta-v budget can be provided from a gravity assist during one or more fly-bys of Venus. To land safely or enter a stable orbit the spacecraft would rely entirely on rocket motors. Aerobraking is ruled out because Mercury has a negligible atmosphere. A trip to Mercury requires more rocket fuel than that required to escape the Solar System completely. As a result, only three space probes have visited it so far. A proposed alternative approach would use a solar sail to attain a Mercury-synchronous orbit around the Sun.

Mariner 10, the first probe to visit Mercury

The first spacecraft to visit Mercury was NASA's Mariner 10 (1974-1975). The spacecraft used the gravity of Venus to adjust its orbital velocity so that it could approach Mercury, making it both the first spacecraft to use this gravitational "slingshot" effect and the first NASA mission to visit multiple planets. Mariner 10 provided the first close-up images of Mercury's surface, which immediately showed its heavily cratered nature, and revealed many other types of geological features, such as the giant scarps that were later ascribed to the effect of the planet shrinking slightly as its iron core cools. Unfortunately, the same face of the planet was lit at each of close approaches. This made close observation of both sides of the planet impossible, and resulted in the mapping of less than 45% of the planet's surface.

The spacecraft made three close approaches to Mercury, the closest of which took it to within 327 km (203 mi) of the surface. At the first close approach, instruments detected a magnetic field, to the great surprise of planetary geologists-Mercury's rotation was expected to be much too slow to generate a significant dynamo effect. The second close approach was primarily used for imaging, but at the third approach, extensive magnetic data were obtained. The data revealed that the planet's magnetic field is much like Earth's, which deflects the solar wind around the planet. For many years after the Mariner 10 encounters, the origin of Mercury's magnetic field remained the subject of several competing theories.

On March 24, 1975, just eight days after its final close approach, Mariner 10 ran out of fuel. Because its orbit could no longer be accurately controlled, mission controllers instructed the probe to shut down. Mariner 10 is thought to be still orbiting the Sun, passing close to Mercury every few months.

Estimated details of the impact of MESSENGER on April 30, 2015

A second NASA mission to Mercury, named MESSENGER (MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging), was launched on August 3, 2004. It made a fly-by of Earth in August 2005, and of Venus in October 2006 and June 2007 to place it onto the correct trajectory to reach an orbit around Mercury. A first fly-by of Mercury occurred on January 14, 2008, a second on October 6, 2008, and a third on September 29, 2009. Most of the hemisphere not imaged by Mariner 10 was mapped during these fly-bys. The probe successfully entered an elliptical orbit around the planet on March 18, 2011. The first orbital image of Mercury was obtained on March 29, 2011. The probe finished a one-year mapping mission, and then entered a one-year extended mission into 2013. In addition to continued observations and mapping of Mercury, MESSENGER observed the 2012 solar maximum.

The mission was designed to clear up six key issues: Mercury's high density, its geological history, the nature of its magnetic field, the structure of its core, whether it has ice at its poles, and where its tenuous atmosphere comes from. To this end, the probe carried imaging devices that gathered much-higher-resolution images of much more of Mercury than Mariner 10, assorted spectrometers to determine the abundances of elements in the crust, and magnetometers and devices to measure velocities of charged particles. Measurements of changes in the probe's orbital velocity were expected to be used to infer details of the planet's interior structure. MESSENGER's final maneuver was on April 24, 2015, and it crashed into Mercury's surface on April 30, 2015. The spacecraft's impact with Mercury occurred at 3:26:01 p.m. EDT on April 30, 2015, leaving a crater estimated to be 16 m (52 ft) in diameter.

The European Space Agency and the Japanese Space Agency developed and launched a joint mission called BepiColombo, which will orbit Mercury with two probes: one to map the planet and the other to study its magnetosphere. Launched on October 20, 2018, BepiColombo is expected to reach Mercury in 2025. It will release a magnetometer probe into an elliptical orbit, then chemical rockets will fire to deposit the mapper probe into a circular orbit. Both probes will operate for one terrestrial year. The mapper probe carries an array of spectrometers similar to those on MESSENGER, and will study the planet at many different wavelengths including infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma ray. BepiColombo conducted three of its six planned Mercury flybys from October 1, 2021 to June 19, 2023.

References

1. ^ "Mercurial". Lexico UK English Dictionary UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on December 22, 2019.

2. - Select "Ephemeris Type: Orbital Elements", "Time Span: 2000-01-01 12:00 to 2000-01-02". ("Target Body: Mercury" and "Center: Sun" should be defaulted to.) Results are instantaneous ^ osculating values at the precise J2000 epoch.

3. ^ Souami, D.; Souchay, J. (July 2012). "The solar system's invariable plane". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 543: 11. Bibcode:2012A&A...543A.133S. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219011. A133.

4. ^ Mazarico, Erwan; Genova, Antonio; Goossens, Sander; Lemoine, Frank G.; Neumann, Gregory A.; Zuber, Maria T.; Smith, David E.; Solomon, Sean C. (2014). "The gravity field, orientation, and ephemeris of Mercury from MESSENGER observations after three years in orbit" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 119 (12): 2417-2436. Bibcode:2014JGRE..119.2417M. doi:10.1002/2014JE004675. hdl:1721.1/97927. ISSN 2169-9097. S2CID 42430050.

5. ^ Vasavada, Ashwin R.; Paige, David A.; Wood, Stephen E. (February 19, 1999). "Near-Surface Temperatures on Mercury and the Moon and the Stability of Polar Ice Deposits" (PDF). Icarus. 141 (2): 179-193. Bibcode:1999Icar..141..179V. doi:10.1006/icar.1999.6175. Figure 3 with the "TWO model"; Figure 5 for pole.

6. Prockter, Louise (2005). Ice in the Solar System (PDF). Vol. 26. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest.

7. ^ Rawlins, Katherine; Moses, Julianne I.; Zahnle, Kevin J. (1995). "Exogenic Sources of Water for Mercury's Polar Ice". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. 27: 1117. Bibcode:1995DPS....27.2112R.

8. ^ "Greek Names of the Planets". April 25, 2010. Ermis is the Greek name of the planet Mercury, which is the closest planet to the Sun. It is named after the Greek God of commerce, Ermis or Hermes, who was also the messenger of the Ancient Greek gods. See also the Greek article about the planet.

9. ^ Duncan, John Charles (1946). Astronomy: A Textbook. Harper & Brothers. p. 125. The symbol for Mercury represents the Caduceus, a wand with two serpents twined around it, which was carried by the messenger of the gods.

10. ^ Jones, Alexander (1999). Astronomical papyri from Oxyrhynchus. American Philosophical Society. pp. 62-63. ISBN 9780871692337. It is now possible to trace the medieval symbols for at least four of the five planets to forms that occur in some of the latest papyrus horoscopes ([ P.Oxy. ] 4272, 4274, 4275 [...]). Mercury's is a stylized caduceus.

11. ^ Talbert, Tricia, ed. (March 21, 2012). "MESSENGER Provides New Look at Mercury's Surprising Core and Landscape Curiosities". NASA.

12. ^ Genova, Antonio; et al. (April 17, 2023). "Scientists find evidence Mercury has a solid inner core" (Press release). AGU Newsroom.

13. ^ Nittler, Larry R.; Chabot, Nancy L.; Grove, Timothy L.; Peplowski, Patrick N. (2018). "The Chemical Composition of Mercury". In Solomon, Sean C.; Nittler, Larry R.; Anderson, Brian J. (eds.). Mercury: The View after MESSENGER. Cambridge Planetary Science Book Series. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 30-51. arXiv:. Bibcode:2018mvam.book...30N. doi:10.1017/9781316650684.003. ISBN 9781316650684.

14. ^ Hauck, Steven A.; Margot, Jean-Luc; Solomon, Sean C.; Phillips, Roger J.; Johnson, Catherine L.; Lemoine, Frank G.; Mazarico, Erwan; McCoy, Timothy J.; Padovan, Sebastiano; Peale, Stanton J.; Perry, Mark E.; Smith, David E.; Zuber, Maria T. (2013). "The curious case of Mercury's internal structure". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 118 (6): 1204-1220. Bibcode:2013JGRE..118.1204H. doi:10.1002/jgre.20091. hdl:1721.1/85633. S2CID 17668886.

15. ^ Hauck, Steven A.; et al. (May 6, 2013). "The curious case of Mercury's internal structure". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 118 (6): 1204-1220. Bibcode:2013JGRE..118.1204H. doi:10.1002/jgre.20091. hdl:1721.1/85633. S2CID 17668886.

16. ^ Schenk, Paul M.; Melosh, H. Jay (March 1994). "Lobate Thrust Scarps and the Thickness of Mercury's Lithosphere". Abstracts of the 25th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. 1994: 1994LPI....25.1203S. Bibcode:1994LPI....25.1203S.

17. ^ Benz, W.; Slattery, W. L.; Cameron, Alastair G. W. (1988). "Collisional stripping of Mercury's mantle". Icarus. 74 (3): 516-528. Bibcode:1988Icar...74..516B. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(88)90118-2.

18. Cameron, Alastair G. W. (1985). "The partial volatilization of Mercury". Icarus. 64 (2): 285-294. Bibcode:1985Icar...64..285C. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(85)90091-0.

19. ^ Morris, Jefferson (November 10, 2008). "Laser Altimetry". Aviation Week & Space Technology. 169 (18): 18. Mercury's crust is more analogous to a marbled cake than a layered cake.

20. Dunne, James A.; Burgess, Eric (1978). "Chapter Seven". The Voyage of Mariner 10 - Mission to Venus and Mercury. NASA History Office. Archived from the original on November 17, 2017.

21. ^ Cartier, Camille; Wood, Bernard J. (February 2019). "The Role of Reducing Conditions in Building Mercury". Elements. 15 (1): 39-45. doi:10.2138/gselements.15.1.39.

22. Spudis, Paul D. (2001). "The Geological History of Mercury". Workshop on Mercury: Space Environment, Surface, and Interior, Chicago (1097): 100. Bibcode:2001mses.conf..100S.

23. ^ Shiga, David (January 30, 2008). "Bizarre spider scar found on Mercury's surface". NewScientist.com news service.

24. ^ Wieczorek, Mark A.; Zuber, Maria T. (2001). "A Serenitatis origin for the Imbrian grooves and South Pole-Aitken thorium anomaly". Journal of Geophysical Research. 106 (E11): 27853-27864. Bibcode:2001JGR...10627853W. doi:10.1029/2000JE001384.

25. ^ Denevi, Brett W.; Robinson, Mark S. (2008). "Albedo of Immature Mercurian Crustal Materials: Evidence for the Presence of Ferrous Iron". Lunar and Planetary Science. 39 (1391): 1750. Bibcode:2008LPI....39.1750D.

26. Wagner, Roland J.; Wolf, Ursula; Ivanov, Boris A.; Neukum, Gerhard (October 4-5, 2001). Application of an Updated Impact Cratering Chronology Model to Mercury' s Time-Stratigraphic System. Workshop on Mercury: Space Environment, Surface, and Interior. Proceedings of a workshop held at The Field Museum. Chicago, IL: Lunar and Planetary Science Institute. p. 106. Bibcode:2001mses.conf..106W.

27. ^ Head, James W.; Chapman, Clark R.; Strom, Robert G.; Fassett, Caleb I.; Denevi, Brett W. (September 30, 2011). "Flood Volcanism in the Northern High Latitudes of Mercury Revealed by MESSENGER" (PDF). Science. 333 (6051): 1853-1856. Bibcode:2011Sci...333.1853H. doi:10.1126/science.1211997. PMID 21960625. S2CID 7651992.

28. Chang, Kenneth (November 29, 2012). "On Closest Planet to the Sun, NASA Finds Lots of Ice". The New York Times. p. A3. Archived from the original on November 29, 2012. Sean C. Solomon, the principal investigator for MESSENGER, said there was enough ice there to encase Washington, D.C., in a frozen block two and a half miles deep.

29. ^ Hunten, Donald M.; Shemansky, Donald Eugene; Morgan, Thomas Hunt (1988). "The Mercury atmosphere". In Vilas, Faith; Chapman, Clark R.; Shapley Matthews, Mildred (eds.). Mercury. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-1085-6.

30. ^ Hall, Shannon (March 24, 2020). "Life on the Planet Mercury? 'It's Not Completely Nuts' - A new explanation for the rocky world's jumbled landscape opens a possibility that it could have had ingredients for habitability". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 24, 2020.

31. ^ Rodriguez, J. Alexis P.; Leonard, Gregory J.; Kargel, Jeffrey S.; Domingue, Deborah; Berman, Daniel C.; Banks, Maria; Zarroca, Mario; Linares, Rogelio; Marchi, Simone; Baker, Victor R.; Webster, Kevin D.; Sykes, Mark (March 16, 2020). "The Chaotic Terrains of Mercury Reveal a History of Planetary Volatile Retention and Loss in the Innermost Solar System". Scientific Reports. 10 (4737): 4737. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.4737R. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-59885-5. PMC . PMID 32179758.

32. ^ Van Hoolst, Tim; Jacobs, Carla (2003). "Mercury's tides and interior structure". Journal of Geophysical Research. 108 (E11): 7. Bibcode:2003JGRE..108.5121V. doi:10.1029/2003JE002126.

33. Margot, J. L.; Peale, S. J.; Jurgens, R. F.; Slade, M. A.; et al. (2007). "Large Longitude Libration of Mercury Reveals a Molten Core". Science. 316 (5825): 710-714. Bibcode:2007Sci...316..710M. doi:10.1126/science.1140514. PMID 17478713. S2CID 8863681.

34. ^ Popular Astronomy: A Review of Astronomy and Allied Sciences. Goodsell Observatory of Carleton College. 1896. although in the case of Venus the libration in longitude due to the eccentricity of the orbit amounts to only 47' on either side of the mean position, in the case of Mercury it amounts to 23° 39'

35. Mercury Closest Approaches to Earth generated with: ^
1. Solex 10 Archived December 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine (Text Output file Archived March 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine)
2. Gravity Simulator charts Archived September 12, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
3. JPL Horizons 1950-2200 Archived November 6, 2015, at the Wayback Machine

(3 sources are provided to address original research concerns and to support general long-term trends)

36. Harford, Tim (January 11, 2019). "BBC Radio 4 - More or Less, Sugar, Outdoors Play and Planets". BBC. Oliver Hawkins, more or less alumnus and statistical legend, wrote some code for us, which calculated which planet was closest to the Earth on each day for the past 50 years, and then sent the results to David A. Rothery, professor of planetary geosciences at the Open University.

37. ^ Stockman, Tom; Monroe, Gabriel; Cordner, Samuel (March 12, 2019). "Venus is not Earth's closest neighbor". Physics Today. doi:10.1063/PT.6.3.20190312a. S2CID 241077611.

38. ^ Davies, M. E.; Dwornik, S. E.; Gault, D. E.; Strom, R. G. (1978). NASA Atlas of Mercury. NASA Scientific and Technical Information Office.

39. Colombo, Giuseppe; Shapiro, Irwin I. (1966). "The rotation of the planet Mercury". Astrophysical Journal. 145: 296. Bibcode:1966ApJ...145..296C. doi:10.1086/148762.

40. ^ Correia, Alexandre C. M.; Laskar, Jacques (2009). "Mercury's capture into the 3/2 spin-orbit resonance including the effect of core-mantle friction". Icarus. 201 (1): 1-11. arXiv:. Bibcode:2009Icar..201....1C. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.12.034. S2CID 14778204.

41. ^ Noyelles, B.; Frouard, J.; Makarov, V. V. & Efroimsky, M. (2014). "Spin-orbit evolution of Mercury revisited". Icarus. 241 (2014): 26-44. arXiv:. Bibcode:2014Icar..241...26N. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.05.045. S2CID 53690707.

42. ^ Le Verrier, Urbain (1859). "Lettre de M. Le Verrier à M. Faye sur la théorie de Mercure et sur le mouvement du périhélie de cette planète". Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences (in French). Paris. 49: 379-383. (At p. 383 in the same volume Le Verrier's report is followed by another, from Faye, enthusiastically recommending to astronomers to search for a previously undetected intra-mercurial object.)

43. ^ Baum, Richard; Sheehan, William (1997). In Search of Planet Vulcan, The Ghost in Newton's Clockwork Machine. New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 978-0-306-45567-4.

44. Menzel, Donald H. (1964). A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets. The Peterson Field Guide Series. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. pp. 292-293.

45. Mallama, Anthony (2011). "Planetary magnitudes". Sky and Telescope. 121 (1): 51-56.

46. - Numbers generated using the Solar System Dynamics Group, ^ Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System

47. ^ Curtis, A. C. (October 1972). "Finding Venus or Mercury in daylight". Journal of the British Astronomical Association. 82: 438-439. Bibcode:1972JBAA...82..438C.

48. ^ Schaefer, Bradley E. (2007). "The Latitude and Epoch for the Origin of the Astronomical Lore in MUL.APIN". American Astronomical Society Meeting 210, #42.05. 38: 157. Bibcode:2007AAS...210.4205S.

49. ^ Hunger, Hermann; Pingree, David (1989). "MUL.APIN: An Astronomical Compendium in Cuneiform". Archiv für Orientforschung. 24: 146.

50. ^ Heath, Sir Thomas (1921). A History of Greek Mathematics. Vol. II. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. vii, 273.

51. ^ Ansari, S. M. Razaullah (2002). History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25-26, 1997. Springer Science+Business Media. p. 137. ISBN 1-4020-0657-8.

52. ^ Ramasubramanian, K.; Srinivas, M. S.; Sriram, M. S. (1994). "Modification of the Earlier Indian Planetary Theory by the Kerala Astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the Implied Heliocentric Picture of Planetary Motion" (PDF). Current Science. 66: 784-790. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 23, 2010.

53. ^ Gaab, Hans (2018). Simon Marius and His Research. Springer. p. 256. ISBN 978-3-319-92620-9. Marius noted in the dedication from June 30, 1612, in the Prognosticon auf 1613 "that Mercury is illuminated by the Sun in the same way as the Venus and the Moon" and reports his observations of the brightness.

54. Colombo, Giuseppe; Shapiro, Irwin I. (November 1965). "The Rotation of the Planet Mercury". SAO Special Report #188R. 188: 188. Bibcode:1965SAOSR.188.....C.

55. ^ Evans, John V.; Brockelman, Richard A.; Henry, John C.; Hyde, Gerald M.; Kraft, Leon G.; Reid, Wyatt A.; Smith, W. W. (1965). "Radio Echo Observations of Venus and Mercury at 23 cm Wavelength". Astronomical Journal. 70: 487-500. Bibcode:1965AJ.....70..486E. doi:10.1086/109772.

56. ^ Butrica, Andrew J. (1996). "Chapter 5". To See the Unseen: A History of Planetary Radar Astronomy. NASA History Office, Washington D.C. ISBN 978-0-16-048578-7.

57. ^ Chang, Kenneth (April 27, 2015). "NASA's Messenger Mission Is Set to Crash Into Mercury". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 29, 2015.

58. ^ "Best Determination of MESSENGER's Impact Location". messenger.jhuapl.edu. Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory. June 3, 2015. Archived from the original on April 11, 2023.

59. ^ "A trio of images highlight BepiColombo's third Mercury flyby". European Space Agency. June 20, 2023. Archived from the original on July 29, 2023.

60. ^ "Second helpings of Mercury". European Space Agency. June 24, 2022. Archived from the original on August 20, 2023.

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Mercury Records is an American record label owned by Universal Music Group. It had significant success as an independent operation in the 1940s and 1950s. Smash Records and Fontana Records were sub labels of Mercury. Mercury Records released rock, funk, R&B, doo wop, soul music, blues, pop, rock and roll, and jazz records. In the United States, it is operated through Republic Records; in the United Kingdom and Japan (as Mercury Tokyo in the latter country), it is distributed by EMI Records.

Since the separation of Island Records, Motown, Mercury Records, and Def Jam Recordings combining the Island Def Jam Music Group, Mercury Records has been placed under Island Records, although its back catalogue is still owned by the Island Def Jam Music Group (now Island Records).

Mercury Records was started in Chicago in 1945 and over several decades, saw great success. The success of Mercury has been attributed to the use of alternative marketing techniques to promote records. The conventional method of record promotion used by major labels such as RCA Victor, Decca Records, and Capitol Records was dependent on radio airplay, but Mercury Records co-founder Irving Green decided to promote new records using jukeboxes instead. By lowering promotion costs, Mercury was able to compete with the more established record labels, and thus became an established record label itself.

Mercury Record Corporation was formed in Chicago in 1945 by Irving Green, Berle Adams, Ray Greenberg, and Arthur Talmadge. The company was a major force in R&B, doo wop, soul music, pop doo wop, pop soul, blues, pop, rock and roll, jazz and classical music. Early in the label's history, Mercury opened two pressing plants, one in Chicago and the other in St. Louis, Missouri. By hiring two promoters, Tiny Hill and Jimmy Hilliard, they penetrated the pop market with names such as Frankie Laine, Vic Damone, Tony Fontane, and Patti Page.

In 1946, Mercury hired Eddie Gaedel, an American with dwarfism, most notable for participating in a Major League Baseball game, to portray the "Mercury Man", complete with a winged hat similar to its logo, to promote Mercury recordings. Some early Mercury recordings featured a caricature of him as their logo.

In 1947, Jack Rael, a musician and publicist/manager, persuaded Mercury to let Patti Page (whom he managed) record a song that had been planned to be done by Vic Damone, "Confess". The budget was too small for them to hire a second singer to provide the "answer" parts to Page, so at Rael's suggestion, she did both voices. Though "overdubbing" had been used occasionally on 78-rpm discs in the 1930s, for Enrico Caruso and Elisabeth Schumann recordings, among others, this became the first documented example of "overdubbing" using tape.

The company released an enormous number of recordings under the Mercury label, as well as its subsidiaries ( Blue Rock Records, Cumberland Records, EmArcy Records, Smash Records, and Wing Records, later via Fontana Records and Limelight Records after being absorbed by Philips). In addition, they leased and purchased material by independent labels and redistributed them. Under their own label, Mercury released a variety of recording styles from classical music to psychedelic rock. Its subsidiaries, though, focused on their own specialized categories of music.

From 1947 to 1952, John Hammond was a vice-president of Mercury Records. Mercury, under its EmArcy label, released LPs by many post-swing and bebop artists, including Clifford Brown and Max Roach, Kenny Drew, Dinah Washington, Nat Adderley, Cannonball Adderley, Ernestine Anderson, Sarah Vaughan, Maynard Ferguson, Walter Benton, Herb Geller. Late 1950s Mercury jazz recordings of multiple artists, including Max Roach, Coleman Hawkins, Lester Young, Dizzy Gillespie, and Buddy Rich. During the 1960s included albums by Gene Ammons, Quincy Jones, Buddy Rich, Cannonball Adderley, Charles (then called Charlie) Mingus, Dinah Washington, Sarah Vaughan, Max Roach, Paul Bley and Jimmy Smith.

During the 1950s, Mercury released hits of musicians such as the Platters, Brook Benton, the Diamonds, and Patti Page. In 1961, Philips, a Dutch electronics company and owner of Philips Records, which had lost its distribution deal with Columbia Records outside North America, played a key role in Mercury's future by signing an exchange agreement with the American record company. A year later, Mercury was sold to Consolidated Electronics Industries Corp. (Conelco), which was an affiliate of Philips under its U.S. Trust division; in 1963, Mercury switched British distribution from EMI to Philips. In 1962, Mercury began marketing a line of phonographs made by Philips bearing the Mercury brand name.

In July 1967, Mercury Records became the first U.S. record label to release cassette music tapes ( Musicassettes). In 1969, Mercury changed its corporate name to Mercury Record Productions Inc., while its parent Conelco became North American Philips Corp. (NAPC) after Philips bought control of the company.

Philips and German electronics giant Siemens reorganized their joint-ventured record operations, Grammophon-Philips Group, home of Deutsche Grammophon, Philips Records, and Polydor to become PolyGram in 1972. That year, PolyGram bought Mercury from NAPC. Mercury's corporate name was changed to Phonogram Inc. to match a related company in the UK that operated the Mercury label there. During the 1970s, Mercury released hits by musicians such as Paper Lace, Rod Stewart, BTO and 10cc.

From late 1974 to early 1983, the company's label design featured a painting of three famous Chicago buildings: Marina City, John Hancock Center, and One IBM Plaza which was Mercury's headquarters during that period, having moved from its long-time address at 35 East Wacker Drive in Chicago. Mercury released soul musicians such as the Dells and Marvin Sease. From the 1970s through the early 1980s, Mercury released albums of funk musicians such as Ohio Players, the Bar-Kays, Con Funk Shun, and Hamilton Bohannon. Mercury released albums by Kool & the Gang (following the dissolution of De-Lite Records in 1985), the first three albums of the 1979-86 self titled series of the Gap Band (via Total Experience Productions) and Cameo (via distribution of leader Larry Blackmon's label Atlanta Artists Records). And the label released early rapper Kurtis Blow's hit "The Breaks"(1980) also. Mercury released blues musician Robert Cray.

In 1980, Phonogram moved its headquarters from Chicago to New York City. In 1981, Mercury, along with other U.S. PolyGram-owned labels, which included Polydor, RSO Records, and Casablanca, consolidated under the new name PolyGram Records, Inc. (now UMG Recordings). Under PolyGram, Mercury absorbed the artists and catalogue of Casablanca Records (also home to the 20th Century Records back catalogue), which consisted of hard rockers Kiss and disco stars Donna Summer and the Village People, and primarily became a rock/pop/new wave label with Van Morrison, All About Eve, Julian Cope, Scorpions, Rush, John Cougar Mellencamp, Big Country, Tears for Fears, Bon Jovi, Cinderella, and Def Leppard.

Mercury, by having Bon Jovi, Cinderella, Def Leppard, Kiss, Treat, Candy, and Scorpions on their roster, was a premiere label for glam metal. Most of these bands were on Vertigo Records in Europe (that label specialized in progressive rock and hard rock including subgenres like glam metal).

In late 1998, PolyGram was bought by Seagram, which then absorbed the company into its Universal Music Group unit. Under the reorganization, Mercury Records was folded into the newly formed The Island Def Jam Music Group (IDJMG). Mercury's pop roster was predominantly taken over by Island Records, while its hip-hop artists found a new home at Def Jam Recordings, and some of Mercury's R&B acts were moved to the newly created Def Soul Records roster. Mercury's former country unit became Mercury Nashville Records. Mercury Records was relaunched in 2007 as a label under The Island Def Jam Music Group, appointing record executive David Massey as the President and CEO of the new venture. The label was defunct in 2015. On April 11, 2022, Republic Records announced that they had acquired Mercury Records, and it will continue as their imprint.

The Mercury name also survives on the Mercury Records division of UMG France, the Mercury Studios film division (which absorbed Eagle Rock Entertainment, acquired by UMG in 2014), the classical music label Mercury KX, and catalogue reissues in the United States, United Kingdom, France, Japan, and Brazil, as well.

In 1951, under the direction of recording engineer C. Robert (Bob) Fine and recording director David Hall, Mercury Records initiated a recording technique using a single microphone to record symphony orchestras. Fine had for several years used a single microphone for Mercury small-ensemble classical recordings produced by John Hammond and later Mitch Miller (indeed, Miller, using his full name of Mitchell Miller, made several recordings as a featured oboe player in the late 1940s for Mercury). The first record in this new Mercury Olympian Series was Pictures at an Exhibition performed by Rafael Kubelík and the Chicago Symphony. The group that became the best known using this technique was the Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra, which, under the leadership of conductor Antal Doráti, made a series of classical albums that were well reviewed and sold briskly, including the first-ever complete recordings of Tchaikovsky's ballets Swan Lake, The Sleeping Beauty, and The Nutcracker. Dorati's 1954 one-microphone monaural recording (Mercury MG 50054) and 1958 three-microphone stereo rerecording (Mercury MG 50054) of Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture included dramatic overdub recordings of 1812-era artillery and the bells of the Yale University Carillon. A stereo release in 1960 featured new recordings of the cannon shots, and the bells of the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Carillon at the Riverside Church in Chicago. Besides Mercury's mono and stereo versions of the 1812, only one other classical album rang up gold-record sales in the 1950s in the U.S.

The New York Times music critic Howard Taubman described the Mercury sound on Pictures at an Exhibition as "being in the living presence of the orchestra" and Mercury eventually began releasing their classical recordings under the 'Living Presence' series' name. The recordings were produced by Mercury vice president Wilma Cozart, who later married Bob Fine. Cozart took over recording director duties in 1953 and also produced the CD reissues of more than half of the Mercury Living Presence catalog in the 1990s. By the late 1950s, the Mercury Living Presence crew included session musical supervisors Harold Lawrence and Clair van Ausdall and associate engineer Robert Eberenz.

Besides the recordings with the Chicago and Minneapolis orchestras, Mercury also recorded Howard Hanson with the Eastman Rochester Orchestra, Frederick Fennell with the Eastman Wind Ensemble, and Paul Paray with the Detroit Symphony Orchestra.

In late 1955, Mercury began using three omnidirectional microphones to make stereo recordings on three-track tape. The technique was an expansion on the mono process-center was still paramount. Once the center, single microphone was set, the sides were set to provide the depth and width heard in the stereo recordings. The center microphone still fed the mono LP releases, which accompanied stereo LPs well into the 1960s. From 1961, Mercury enhanced the three-microphone stereo technique by using 35-mm magnetic film instead of half-inch tape for recording. The greater emulsion thickness, track width, and speed (90 ft/min or 18 in/sec) of 35-mm magnetic film increased prevention of tape layer print-through and gained in addition extended frequency range and transient response. The Mercury 'Living Presence' stereo records were mastered directly from the three-track tapes or magnetic film, with a 3-2 mix occurring in the mastering room. The same technique-and restored vintage equipment of the same type-was used during the CD reissues. Specifically, three-track tapes were recorded on Ampex 300-3 (½-in, three-track) machines at 15 in/sec. The 35-mm magnetic film recordings were made on three-track Westrex film recorders. The 3-2 mixdown was done on a modified Westrex mixer. For the original LPs, the mixer directly fed the custom cutting chain. At Fine Recording in New York City, the Westrex cutter head on a Scully lathe was fed by modified McIntosh 200W tube amplifiers with very little feedback in the system. Older mono records were made with a Miller cutter head.

The original LP releases of the classical recordings continued through 1968. The Mercury classical-music catalogue (including the Living Presence catalogue) is currently managed by Decca Label Group through Philips Records, which reissued the recordings on LP and then CD. In turn, Mercury now manages the pop/rock catalog of Philips Records.

In 2012, Decca Classics, the current owner of the Mercury Living Presence label, issued a value-priced 51-CD box that included 50 of the 1990s CD titles (remastered by Wilma Cozart Fine), a bonus CD containing an interview with Wilma Cozart Fine, and a deluxe booklet detailing the history of Mercury Living Presence. The CD set was issued worldwide and was sold by major retailers. A limited-edition six-LP box set was also issued. The CD set brings back into print dozens of titles that had not been available as manufactured CDs since the early 2000s.

In 2013, Decca Classics issued a second, 55-CD box set, along with a second six-LP box set. The CD box set included two bonus discs: a new reissue of the 1953 monophonic recording of Stravinsky's "Rite of Spring" by Dorati with the Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra, and a first-time-on-CD reissue of the premiere recording of John Corigliano's Piano Concerto, played by Hilde Somer with the San Antonio Symphony Orchestra conducted by Victor Alessandro.

On January 4, 2015, Mercury co-founder Irwin Steinberg died at the age of 94.

This division of Mercury handled US distribution of most pre-1998 Polydor Records pop/rock releases currently under UMG control. Some exceptions remain, however. Some artists based outside the US did not have their releases on Polydor in North America, signing to various other labels, instead. Some of these bands, such as The Who, did sign to a label that also is now part of the UMG family (or later absorbed by such a label), hence those labels control US rights to these works (in the case of The Who, they had been on US Decca Records and MCA Records in the past, their prebreakup catalogue is now on Geffen Records in North America).

Mercury KX (formerly Mercury Classics )

Mercury Classics was relaunched in 2012 as an international classical label by UMGI, appointing musicologist and record executive Dr. Alexander Buhr as managing director. The label aims to identify and work with strong creative individuals who bring a distinctive and fresh perspective to classical music.

In its first year, artist signings to the label included Icelandic neoclassical composer Olafur Arnalds, New York-based string quartet Brooklyn Rider, Chinese pianist Yundi, and Austrian clarinetist and Berlin Philharmonic soloist Andreas Ottensamer. The label also oversees the recording career of Montenegrin classical guitarist Milos Karadaglic, and has an ongoing partnership with Tori Amos, which dates back to her work with Buhr on her classically inspired Night of Hunters album for Deutsche Grammophon in 2011. Following Buhr's longstanding relationship with the Deutsche Grammophon label, some of Mercury Classics' early core classical recordings were rereleased under the aegis of sister company Deutsche Grammophon.

In 2013, Mercury Classics released Olafur Arnalds' label debut For Now I Am Winter, which entered the US Classical Chart at number one. It was followed by an EP of Arnalds' soundtrack of the much acclaimed ITV crime series Broadchurch, which received a BAFTA Award for best original soundtrack the following year. Yundi's recording of three Beethoven sonatas went platinum in his native China. The label also released Andreas Ottensamer's debut "Portraits", and the much acclaimed label debut of Brooklyn Rider "A Walking Fire". Milos Karadaglic's "Latino Gold" topped the UK classical charts and entered the pop charts. Legendary banjo soloist and 15-time Grammy Award winner Bela Fleck's concerto for banjo and orchestra "The Impostor" was released in the fall.

In 2014, Mercury Classics released "Aranjuez", Milos Karadaglic's recording of iconic guitar concertos by Joaquin Rodrigo, featuring Yannick Nézet-Séguin and the London Philharmonic Orchestra. The album topped the iTunes Classical charts in more than 10 countries and the classical charts in the US, UK, France, New Zealand, and Denmark, where it peaked in the pop charts at number 17. With the release of Yundi's new album Emperor/Fantasy, including Beethoven's 5th Piano Concerto with Berlin Philharmonic and Daniel Harding, Mercury Classics held the top two spots on the UK classical chart. In May 2014, the label released Tori Amos' 14th studio album Unrepentant Geraldines. The album entered the US Billboard top 200 at number seven, charted in UK (number 13), Netherlands (number 10), and Germany (number 15), and hit the iTunes top 10 in more than 20 countries.

Influential classical music website Alto Riot named Mercury Classics its Label of the Year 2013.

In 2016, Mercury Classics became Mercury KX and changed its focus to post-classical music

Mercury's Nashville unit dates back to 1957, when Mercury formed a joint venture with Starday Records specifically for releasing artists performing country music. Mercury bought out Starday's half in 1958.

In 1997, PolyGram, looking to cut costs in anticipation of a merger with a competitor, consolidated all of its Nashville operations under the Mercury name. Mercury Nashville took over management of all of PolyGram's country back catalog from sister labels such as Polydor (including releases once issued by MGM Records), A&M, and the small country back catalog of Motown Records (Motown released these albums under subsidiary labels). All country artists under contract to other PolyGram labels either moved to Mercury or were dropped altogether.

Today, Mercury Nashville continues to be an active imprint under Universal Music Group Nashville, where it continues to manage the country back catalog that once belonged to PolyGram (MCA Nashville manages what Universal had already owned at the time of the PolyGram merger).

In 1958, Mercury switched its distribution in the UK from Pye to EMI, and in 1964 to Philips.

Mercury operated as an imprint in the UK under Phonogram, a division of Dutch electronics company Philips from the mid-1960s until 1998, when Phonogram was bought by Universal Music. In March 2013, its artist roster was moved to Virgin EMI in a restructuring of Universal's UK labels.

In 2005, Jason Iley was appointed the new managing director of Mercury. He joined the company from Island Records, where he was general manager. In July 2005, Iley appointed Paul Adam to senior artist and repertoire (A&R) director of the label; the two had previously worked together at Island Records.

In October 2006, U2 decided to leave Island Records and moved to Mercury Records, reportedly to rejoin Iley, with whom they had worked previously at Island Records.

In March 2011, the label announced it was stopping the production of CD and vinyl singles, and would only release them physically as "rare exceptions".

In 2012, signings on Mercury included Pixie Lott, Arcade Fire, Amy Macdonald, Noah and the Whale, Chase & Status, Jake Bugg, and Bo Bruce.

In July, Mercury announced that Mike Smith was joining as president of its music division.

In March 2013, Mercury UK was absorbed into Virgin EMI by Universal Music. Virgin EMI was rebranded as EMI Records in June 2020.

Launched in 1955 exclusively as a full-service local (Australian) A&R operation. Mercury Records first known Australian artist was Keith Potger in 1968, but the label was put into hibernation in 1999 in favour of the Universal label until 2007-2013. Some successful Australian artists on Mercury included: INXS, Kamahl, Bullamakanka, Darren Hayes, Carl Riseley, The Preatures, Tiddas, Dragon, Teen Queens, Melissa Tkautz and Karise Eden.

In France, Mercury Records operates as a part of the Mercury Music Group, a division of Universal Music Group, which Group controls the French operations of UMG labels Mercury, Fontana Records, Verve Records, Decca Records, Blue Note Records, Island Records, and Virgin Records, among others.

Various other national Universal Music Group companies are known to actively use the Mercury Records trademark as an imprint for their local A&R operations, but no other Universal Music Group companies use the label as a key marketing differentiator, nor do they operate frontline divisions based on the Mercury label.

The Mercury label was first launched in Japan in 1952, by Taihei Onkyo. The company's name was later changed to Nippon Mercury in 1953, however, the Mercury label started to be handled by King Records in 1957, and later by Nippon Victor.

It was relaunched in 1970 by Nippon Victor and Matsushita Corporation, as Nippon Phonogram. It operated several Phonogram labels in Japan. In 1993, it became a division of PolyGram K.K. (now Universal Music Japan). In 1995, it was relaunched as Mercury Music Entertainment. It later merged with Kitty Records in 2000 and became Kitty MME. Half of it was merged into the Universal J label in 2002, the other half became known as Universal Sigma in 2004. Its artist roster included Seiko Matsuda, Yūji Oda, Delta, ZIGGY, Kinniku Shōjo Tai, and Takashi Sorimachi.

After 13 years, the label was revitalized under its new name, Mercury Tokyo, under the Universal Music and Brands (UM & Brands) division of Universal Music Japan. K-pop group Monsta X was the first artist or group signed under the newly relaunched label. As of 2022, the label, currently operating under UMJ's EMI Records division, has added K-pop groups Golden Child, Drippin, and Loona on its roster.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mercury Records is an American record label owned by Universal Music Group. It had significant success as an independent operation in the 1940s and 1950s. Smash Records and Fontana Records were sub labels of Mercury. Mercury Records released rock, funk, R&B, doo wop, soul music, blues, pop, rock and roll, and jazz records.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Metallic Spheres is the tenth studio album released by ambient techno group the Orb in October 2010 and features the Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour and the Killing Joke bassist Youth. It spent three weeks on the UK charts, reaching number 12.

The album was produced by Youth and recorded in June, 2009 at "The Dreaming Cave", in Wandsworth. Engineering was done by Tim Bran (of Dreadzone) and David Nock. Mixing was done by Youth, with mix engineering from Bran, Nock and Michael Rendall at "The Study" in 2010. Mastering was done by Andy Baldwin at Metropolis Studios in London. A headphone version was released as the second disc of the deluxe 2-CD edition, with sound design by Mike Brady, recording by Mike Brady, David Nock and Michael Rendall, and mixing by Youth.

1. "Metallic Side" (28:42)

1. "Metallic Spheres"

2. "Hymns to the Sun"

3. "Black Graham"

4. "Hiding in Plain View"

5. "Classified"

2. "Spheres Side" (20:12)

1. "Es Vedra"

2. "Hymns to the Sun (Reprise)"

3. "Olympic"

4. "Chicago Dub"

5. "Bold Knife Trophy"

3. "Cult of Youth Ambient Mix (Parts 1 & 2)" (Edit) (5:35) (iTunes-only bonus track)

All tracks written by David Gilmour, Alex Paterson, and Youth, except:

"Hymns to the Sun" written by Gilmour, Paterson, Youth, and Graham Nash

"Black Graham" written by Gilmour, Paterson, Youth, and Marcia Mello

"Hiding in Plain View" written by Gilmour, Paterson, Youth, and Tim Bran

David Gilmour - guitars, vocals

Alex Paterson - sound manipulation, keyboards, turntables

Youth - bass, keyboards, programming

Tim Bran - keyboards, programming

Marcia Mello - acoustic guitar (on "Black Graham")

Dominique Le Vac - backing vocals

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Metallic Spheres is the tenth studio album released by ambient techno group the Orb in October 2010 and features the Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour and the Killing Joke bassist Youth. It spent three weeks on the UK charts, reaching number 12.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Decimal

1.618033 988 749 894 ...[1]

Algebraic form

Continued fraction

Binary

1.10011110 0011 0111 0111 ...

Hexadecimal

1.9E3779B9 7F4A 7C15 ...

In mathematics, two quantities are in the golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the ratio of their sum to the larger of the two quantities. Expressed algebraically, for quantities and with ,

where the Greek letter phi ( or ) denotes the golden ratio.[a] The constant satisfies the quadratic equation and is an irrational number with a value of[1]

1.618033 988 749 ....

The golden ratio was called the extreme and mean ratio by Euclid, and the divine proportion by Luca Pacioli, and also goes by several other names.

Mathematicians have studied the golden ratio's properties since antiquity. It is the ratio of a regular pentagon's diagonal to its side and thus appears in the construction of the dodecahedron and icosahedron. A golden rectangle-that is, a rectangle with an aspect ratio of -may be cut into a square and a smaller rectangle with the same aspect ratio. The golden ratio has been used to analyze the proportions of natural objects and artificial systems such as financial markets, in some cases based on dubious fits to data.[8] The golden ratio appears in some patterns in nature, including the spiral arrangement of leaves and other parts of vegetation.

Some 20th-century artists and architects, including Le Corbusier and Salvador Dalí, have proportioned their works to approximate the golden ratio, believing it to be aesthetically pleasing. These uses often appear in the form of a golden rectangle.

Calculation

Two quantities and are in the golden ratio if[9]

One method for finding a closed form for starts with the left fraction. Simplifying the fraction and substituting the reciprocal ,

Therefore,

Multiplying by gives

which can be rearranged to

The quadratic formula yields two solutions:

Because is a ratio between positive quantities, is necessarily the positive root.[10] The negative root is in fact the negative inverse , which shares many properties with the golden ratio.

According to Mario Livio,

Some of the greatest mathematical minds of all ages, from Pythagoras and Euclid in ancient Greece, through the medieval Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa and the Renaissance astronomer Johannes Kepler, to present-day scientific figures such as Oxford physicist Roger Penrose, have spent endless hours over this simple ratio and its properties. ... Biologists, artists, musicians, historians, architects, psychologists, and even mystics have pondered and debated the basis of its ubiquity and appeal. In fact, it is probably fair to say that the Golden Ratio has inspired thinkers of all disciplines like no other number in the history of mathematics.

- The Golden Ratio: The Story of Phi, the World's Most Astonishing Number

Ancient Greek mathematicians first studied the golden ratio because of its frequent appearance in geometry; the division of a line into "extreme and mean ratio" (the golden section) is important in the geometry of regular pentagrams and pentagons. According to one story, 5th-century BC mathematician Hippasus discovered that the golden ratio was neither a whole number nor a fraction (it is irrational), surprising Pythagoreans. Euclid's (c. 300 BC) provides several propositions and their proofs employing the golden ratio, and contains its first known definition which proceeds as follows:

A straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio when, as the whole line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to the lesser.

The golden ratio was studied peripherally over the next millennium. Abu Kamil (c. 850-930) employed it in his geometric calculations of pentagons and decagons; his writings influenced that of Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa) (c. 1170-1250), who used the ratio in related geometry problems but did not observe that it was connected to the Fibonacci numbers.

Luca Pacioli named his book Divina proportione ( 1509) after the ratio; the book, largely plagiarized from Piero della Francesca, explored its properties including its appearance in some of the Platonic solids. Leonardo da Vinci, who illustrated Pacioli's book, called the ratio the sectio aurea ('golden section'). Though it is often said that Pacioli advocated the golden ratio's application to yield pleasing, harmonious proportions, Livio points out that the interpretation has been traced to an error in 1799, and that Pacioli actually advocated the Vitruvian system of rational proportions. Pacioli also saw Catholic religious significance in the ratio, which led to his work's title. 16th-century mathematicians such as Rafael Bombelli solved geometric problems using the ratio.

German mathematician Simon Jacob (d. 1564) noted that consecutive Fibonacci numbers converge to the golden ratio;[25] this was rediscovered by Johannes Kepler in 1608.[26] The first known decimal approximation of the (inverse) golden ratio was stated as "about " in 1597 by Michael Maestlin of the University of Tübingen in a letter to Kepler, his former student.[27] The same year, Kepler wrote to Maestlin of the Kepler triangle, which combines the golden ratio with the Pythagorean theorem. Kepler said of these:

Geometry has two great treasures: one is the theorem of Pythagoras, the other the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio. The first we may compare to a mass of gold, the second we may call a precious jewel.

18th-century mathematicians Abraham de Moivre, Nicolaus I Bernoulli, and Leonhard Euler used a golden ratio-based formula which finds the value of a Fibonacci number based on its placement in the sequence; in 1843, this was rediscovered by Jacques Philippe Marie Binet, for whom it was named "Binet's formula". Martin Ohm first used the German term goldener Schnitt ('golden section') to describe the ratio in 1835. James Sully used the equivalent English term in 1875.

By 1910, inventor (( Mark Barr began using the Greek letter phi ) as a symbol for the golden ratio.[e] It has also been represented by tau ), the first letter of the ancient Greek τομή ('cut' or 'section').[35]

The zome construction system, developed by Steve Baer in the late 1960s, is based on the symmetry system of the icosahedron/ dodecahedron, and uses the golden ratio ubiquitously. Between 1973 and 1974, Roger Penrose developed Penrose tiling, a pattern related to the golden ratio both in the ratio of areas of its two rhombic tiles and in their relative frequency within the pattern. This gained in interest after Dan Shechtman's Nobel-winning 1982 discovery of quasicrystals with icosahedral symmetry, which were soon afterward explained through analogies to the Penrose tiling.

Mathematics

Irrationality

The golden ratio is an irrational number. Below are two short proofs of irrationality:

Contradiction from an expression in lowest terms

Recall that:

the whole is the longer part plus the shorter part;
the whole is to the longer part as the longer part is to the shorter part.

If we call the whole and the longer part then the second statement above becomes

To say that the golden ratio is rational means that is a fraction where and are integers. We may take to be in lowest terms and and to be positive. But if is in lowest terms, then the equally valued is in still lower terms. That is a contradiction that follows from the assumption that is rational.

Another short proof - perhaps more commonly known - of the irrationality of the golden ratio makes use of the closure of rational numbers under addition and multiplication. If is rational, then is also rational, which is a contradiction if it is already known that the square root of all non- square natural numbers are irrational.

Minimal polynomial

The golden ratio is also an algebraic number and even an algebraic integer. It has minimal polynomial

This quadratic polynomial has two roots, and

The golden ratio is also closely related to the polynomial

which has roots and As the root of a quadratic polynomial, the golden ratio is a constructible number.[38]

Golden ratio conjugate and powers

The conjugate root to the minimal polynomial is

The absolute value of this quantity ( ) corresponds to the length ratio taken in reverse order (shorter segment length over longer segment length, ).

This illustrates the unique property of the golden ratio among positive numbers, that

or its inverse:

The conjugate and the defining quadratic polynomial relationship lead to decimal values that have their fractional part in common with :

The sequence of powers of contains these values more generally, any power of is equal to the sum of the two immediately preceding powers:

As a result, one can easily decompose any power of into a multiple of and a constant. The multiple and the constant are always adjacent Fibonacci numbers. This leads to another property of the positive powers of :

If then:

Continued fraction and square root

The formula can be expanded recursively to obtain a continued fraction for the golden ratio:[39]

It is in fact the simplest form of a continued fraction, alongside its reciprocal form:

The ( convergents of these continued fractions ... or ...) are ratios of successive Fibonacci numbers. The consistently small terms in its continued fraction explain why the approximants converge so slowly. This makes the golden ratio an extreme case of the Hurwitz inequality for Diophantine approximations, which states that for every irrational , there are infinitely many distinct fractions such that,

This means that the constant cannot be improved without excluding the golden ratio. It is, in fact, the smallest number that must be excluded to generate closer approximations of such Lagrange numbers.[40]

A continued square root form for can be obtained from , yielding:[41]

Relationship to Fibonacci and Lucas numbers

Fibonacci numbers and Lucas numbers have an intricate relationship with the golden ratio. In the Fibonacci sequence, each number is equal to the sum of the preceding two, starting with the base sequence :

The sequence of Lucas numbers (not to be confused with the generalized Lucas sequences, of which this is part) is like the Fibonacci sequence, in-which each term is the sum of the previous two, however instead starts with :

Exceptionally, the golden ratio is equal to the limit of the ratios of successive terms in the Fibonacci sequence and sequence of Lucas numbers:

In other words, if a Fibonacci and Lucas number is divided by its immediate predecessor in the sequence, the quotient approximates .

For example, and

These approximations are alternately lower and higher than and converge to as the Fibonacci and Lucas numbers increase.

Closed-form expressions for the Fibonacci and Lucas sequences that involve the golden ratio are:

Combining both formulas above, one obtains a formula for that involves both Fibonacci and Lucas numbers:

Between Fibonacci and Lucas numbers one can deduce which simplifies to express the limit of the quotient of Lucas numbers by Fibonacci numbers as equal to the square root of five:

Indeed, much stronger statements are true:

,

.

These values describe as a fundamental unit of the algebraic number field .

Successive powers of the golden ratio obey the Fibonacci recurrence, i.e.

The reduction to a linear expression can be accomplished in one step by using:

This identity allows any polynomial in to be reduced to a linear expression, as in:

Consecutive Fibonacci numbers can also be used to obtain a similar formula for the golden ratio, here by infinite summation:

In particular, the powers of themselves round to Lucas numbers (in order, except for the first two powers, and , are in reverse order):

and so forth.[43] The Lucas numbers also directly generate powers of the golden ratio; for :

Rooted in their interconnecting relationship with the golden ratio is the notion that the sum of third consecutive Fibonacci numbers equals a Lucas number, that is ; and, importantly, that .

Both the Fibonacci sequence and the sequence of Lucas numbers can be used to generate approximate forms of the golden spiral (which is a special form of a logarithmic spiral) using quarter-circles with radii from these sequences, differing only slightly from the true golden logarithmic spiral. Fibonacci spiral is generally the term used for spirals that approximate golden spirals using Fibonacci number-sequenced squares and quarter-circles.

The golden ratio features prominently in geometry. For example, it is intrinsically involved in the internal symmetry of the pentagon, and extends to form part of the coordinates of the vertices of a regular dodecahedron, as well as those of a 5-cell. It features in the Kepler triangle and Penrose tilings too, as well as in various other polytopes.

Construction

Dividing by interior division

1. Having a line segment construct a perpendicular at point with half the length of Draw the hypotenuse

2. Draw an arc with center and radius This arc intersects the hypotenuse at point

3. Draw an arc with center and radius This arc intersects the original line segment at point Point divides the original line segment into line segments and with lengths in the golden ratio.

Dividing by exterior division

1. Draw a line segment and construct off the point a segment perpendicular to and with the same length as

2. Do bisect the line segment with

3. A circular arc around with radius intersects in point the straight line through points and (also known as the extension of ). The ratio of to the constructed segment is the golden ratio.

Application examples you can see in the articles Pentagon with a given side length, Decagon with given circumcircle and Decagon with a given side length.

Both of the above displayed different algorithms produce geometric constructions that determine two aligned line segments where the ratio of the longer one to the shorter one is the golden ratio.

Golden angle

When two angles that make a full circle have measures in the golden ratio, the smaller is called the golden angle, with measure

This angle occurs in patterns of plant growth as the optimal spacing of leaf shoots around plant stems so that successive leaves do not block sunlight from the leaves below them.

Pentagonal symmetry system

Pentagon and pentagram

In a regular pentagon the ratio of a diagonal to a side is the golden ratio, while intersecting diagonals section each other in the golden ratio. The golden ratio properties of a regular pentagon can be confirmed by applying Ptolemy's theorem to the quadrilateral formed by removing one of its vertices. If the quadrilateral's long edge and diagonals are and short edges are then Ptolemy's theorem gives Dividing both sides by yields (see § Calculation above),

The diagonal segments of a pentagon form a pentagram, or five-pointed star polygon, whose geometry is quintessentially described by . Primarily, each intersection of edges sections other edges in the golden ratio. The ratio of the length of the shorter segment to the segment bounded by the two intersecting edges (that is, a side of the inverted pentagon in the pentagram's center) is as the four-color illustration shows.

Pentagonal and pentagrammic geometry permits us to calculate the following values for :

Golden triangle and golden gnomon

The triangle formed by two diagonals and a side of a regular pentagon is called a golden triangle or sublime triangle. It is an acute isosceles triangle with apex angle 36° and base angles 72°. Its two equal sides are in the golden ratio to its base. The triangle formed by two sides and a diagonal of a regular pentagon is called a golden gnomon. It is an obtuse isosceles triangle with apex angle 108° and base angle 36°. Its base is in the golden ratio to its two equal sides. The pentagon can thus be subdivided into two golden gnomons and a central golden triangle. The five points of a regular pentagram are golden triangles, as are the ten triangles formed by connecting the vertices of a regular decagon to its center point.

Bisecting one of the base angles of the golden triangle subdivides it into a smaller golden triangle and a golden gnomon. Analogously, any acute isosceles triangle can be subdivided into a similar triangle and an obtuse isosceles triangle, but the golden triangle is the only one for which this subdivision is made by the angle bisector, because it is the only isosceles triangle whose base angle is twice its apex angle. The angle bisector of the golden triangle subdivides the side that it meets in the golden ratio, and the areas of the two subdivided pieces are also in the golden ratio.

If the apex angle of the golden gnomon is trisected, the trisector again subdivides it into a smaller golden gnomon and a golden triangle. The trisector subdivides the base in the golden ratio, and the two pieces have areas in the golden ratio. Analogously, any obtuse triangle can be subdivided into a similar triangle and an acute isosceles triangle, but the golden gnomon is the only one for which this subdivision is made by the angle trisector, because it is the only isosceles triangle whose apex angle is three times its base angle.

Penrose tilings

The golden ratio appears prominently in the Penrose tiling, a family of aperiodic tilings of the plane developed by Roger Penrose, inspired by Johannes Kepler's remark that pentagrams, decagons, and other shapes could fill gaps that pentagonal shapes alone leave when tiled together. Several variations of this tiling have been studied, all of whose prototiles exhibit the golden ratio:

Penrose's original version of this tiling used four shapes: regular pentagons and pentagrams, "boat" figures with three points of a pentagram, and "diamond" shaped rhombi.[49]

The kite and dart Penrose tiling uses kites with three interior angles of 72° and one interior angle of 144°, and darts, concave quadrilaterals with two interior angles of 36°, one of 72°, and one non-convex angle of 216°. Special matching rules restrict how the tiles can meet at any edge, resulting in seven combinations of tiles at any vertex. Both the kites and darts have sides of two lengths, in the golden ratio to each other. The areas of these two tile shapes are also in the golden ratio to each other.[48]

The kite and dart can each be cut on their symmetry axes into a pair of golden triangles and golden gnomons, respectively. With suitable matching rules, these triangles, called in this context Robinson triangles, can be used as the prototiles for a form of the Penrose tiling.[48][50]

The rhombic Penrose tiling contains two types of rhombus, a thin rhombus with angles of 36° and 144°, and a thick rhombus with angles of 72° and 108°. All side lengths are equal, but the ratio of the length of sides to the short diagonal in the thin rhombus equals , as does the ratio of the sides of to the long diagonal of the thick rhombus. As with the kite and dart tiling, the areas of the two rhombi are in the golden ratio to each other. Again, these rhombi can be decomposed into pairs of Robinson triangles.[48]

In triangles and quadrilaterals

Odom's construction

George Odom found a construction for involving an equilateral triangle: if the line segment joining the midpoints of two sides is extended to intersect the circumcircle, then the two midpoints and the point of intersection with the circle are in golden proportion.[51]

Kepler triangle

The Kepler triangle, named after Johannes Kepler, is the unique right triangle with sides in geometric progression:

.

These side lengths are the three Pythagorean means of the two numbers . The three squares on its sides have areas in the golden geometric progression .

Among isosceles triangles, the ratio of inradius to side length is maximized for the triangle formed by two reflected copies of the Kepler triangle, sharing the longer of their two legs. The same isosceles triangle maximizes the ratio of the radius of a semicircle on its base to its perimeter.

For a Kepler triangle with smallest side length , the area and acute internal angles are:

Golden rectangle

The golden ratio proportions the adjacent side lengths of a golden rectangle in ratio. Stacking golden rectangles produces golden rectangles anew, and removing or adding squares from golden rectangles leaves rectangles still proportioned in ratio. They can be generated by golden spirals, through successive Fibonacci and Lucas number-sized squares and quarter circles. They feature prominently in the icosahedron as well as in the dodecahedron (see section below for more detail).[55]

Golden rhombus

A golden rhombus is a rhombus whose diagonals are in proportion to the golden ratio, most commonly .[56] For a rhombus of such proportions, its acute angle and obtuse angles are:

The lengths of its short and long diagonals and , in terms of side length are:

Its area, in terms of ,and :

Its inradius, in terms of side :

Golden rhombi form the faces of the rhombic triacontahedron, the two golden rhombohedra, the Bilinski dodecahedron, and the rhombic hexecontahedron.

Golden spiral

Logarithmic spirals are self-similar spirals where distances covered per turn are in geometric progression. A logarithmic spiral whose radius increases by a factor of the golden ratio for each quarter-turn is called the golden spiral. These spirals can be approximated by quarter-circles that grow by the golden ratio,[59] or their approximations generated from Fibonacci numbers,[60] often depicted inscribed within a spiraling pattern of squares growing in the same ratio. The exact logarithmic spiral form of the golden spiral can be described by the polar equation with :

Not all logarithmic spirals are connected to the golden ratio, and not all spirals that are connected to the golden ratio are the same shape as the golden spiral. For instance, a different logarithmic spiral, encasing a nested sequence of golden isosceles triangles, grows by the golden ratio for each 108° that it turns, instead of the 90° turning angle of the golden spiral. Another variation, called the "better golden spiral", grows by the golden ratio for each half-turn, rather than each quarter-turn.

In the dodecahedron and icosahedron

The regular dodecahedron and its dual polyhedron the icosahedron are Platonic solids whose dimensions are related to the golden ratio. An icosahedron is made of regular pentagonal faces, whereas the icosahedron is made of equilateral triangles; both with edges.[61]

For a dodecahedron of side , the radius of a circumscribed and inscribed sphere, and midradius are ( , and , respectively):

While for an icosahedron of side , the radius of a circumscribed and inscribed sphere, and midradius are:

The volume and surface area of the dodecahedron can be expressed in terms of :

As well as for the icosahedron:

These geometric values can be calculated from their Cartesian coordinates, which also can be given using formulas involving . The coordinates of the dodecahedron are displayed on the figure above, while those of the icosahedron are the cyclic permutations of:

Sets of three golden rectangles intersect perpendicularly inside dodecahedra and icosahedra, forming Borromean rings.[62][55] In dodecahedra, pairs of opposing vertices in golden rectangles meet the centers of pentagonal faces, and in icosahedra, they meet at its vertices. In all, the three golden rectangles contain vertices of the icosahedron, or equivalently, intersect the centers of of the dodecahedron's faces.[61]

A cube can be inscribed in a regular dodecahedron, with some of the diagonals of the pentagonal faces of the dodecahedron serving as the cube's edges; therefore, the edge lengths are in the golden ratio. The cube's volume is times that of the dodecahedron's.[63] In fact, golden rectangles inside a dodecahedron are in golden proportions to an inscribed cube, such that edges of a cube and the long edges of a golden rectangle are themselves in ratio. On the other hand, the octahedron, which is the dual polyhedron of the cube, can inscribe an icosahedron, such that an icosahedron's vertices touch the edges of an octahedron at points that divide its edges in golden ratio.[64]

Other polyhedra are related to the dodecahedron and icosahedron or their symmetries, and therefore have corresponding relations to the golden ratio. These include the compound of five cubes, compound of five octahedra, compound of five tetrahedra, the compound of ten tetrahedra, rhombic triacontahedron, icosidodecahedron, truncated icosahedron, truncated dodecahedron, and rhombicosidodecahedron, rhombic enneacontahedron, and Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra, and rhombic hexecontahedron. In four dimensions, the dodecahedron and icosahedron appear as faces of the 120-cell and 600-cell, which again have dimensions related to the golden ratio.

Other properties

The golden ratio's ( decimal expansion can be calculated via root-finding methods, such as Newton's method or Halley's method, on the equation or on (to compute first). The time needed to compute digits of the golden ratio using Newton's method is essentially , where is the time complexity of multiplying two -digit numbers.[65] This is considerably faster than known algorithms for and . An easily programmed alternative using only integer arithmetic is to calculate two large consecutive Fibonacci numbers and divide them. The ratio of Fibonacci numbers and each over digits, yields over significant digits of the golden ratio. The decimal expansion of the golden ratio [1] has been calculated to an accuracy of ten trillion ) digits.[66]

In the complex plane, the fifth roots of unity (for an integer ) satisfying are the vertices of a pentagon. They do not form a ring of quadratic integers, however the sum of any fifth root of unity and its complex conjugate, is a quadratic integer, an element of Specifically,

This also holds for the remaining tenth roots of unity satisfying

For the gamma function , the only solutions to the equation are and .

When the golden ratio is used as the base of a numeral system (see golden ratio base, sometimes dubbed phinary or -nary), quadratic integers in the ring - that is, numbers of the form for - have terminating representations, but rational fractions have non-terminating representations.

The golden ratio also appears in hyperbolic geometry, as the maximum distance from a point on one side of an ideal triangle to the closer of the other two sides: this distance, the side length of the equilateral triangle formed by the points of tangency of a circle inscribed within the ideal triangle, is [67]

The golden ratio appears in the theory of modular functions as well. For , let

Then

and

where and in the continued fraction should be evaluated as . The function is invariant under , a congruence subgroup of the modular group. Also for positive real numbers and then[68]

is a Pisot-Vijayaraghavan number.[69]

Applications and observations

Architecture

The Swiss architect Le Corbusier, famous for his contributions to the modern international style, centered his design philosophy on systems of harmony and proportion. Le Corbusier's faith in the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden ratio and the Fibonacci series, which he described as "rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another. And these rhythms are at the very root of human activities. They resound in man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability which causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages and the learned."

Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his Modulor system for the scale of architectural proportion. He saw this system as a continuation of the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's " Vitruvian Man", the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others who used the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance and function of architecture.

In addition to the golden ratio, Le Corbusier based the system on human measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and the double unit. He took suggestion of the golden ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model human body's height at the navel with the two sections in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the Modulor system. Le Corbusier's 1927 Villa Stein in Garches exemplified the Modulor system's application. The villa's rectangular ground plan, elevation, and inner structure closely approximate golden rectangles.

Another Swiss architect, Mario Botta, bases many of his designs on geometric figures. Several private houses he designed in Switzerland are composed of squares and circles, cubes and cylinders. In a house he designed in Origlio, the golden ratio is the proportion between the central section and the side sections of the house.

Leonardo da Vinci's illustrations of polyhedra in Pacioli's Divina proportione have led some to speculate that he incorporated the golden ratio in his paintings. But the suggestion that his , for example, employs golden ratio proportions, is not supported by Leonardo's own writings. Similarly, although Leonardo's Vitruvian Man is often shown in connection with the golden ratio, the proportions of the figure do not actually match it, and the text only mentions whole number ratios.

Salvador Dalí, influenced by the works of Matila Ghyka, explicitly used the golden ratio in his masterpiece, The Sacrament of the Last Supper. The dimensions of the canvas are a golden rectangle. A huge dodecahedron, in perspective so that edges appear in golden ratio to one another, is suspended above and behind Jesus and dominates the composition.

A statistical study on 565 works of art of different great painters, performed in 1999, found that these artists had not used the golden ratio in the size of their canvases. The study concluded that the average ratio of the two sides of the paintings studied is with averages for individual artists ranging from (Goya) to (Bellini).[79] On the other hand, Pablo Tosto listed over 350 works by well-known artists, including more than 100 which have canvasses with golden rectangle and proportions, and others with proportions like and [80]

Books and design

According to Jan Tschichold,

There was a time when deviations from the truly beautiful page proportions and the Golden Section were rare. Many books produced between 1550 and 1770 show these proportions exactly, to within half a millimeter.[82]

According to some sources, the golden ratio is used in everyday design, for example in the proportions of playing cards, postcards, posters, light switch plates, and widescreen televisions.

The aspect ratio (width to height ratio) of the flag of Togo was intended to be the golden ratio, according to its designer.

Ernő Lendvai analyzes Béla Bartók's works as being based on two opposing systems, that of the golden ratio and the acoustic scale, though other music scholars reject that analysis. French composer Erik Satie used the golden ratio in several of his pieces, including Sonneries de la Rose+Croix. The golden ratio is also apparent in the organization of the sections in the music of Debussy's Reflets dans l'eau (Reflections in Water), from Images (1st series, 1905), in which "the sequence of keys is marked out by the intervals 34, 21, 13 and 8, and the main climax sits at the phi position".

The musicologist Roy Howat has observed that the formal boundaries of Debussy's correspond exactly to the golden section. Trezise finds the intrinsic evidence "remarkable", but cautions that no written or reported evidence suggests that Debussy consciously sought such proportions.

Music theorists including Hans Zender and Heinz Bohlen have experimented with the 833 cents scale, a musical scale based on using the golden ratio as its fundamental musical interval. When measured in cents, a logarithmic scale for musical intervals, the golden ratio is approximately 833.09 cents.

Johannes Kepler wrote that "the image of man and woman stems from the divine proportion. In my opinion, the propagation of plants and the progenitive acts of animals are in the same ratio".

The psychologist Adolf Zeising noted that the golden ratio appeared in phyllotaxis and argued from these patterns in nature that the golden ratio was a universal law. Zeising wrote in 1854 of a universal orthogenetic law of "striving for beauty and completeness in the realms of both nature and art".

However, some have argued that many apparent manifestations of the golden ratio in nature, especially in regard to animal dimensions, are fictitious.

The quasi-one-dimensional Ising ferromagnet CoNb ₂O ₆ (cobalt niobate) has 8 predicted excitation states (with symmetry), that when probed with neutron scattering, showed its lowest two were in golden ratio. Specifically, these quantum phase transitions during spin excitation, which occur at near absolute zero temperature, showed pairs of kinks in its ordered-phase to spin-flips in its paramagnetic phase; revealing, just below its critical field, a spin dynamics with sharp modes at low energies approaching the golden mean.

Optimization

There is no known general algorithm to arrange a given number of nodes evenly on a sphere, for any of several definitions of even distribution (see, for example, Thomson problem or Tammes problem). However, a useful approximation results from dividing the sphere into parallel bands of equal surface area and placing one node in each band at longitudes spaced by a golden section of the circle, i.e. This method was used to arrange the 1500 mirrors of the student-participatory satellite Starshine-3.[96]

The golden ratio is a critical element to golden-section search as well.

Disputed observations

Examples of disputed observations of the golden ratio include the following:

Specific proportions in the bodies of vertebrates (including humans) are often claimed to be in the golden ratio; for example the ratio of successive phalangeal and metacarpal bones (finger bones) has been said to approximate the golden ratio. There is a large variation in the real measures of these elements in specific individuals, however, and the proportion in question is often significantly different from the golden ratio.[97][98]

The shells of mollusks such as the nautilus are often claimed to be in the golden ratio.[99] The growth of nautilus shells follows a logarithmic spiral, and it is sometimes erroneously claimed that any logarithmic spiral is related to the golden ratio,[100] or sometimes claimed that each new chamber is golden-proportioned relative to the previous one.[101] However, measurements of nautilus shells do not support this claim.[102]

Historian John Man states that both the pages and text area of the Gutenberg Bible were "based on the golden section shape". However, according to his own measurements, the ratio of height to width of the pages is [103]

Studies by psychologists, starting with Gustav Fechner c. 1876,[104] have been devised to test the idea that the golden ratio plays a role in human perception of beauty. While Fechner found a preference for rectangle ratios centered on the golden ratio, later attempts to carefully test such a hypothesis have been, at best, inconclusive.[105][74]

In investing, some practitioners of technical analysis use the golden ratio to indicate support of a price level, or resistance to price increases, of a stock or commodity; after significant price changes up or down, new support and resistance levels are supposedly found at or near prices related to the starting price via the golden ratio.[106] The use of the golden ratio in investing is also related to more complicated patterns described by Fibonacci numbers (e.g. Elliott wave principle and Fibonacci retracement). However, other market analysts have published analyses suggesting that these percentages and patterns are not supported by the data.[107]

Egyptian pyramids

The Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Cheops or Khufu) has been analyzed by pyramidologists as having a doubled Kepler triangle as its cross-section. If this theory were true, the golden ratio would describe the ratio of distances from the midpoint of one of the sides of the pyramid to its apex, and from the same midpoint to the center of the pyramid's base. However, imprecision in measurement caused in part by the removal of the outer surface of the pyramid makes it impossible to distinguish this theory from other numerical theories of the proportions of the pyramid, based on pi or on whole-number ratios. The consensus of modern scholars is that this pyramid's proportions are not based on the golden ratio, because such a basis would be inconsistent both with what is known about Egyptian mathematics from the time of construction of the pyramid, and with Egyptian theories of architecture and proportion used in their other works.

The Parthenon

The Parthenon's façade (c. 432 BC) as well as elements of its façade and elsewhere are said by some to be circumscribed by golden rectangles. Other scholars deny that the Greeks had any aesthetic association with golden ratio. For example, Keith Devlin says, "Certainly, the oft repeated assertion that the Parthenon in Athens is based on the golden ratio is not supported by actual measurements. In fact, the entire story about the Greeks and golden ratio seems to be without foundation." Midhat J. Gazalé affirms that "It was not until Euclid ... that the golden ratio's mathematical properties were studied."

From measurements of 15 temples, 18 monumental tombs, 8 sarcophagi, and 58 grave stelae from the fifth century BC to the second century AD, one researcher concluded that the golden ratio was totally absent from Greek architecture of the classical fifth century BC, and almost absent during the following six centuries. Later sources like Vitruvius (first century BC) exclusively discuss proportions that can be expressed in whole numbers, i.e. commensurate as opposed to irrational proportions.

The Section d'Or ('Golden Section') was a collective of painters, sculptors, poets and critics associated with Cubism and Orphism. Active from 1911 to around 1914, they adopted the name both to highlight that Cubism represented the continuation of a grand tradition, rather than being an isolated movement, and in homage to the mathematical harmony associated with Georges Seurat. (Several authors have claimed that Seurat employed the golden ratio in his paintings, but Seurat's writings and paintings suggest that he employed simple whole-number ratios and any approximation of the golden ratio was coincidental.) The Cubists observed in its harmonies, geometric structuring of motion and form, "the primacy of idea over nature", "an absolute scientific clarity of conception". However, despite this general interest in mathematical harmony, whether the paintings featured in the celebrated 1912 Salon de la Section d'Or exhibition used the golden ratio in any compositions is more difficult to determine. Livio, for example, claims that they did not, and Marcel Duchamp said as much in an interview. On the other hand, an analysis suggests that Juan Gris made use of the golden ratio in composing works that were likely, but not definitively, shown at the exhibition. Art historian Daniel Robbins has argued that in addition to referencing the mathematical term, the exhibition's name also refers to the earlier Bandeaux d'Or group, with which Albert Gleizes and other former members of the Abbaye de Créteil had been involved.

Piet Mondrian has been said to have used the golden section extensively in his geometrical paintings, though other experts (including critic Yve-Alain Bois) have discredited these claims.

References

1. If the constraint on ^ and each being greater than zero is lifted, then there are actually two solutions, one positive and one negative, to this equation. is defined as the positive solution. The negative solution is The sum of the two solutions is , and the product of the two solutions is .

2. Other names include the ^ golden mean, golden section,[4] golden cut,[5] golden proportion, golden number, medial section, and divine section.

3. Euclid, ^ Elements, Book II, Proposition 11; Book IV, Propositions 10-11; Book VI, Proposition 30; Book XIII, Propositions 1-6, 8-11, 16-18.

4. "῎Ακρον καὶ μέσον λόγον εὐθεῖα τετμῆσθαι λέγεται, ὅταν ᾖ ὡς ἡ ὅλη πρὸς τὸ μεῖζον τμῆμα, οὕτως τὸ μεῖζον πρὸς τὸ ἔλαττὸν."^ [18]

5. After Classical Greek sculptor ^ Phidias (c. 490-430 BC);[33] Barr later wrote that he thought it unlikely that Phidias actually used the golden ratio.[34]

1. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A001622 (Decimal expansion of golden ratio phi (or tau) = (1 + sqrt(5))/2)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.

2. ^ Euclid. "Book 6, Definition 3". Elements.

3. ^ Pacioli, Luca (1509). De divina proportione. Venice: Luca Paganinem de Paganinus de Brescia (Antonio Capella).

4. ^ Livio 2002, pp. 3, 81.

5. ^ Summerson, John (1963). Heavenly Mansions and Other Essays on Architecture. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 37. And the same applies in architecture, to the rectangles representing these and other ratios (e.g., the 'golden cut'). The sole value of these ratios is that they are intellectually fruitful and suggest the rhythms of modular design.

6. ^ Strogatz, Steven (2012-09-24). "Me, Myself, and Math: Proportion Control". The New York Times.

7. ^ Schielack, Vincent P. (1987). "The Fibonacci Sequence and the Golden Ratio". The Mathematics Teacher. 80 (5): 357-358. doi:10.5951/MT.80.5.0357. JSTOR 27965402. This source contains an elementary derivation of the golden ratio's value.

8. ^ Livio 2002, p. 4: "... line division, which Euclid defined for ... purely geometrical purposes ..."

9. ^ Euclid (2007). Euclid's Elements of Geometry. Translated by Fitzpatrick, Richard. p. 156. ISBN 978-0615179841.

10. ^ Schreiber, Peter (1995). "A Supplement to J. Shallit's Paper 'Origins of the Analysis of the Euclidean Algorithm'". Historia Mathematica. 22 (4): 422-424. doi:10.1006/hmat.1995.1033.

11. ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. (2001). "The Golden Ratio". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.

12. ^ Fink, Karl (1903). A Brief History of Mathematics. Translated by Beman, Wooster Woodruff; Smith, David Eugene (2nd ed.). Chicago: Open Court. p. 223. (Originally published as Geschichte der Elementar-Mathematik.)

13. ^ Beutelspacher, Albrecht; Petri, Bernhard (1996). "Fibonacci-Zahlen". Der Goldene Schnitt (in German). Vieweg+Teubner Verlag. pp. 87-98. doi:10.1007/978-3-322-85165-9_6.

14. ^

15. ^ Barr, Mark (1929). "Parameters of beauty". Architecture (NY). Vol. 60. p. 325. Reprinted: "Parameters of beauty". Think. Vol. 10-11. IBM. 1944.

16. ^

17. ^ Livio 2002, pp. 203-209
Gratias, Denis; Quiquandon, Marianne (2019). "Discovery of quasicrystals: The early days". Comptes Rendus Physique. 20 (7-8): 803-816. doi:10.1016/j.crhy.2019.05.009.
Jaric, Marko V. (1989). Introduction to the Mathematics of Quasicrystals. Academic Press. p. x. Although at the time of the discovery of quasicrystals the theory of quasiperiodic functions had been known for nearly sixty years, it was the mathematics of aperiodic Penrose tilings, mostly developed by Nicolaas de Bruijn, that provided the major influence on the new field.
Goldman, Alan I.; Anderegg, James W.; Besser, Matthew F.; Chang, Sheng-Liang; Delaney, Drew W.; Jenks, Cynthia J.; Kramer, Matthew J.; Lograsso, Thomas A.; Lynch, David W.; McCallum, R. William; Shield, Jeffrey E.; Sordelet, Daniel J.; Thiel, Patricia A. (1996). "Quasicrystalline materials". American Scientist. 84 (3): 230-241. JSTOR 29775669.

18. ^ Martin, George E. (1998). Geometric Constructions. Springer. pp. 13-14. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-0629-3.

19. ^ Hardy, G. H.; Wright, E. M. (1960) [1938]. "§11.8. The measure of the closest approximations to an arbitrary irrational". An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 163-164.

20. ^ Sizer, Walter S. (1986). "Continued roots". Mathematics Magazine. 59 (1): 23-27. doi:10.1080/0025570X.1986.11977215. JSTOR 2690013. MR 0828417.

21. ^ Loeb, Arthur (1992). "The Golden Triangle". Concepts & Images: Visual Mathematics. Birkhäuser. pp. 179-192. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-0343-8_20.

22. ^

23. ^ Penrose, Roger (1978). "Pentaplexity". Eureka. Vol. 39. p. 32. (original PDF)

24. ^ Frettlöh, D.; Harriss, E.; Gähler, F. "Robinson Triangle". Tilings Encyclopedia.
Clason, Robert G (1994). "A family of golden triangle tile patterns". The Mathematical Gazette. 78 (482): 130-148. doi:10.2307/3618569.

25. ^ Odom, George; van de Craats, Jan (1986). "E3007: The golden ratio from an equilateral triangle and its circumcircle". Problems and solutions. The American Mathematical Monthly. 93 (7): 572. doi:10.2307/2323047. JSTOR 2323047.

26. ^ Busard, Hubert L. L. (1968). "L'algèbre au Moyen Âge : le "Liber mensurationum" d'Abû Bekr". Journal des Savants (in French and Latin). 1968 (2): 65-124. doi:10.3406/jds.1968.1175. See problem 51, reproduced on p. 98

27. ^ Bruce, Ian (1994). "Another instance of the golden right triangle" (PDF). Fibonacci Quarterly. 32 (3): 232-233.

28. Grünbaum, Branko (1996). "A new rhombic hexecontahedron" (PDF). Geombinatorics. 6 (1): 15-18.

29. ^ Senechal, Marjorie (2006). "Donald and the golden rhombohedra". In Davis, Chandler; Ellers, Erich W. (eds.). The Coxeter Legacy. American Mathematical Society. pp. 159-177. ISBN 0-8218-3722-2.

30. Loeb, Arthur L.; Varney, William (March 1992). "Does the golden spiral exist, and if not, where is its center?". In Hargittai, István; Pickover, Clifford A. (eds.). Spiral Symmetry. World Scientific. pp. 47-61. doi:10.1142/9789814343084_0002.

31. Reitebuch, Ulrich; Skrodzki, Martin; Polthier, Konrad (2021). "Approximating logarithmic spirals by quarter circles". In Swart, David; Farris, Frank; Torrence, Eve (eds.). Proceedings of Bridges 2021: Mathematics, Art, Music, Architecture, Culture. Phoenix, Arizona: Tessellations Publishing. pp. 95-102. ISBN 978-1-938664-39-7.

32. ^ Diedrichs, Danilo R. (February 2019). "Archimedean, Logarithmic and Euler spirals - intriguing and ubiquitous patterns in nature". The Mathematical Gazette. 103 (556): 52-64. doi:10.1017/mag.2019.7.

33. Livio (2002, pp. 70-72)

34. ^ Gunn, Charles; Sullivan, John M. (2008). "The Borromean Rings: A video about the New IMU logo". In Sarhangi, Reza; Séquin, Carlo H. (eds.). Proceedings of Bridges 2008. Leeuwarden, the Netherlands. Tarquin Publications. pp. 63-70.; Video at "The Borromean Rings: A new logo for the IMU". International Mathematical Union.

35. ^ Hume, Alfred (1900). "Some propositions on the regular dodecahedron". The American Mathematical Monthly. 7 (12): 293-295. doi:10.2307/2969130.

36. ^ Coxeter, H.S.M.; du Val, Patrick; Flather, H.T.; Petrie, J.F. (1938). The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra. Vol. 6. University of Toronto Studies. p. 4. Just as a tetrahedron can be inscribed in a cube, so a cube can be inscribed in a dodecahedron. By reciprocation, this leads to an octahedron circumscribed about an icosahedron. In fact, each of the twelve vertices of the icosahedron divides an edge of the octahedron according to the "golden section.

37. ^ Muller, J. M. (2006). Elementary functions : algorithms and implementation (2nd ed.). Boston: Birkhäuser. p. 93. ISBN 978-0817643720.

38. ^ Berndt, Bruce C.; Chan, Heng Huat; Huang, Sen-Shan; Kang, Soon-Yi; Sohn, Jaebum; Son, Seung Hwan (1999). "The Rogers-Ramanujan Continued Fraction" (PDF). Journal of Computational and Applied Mathematics. 105 (1-2): 9-24. doi:10.1016/S0377-0427(99)00033-3.

39. ^ Duffin, Richard J. (1978). "Algorithms for localizing roots of a polynomial and the Pisot Vijayaraghavan numbers". Pacific Journal of Mathematics. 74 (1): 47-56. doi:10.2140/pjm.1978.74.47.

40. Le Corbusier, ^ The Modulor, p. 25, as cited inPadovan, Richard (1999). Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture. Taylor & Francis. p. 316. doi:10.4324/9780203477465.

41. ^ Frings, Marcus (2002). "The Golden Section in Architectural Theory". Nexus Network Journal. 4 (1): 9-32. doi:10.1007/s00004-001-0002-0.

42. Le Corbusier, ^ The Modulor, p. 35, as cited inPadovan, Richard (1999). Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture. Taylor & Francis. p. 320. doi:10.4324/9780203477465. Both the paintings and the architectural designs make use of the golden section

43. ^ Livio, Mario (2002). "The golden ratio and aesthetics". Plus Magazine.

44. ^ Devlin, Keith (2007). "The Myth That Will Not Go Away". Part of the process of becoming a mathematics writer is, it appears, learning that you cannot refer to the golden ratio without following the first mention by a phrase that goes something like 'which the ancient Greeks and others believed to have divine and mystical properties.' Almost as compulsive is the urge to add a second factoid along the lines of 'Leonardo Da Vinci believed that the human form displays the golden ratio.' There is not a shred of evidence to back up either claim, and every reason to assume they are both false. Yet both claims, along with various others in a similar vein, live on.

45. ^ Simanek, Donald E. "Fibonacci Flim-Flam". Archived from the original on January 9, 2010.

46. ^ Salvador Dalí (2008). The Dali Dimension: Decoding the Mind of a Genius (DVD). Media 3.14-TVC-FGSD-IRL-AVRO.

47. ^ Hunt, Carla Herndon; Gilkey, Susan Nicodemus (1998). Teaching Mathematics in the Block. pp. 44, 47. ISBN 1-883001-51-X.

48. ^ Olariu, Agata (1999). "Golden Section and the Art of Painting". arXiv:physics/9908036.

49. ^ Tosto, Pablo (1969). La composición áurea en las artes plásticas [The golden composition in the plastic arts] (in Spanish). Hachette. pp. 134-144.

50. ^ Tschichold, Jan (1991). The Form of the Book. Hartley & Marks. p. 43 Fig 4. ISBN 0-88179-116-4. Framework of ideal proportions in a medieval manuscript without multiple columns. Determined by Jan Tschichold 1953. Page proportion 2:3. margin proportions 1:1:2:3, Text area proportioned in the Golden Section. The lower outer corner of the text area is fixed by a diagonal as well.

51. ^ Tschichold, Jan (1991). The Form of the Book. Hartley & Marks. pp. 27-28. ISBN 0-88179-116-4.

52. ^ Jones, Ronald (1971). "The golden section: A most remarkable measure". The Structurist. 11: 44-52. Who would suspect, for example, that the switch plate for single light switches are standardized in terms of a Golden Rectangle?
Johnson, Art (1999). Famous problems and their mathematicians. Teacher Ideas Press. p. 45. The Golden Ratio is a standard feature of many modern designs, from postcards and credit cards to posters and light-switch plates.

Stakhov, Alexey P.; Olsen, Scott (2009). "§1.4.1 A Golden Rectangle with a Side Ratio of τ". The Mathematics of Harmony: From Euclid to Contemporary Mathematics and Computer Science. World Scientific. p. 20-21. A credit card has a form of the golden rectangle

Cox, Simon (2004). Cracking the Da Vinci Code. Barnes & Noble. p. 62. The Golden Ratio also crops up in some very unlikely places: widescreen televisions, postcards, credit cards and photographs all commonly conform to its proportions.

53. ^ Lendvai, Ernő (1971). Béla Bartók: An Analysis of His Music. London: Kahn and Averill.

54. ^ Mongoven, Casey (2010). "A style of music characterized by Fibonacci and the golden ratio" (PDF). Congressus Numerantium. 201: 127-138.
Hasegawa, Robert (2011). "Gegenstrebige Harmonik in the Music of Hans Zender". Perspectives of New Music. Project Muse. 49 (1): 207-234. doi:10.1353/pnm.2011.0000. JSTOR 10.7757/persnewmusi.49.1.0207.

Smethurst, Reilly (2016). "Two Non-Octave Tunings by Heinz Bohlen: A Practical Proposal". In Torrence, Eve; et al. (eds.). Proceedings of Bridges 2016. Jyväskylä, Finland. Tessellations Publishing. pp. 519-522.

55. ^ Padovan, Richard (1999). Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture. Taylor & Francis. pp. 305-306. doi:10.4324/9780203477465.
Padovan, Richard (2002). "Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture". Nexus Network Journal. 4 (1): 113-122. doi:10.1007/s00004-001-0008-7.

56. ^ Zeising, Adolf (1854). "Einleitung [preface]". Neue Lehre von den Proportionen des menschlichen Körpers [New doctrine of the proportions of the human body] (in German). Weigel. pp. 1-10.

57. ^ Coldea, R.; Tennant, D.A.; Wheeler, E.M.; Wawrzynksa, E.; Prabhakaran, D.; Telling, M.; Habicht, K.; Smeibidl, P.; Keifer, K. (2010). "Quantum Criticality in an Ising Chain: Experimental Evidence for Emergent E8 Symmetry". Science. 327 (5962): 177-180. arXiv:1103.3694. doi:10.1126/science.1180085.

58. ^ "A Disco Ball in Space". NASA. 2001-10-09.

59. ^ van Laack, Walter (2001). A Better History Of Our World: Volume 1 The Universe. Aachen: van Laach.

60. ^ Dunlap, Richard A. (1997). The Golden Ratio and Fibonacci Numbers. World Scientific. p. 130.

61. ^

62. ^ Peterson, Ivars (1 April 2005). "Sea shell spirals". Science News. Archived from the original on 3 October 2012.

63. ^ Man, John (2002). Gutenberg: How One Man Remade the World with Word. Wiley. pp. 166-167. The half-folio page (30.7 × 44.5 cm) was made up of two rectangles-the whole page and its text area-based on the so called 'golden section', which specifies a crucial relationship between short and long sides, and produces an irrational number, as pi is, but is a ratio of about 5:8.

64. ^ Fechner, Gustav (1876). Vorschule der Ästhetik [Preschool of Aesthetics] (in German). Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel. pp. 190-202.

65. ^ Osler, Carol (2000). "Support for Resistance: Technical Analysis and Intraday Exchange Rates" (PDF). Federal Reserve Bank of New York Economic Policy Review. 6 (2): 53-68. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2007-05-12. 38.2 percent and 61.8 percent retracements of recent rises or declines are common,

66. ^ Batchelor, Roy; Ramyar, Richard (2005). Magic numbers in the Dow (Report). Cass Business School. pp. 13, 31. Popular press summaries can be found in:Stevenson, Tom (2006-04-10). "Not since the 'big is beautiful' days have giants looked better". The Daily Telegraph."Technical failure". The Economist. 2006-09-23.

67. ^ Herz-Fischler, Roger (2000). The Shape of the Great Pyramid. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 0-88920-324-5. The entire book surveys many alternative theories for this pyramid's shape. See Chapter 11, "Kepler triangle theory", pp. 80-91, for material specific to the Kepler triangle, and p. 166 for the conclusion that the Kepler triangle theory can be eliminated by the principle that "A theory must correspond to a level of mathematics consistent with what was known to the ancient Egyptians." See note 3, p. 229, for the history of Kepler's work with this triangle.
Rossi, Corinna (2004). Architecture and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge University Press. pp. 67-68. there is no direct evidence in any ancient Egyptian written mathematical source of any arithmetic calculation or geometrical construction which could be classified as the Golden Section ... convergence to , and itself as a number, do not fit with the extant Middle Kingdom mathematical sources; see also extensive discussion of multiple alternative theories for the shape of the pyramid and other Egyptian architecture, pp. 7-56

Rossi, Corinna; Tout, Christopher A. (2002). "Were the Fibonacci series and the Golden Section known in ancient Egypt?". Historia Mathematica. 29 (2): 101-113. doi:10.1006/hmat.2001.2334.

Markowsky, George (1992). "Misconceptions about the Golden Ratio" (PDF). The College Mathematics Journal. Mathematical Association of America. 23 (1): 2-19. doi:10.2307/2686193. It does not appear that the Egyptians even knew of the existence of much less incorporated it in their buildings

68. ^ Gazalé, Midhat J. (1999). Gnomon: From Pharaohs to Fractals. Princeton. p. 125.

69. ^ Le Salon de la Section d'Or, October 1912, Mediation Centre Pompidou

70. ^ Jeunes Peintres ne vous frappez pas !, La Section d'Or: Numéro spécial consacré à l'Exposition de la "Section d'Or", première année, n° 1, 9 octobre 1912, pp. 1-7 Archived 2020-10-30 at the Wayback Machine, Bibliothèque Kandinsky

71. ^ Herz-Fischler, Roger (1983). "An Examination of Claims Concerning Seurat and the Golden Number" (PDF). Gazette des Beaux-Arts. 101: 109-112.

72. ^ [page needed ]

73. ^
Cottington, David (2004). Cubism and Its Histories. Manchester University Press. p. 112, 142.

74. ^ Allard, Roger (June 1911). "Sur quelques peintres". Les Marches du Sud-Ouest: 57-64. Reprinted inAntliff, Mark; Leighten, Patricia, eds. (2008). A Cubism Reader, Documents and Criticism, 1906-1914. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 178-191.

Works cited

Further reading

Doczi, György (1981). The Power of Limits: Proportional Harmonies in Nature, Art, and Architecture. Boston: Shambhala.

Hargittai, István, ed. (1992). . World Scientific. ISBN 9789810206000.

Huntley, H. E. (1970). The Divine Proportion: A Study in Mathematical Beauty. New York: Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-22254-7.

Schaaf, William L., ed. (1967). The Golden Measure (PDF). California School Mathematics Study Group Reprint Series. Stanford University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-04-25.

Scimone, Aldo (1997). La Sezione Aurea. Storia culturale di un leitmotiv della Matematica. Palermo: Sigma Edizioni. ISBN 978-88-7231-025-0.

Walser, Hans (2001) [Der Goldene Schnitt 1993]. The Golden Section. Peter Hilton trans. Washington, DC: The Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 978-0-88385-534-8.

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Decimal 1.618033 988 749 894 ...[1] Algebraic form Continued fraction Binary 1.10011110 0011 0111 0111 ... Hexadecimal 1.9E3779B9 7F4A 7C15 ... In mathematics, two quantities are in the golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the ratio of their sum to the larger of the two quantities.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Many works of art are claimed to have been designed using the golden ratio. However, many of these claims are disputed, or refuted by measurement.

The golden ratio, an irrational number, is approximately 1.618; it is often denoted by the Greek letter φ ( phi).

Various authors have claimed that early monuments have golden ratio proportions, often on conjectural interpretations, using approximate measurements, and only roughly corresponding to 1.618. For example, claims have been made about golden ratio proportions in Egyptian, Sumerian and Greek vases, Chinese pottery, Olmec sculptures, and Cretan and Mycenaean products from the late Bronze Age. These predate by some 1,000 years the Greek mathematicians first known to have studied the golden ratio. However, the historical sources are obscure, and the analyses are difficult to compare because they employ differing methods.

It is claimed, for instance, that Stonehenge (3100 BC - 2200 BC) has golden ratio proportions between its concentric circles. Kimberly Elam proposes this relation as early evidence of human cognitive preference for the golden ratio. However, others point out that this interpretation of Stonehenge "may be doubtful" and that the geometric construction that generates it can only be surmised. As another example, Carlos Chanfón Olmos states that the sculpture of King Gudea (c. 2350 BC) has golden proportions between all of its secondary elements repeated many times at its base.

The Great Pyramid of Giza (constructed c. 2570 BC by Hemiunu) exhibits the golden ratio according to various pyramidologists, including Charles Funck-Hellet. John F. Pile, interior design professor and historian, has claimed that Egyptian architects sought the golden proportions without mathematical techniques and that it is common to see the 1.618:1 ratio, along with many other simpler geometrical concepts, in their architectural details, art, and everyday objects found in tombs. In his opinion, "That the Egyptians knew of it and used it seems certain."

From before the beginning of these theories, other historians and mathematicians have proposed alternative theories for the pyramid designs that are not related to any use of the golden ratio, and are instead based on purely rational slopes that only approximate the golden ratio. The Egyptians of those times apparently did not know the Pythagorean theorem; the only right triangle whose proportions they knew was the 3:4:5 triangle.

The Acropolis of Athens (468-430 BC), including the Parthenon, according to some studies, has many proportions that approximate the golden ratio. Other scholars question whether the golden ratio was known to or used by Greek artists and architects as a principle of aesthetic proportion. Building the Acropolis is calculated to have been started around 600 BC, but the works said to exhibit the golden ratio proportions were created from 468 BC to 430 BC.

The Parthenon (447-432 BC), was a temple of the Greek goddess Athena. The Parthenon's facade as well as elements of its facade and elsewhere are claimed to be circumscribed by a progression of golden rectangles. Some more recent studies dispute the view that the golden ratio was employed in the design.

Hemenway claims that the Greek sculptor Phidias (c. 480-c. 430 BC) used the divine proportion in some of his sculptures. He created Athena Parthenos in Athens and Statue of Zeus (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. He is believed to have been in charge of other Parthenon sculptures, although they may have been executed by his disciple or peers. In the early 20th century, American mathematician Mark Barr proposed the Greek letter phi ( φ), the first letter of Phidias's name, to denote the golden ratio.

Lothar Haselberger claims that the Temple of Apollo in Didyma (c. 334 BC), designed by Daphnis of Mileto and Paionios of Ephesus, has golden proportions.

It is claimed that the upper level of 21 rows and the lower level of 34 rows of the Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus form an approximation of the Golden number since 21 and 34 are successive Fibonacci numbers with their ratio at and a careful examination of the theatre's center reveals two back-to-back triangles balanced by the Golden number.[16]

Between 1950 and 1960, Manuel Amabilis applied some of the analysis methods of Frederik Macody Lund and Jay Hambidge in several designs of prehispanic buildings, such as El Toloc and La Iglesia de Las Monjas (the Nuns Church), a notable complex of Terminal Classic buildings constructed in the Puuc architectural style at Chichen Itza. According to his studies, their proportions are concretized from a series of polygons, circles and pentagrams inscribed, as Lund found in his studies of Gothic churches. Manuel Amabilis published his studies along with several self-explanatory images of other pre-columbian buildings made with golden ratio proportions in La Arquitectura Precolombina de Mexico. The work was awarded the gold medal and the title of Academico by the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando (Spain) in the Fiesta de la Raza ( Columbus day) of 1929.

The Castle of Chichen Itza was built by the Maya civilization between the 11th and 13th centuries AD as a temple to the god Kukulcan. John Pile claims that its interior layout has golden ratio proportions. He says that the interior walls are placed so that the outer spaces are related to the central chamber by the golden ratio.

The Great Mosque of Kairouan (built by Uqba ibn Nafi c. 670 C.E.) uses the golden ratio in the design including its plan, the prayer space, court, and minaret, but the ratio does not appear in the original parts of the mosque.

The Stupa of Borobudur in Java, Indonesia (built eighth to ninth century AD), the largest known Buddhist stupa, has the dimension of the square base related to the diameter of the largest circular terrace as 1.618:1, according to Pile.

The Romanesque style of architecture prevailed in Europe between 900 and 1200, a period which ends with the transition to Gothic architecture. The contrast between Romanesque and Gothic concepts in religious buildings can be understood in the epistolary between St. Bernard, Cistercian, and the Abbot Suger of the order of Cluny, the initiator of Gothic art in St. Denis.

One of the most beautiful works of Romanesque Cistercian is the Sénanque Abbey in Provence. The Sénanque abbatial was founded in 1148 and consecrated in 1178. It was initiated in life of St Bernard of Clairvaux. "La Lumière à Sénanque" (The Light in Sénanque), a chapter of Cîteaux : commentarii cistercienses, a publication of the Cistercian Order. Its author, Kim Lloveras i Montserrat, made in 1992 a complete study of the abbatial, and argues that the abbatial church was designed using a system of measures founded in the golden ratio, and that the instruments used for its construction were the "Vescica" and the medieval squares used by the constructors, both designed with the golden ratio. The "Vescica" of Sénanque is located in the cloister of the monastery, in front of the Chapter, the site of the workshop.

In his 1919 book Ad Quadratum, Frederik Macody Lund, a historian who studied the geometry of several Gothic structures, claims that the Cathedral of Chartres (begun in the 12th century), the Notre-Dame of Laon (1157-1205), and the Notre-Dame de Paris (1160) are designed according to the golden ratio. Other scholars argue that until Luca Pacioli's 1509 De Divina Proportione (see next section), the golden ratio was unknown to artists and architects, although this is not likely the case since the ratio was explicitly defined by Euclid.

A 2003 conference on medieval architecture resulted in the book Ad Quadratum: The Application of Geometry to Medieval Architecture. According to a summary by one reviewer:

Most of the contributors consider that the setting out was done ad quadratum, using the sides of a square and its diagonal. This gave an incommensurate ratio of [square root of (2)] by striking a circular arc (which could easily be done with a rope rotating around a peg). Most also argued that setting out was done geometrically rather than arithmetically (with a measuring rod). Some considered that setting out also involved the use of equilateral or Pythagorean triangles, pentagons, and octagons. Two authors believe the Golden Section (or at least its approximation) was used, but its use in medieval times is not supported by most architectural historians.

The Australian architectural historian John James made a detailed study of the Cathedral of Chartres. In his work The Master Masons of Chartres he says that Bronze, one of the master masons, used the golden ratio. It was the same relation as between the arms of their metal square:

Bronze by comparison was an innovator, in practical rather than in philosophic things. Amongst other things Bronze was one of the few masters to use the fascinating ratio of the golden mean. For the builder, the most important function Fi, as we write the golden mean, is that if the uses is consistently he will find that every subdivision, no matter how accidentally it may have been derived, will fit somewhere into the series. Is not too difficult a ratio to reproduce, and Bronze could have had the two arms of his metal square cut to represent it. All he would than have had to do was to place the square on the stone and, using the string draw between the corners, relate any two lengths by Phi. Nothing like making life easy.

De divina proportione, written by Luca Pacioli in Milan in 1496-1498, published in Venice in 1509, features 60 drawings by Leonardo da Vinci, some of which illustrate the appearance of the golden ratio in geometric figures. Starting with part of the work of Leonardo da Vinci, this architectural treatise was a major influence on generations of artists and architects.

Vitruvian Man, created by Leonardo da Vinci around the year 1492, is based on the theories of the man after which the drawing takes its name, Vitruvius, who in De Architectura: The Planning of Temples (c. I BC) pointed that the planning of temples depends on symmetry, which must be based on the perfect proportions of the human body. Some authors feel there is no actual evidence that Da Vinci used the golden ratio in Vitruvian Man; however, Olmos (1991) observes otherwise through geometrical analysis. He also proposes Leonardo da Vinci's self portrait, Michelangelo's David (1501-1504), Albrecht Dürer's Melencolia I and the classic violin design by the masters of Cremona ( Guarneri, Stradivari and several members of the Amati family) as having similar regulator lines related to the golden ratio.

Da Vinci's (c. 1503-1506) "has been the subject of so many volumes of contradicting scholarly and popular speculations that it virtually impossible to reach any unambiguous conclusions" with respect to the golden ratio, according to Livio.

The Tempietto chapel at the Monastery of Saint Peter in Montorio, Rome, built by Bramante, has relations to the golden ratio in its elevation and interior lines.

José Villagrán García has claimed that the golden ratio is an important element in the design of the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral (circa 1667-1813). Olmos claims the same for the design of the cities of Coatepec (1579), Chicoaloapa (1579) and Huejutla (1580), as well as the Mérida Cathedral, the Acolman Temple, Christ Crucified by Diego Velázquez (1639) and The Immaculate Conception by Bartolomé Esteban Murillo.

Matila Ghyka and others contend that Georges Seurat used golden ratio proportions in paintings like Parade de cirque, Le Pont de Courbevoie, and Bathers at Asnières. However, there is no direct evidence to support these claims.

While the golden ratio appears to govern the geometric structure of Seurat's Parade de cirque (Circus Sideshow), modern consensus among art historians is that Seurat never used this "divine proportion" in his work.

The final study of Parade, executed prior to the oil on canvas, is divided horizontally into fourths and vertically into sixths (4 : 6 ratio) corresponding to the dimensions of the canvas, which is one and one-half times wider than its vertical dimension. These axes do not correspond precisely to the golden section, 1 : 1.6, as might have been expected. Rather, they correspond to basic mathematical divisions (simple ratios that appear to approximate the golden section), as noted by Seurat with citations from the mathematician, inventor, esthetician Charles Henry.

The idea of the Section d'Or (or Groupe de Puteaux) originated in the course of conversations between Albert Gleizes, Jean Metzinger and Jacques Villon. The group's title was suggested by Villon, after reading a 1910 translation of Leonardo da Vinci's A Treatise on Painting by Joséphin Péladan. Péladan attached great mystical significance to the golden section ( French: nombre d'or), and other similar geometric configurations. For Villon, this symbolized his belief in order and the significance of mathematical proportions, because it reflected patterns and relationships occurring in nature. Jean Metzinger and the Duchamp brothers were passionately interested in mathematics. Jean Metzinger, Juan Gris and possibly Marcel Duchamp at this time were associates of Maurice Princet, an amateur mathematician credited for introducing profound and rational scientific arguments into Cubist discussions. The name 'Section d'Or' represented simultaneously a continuity with past traditions and current trends in related fields, while leaving open future developments in the arts.

The Sacrament of the Last Supper (1955): The canvas of this surrealist masterpiece by Salvador Dalí is a golden rectangle. A huge dodecahedron, with edges in golden ratio to one another, is suspended above and behind Jesus and dominates the composition.

Some works in the Dutch artistic movement called De Stijl, or neoplasticism, exhibit golden ratio proportions. Piet Mondrian used the golden section extensively in his neoplasticist, geometrical paintings, created circa 1918-38. Mondrian sought proportion in his paintings by observation, knowledge and intuition, rather than geometrical or mathematical methods.

The Farnsworth House, designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, has been described as "the proportions, within the glass walls, approach 1:2" and "with a width to length ratio of 1:1.75 (nearly the golden section)" and has been studied with his other works in relation to the golden ratio.

The Swiss architect Le Corbusier, famous for his contributions to the modern international style, centered his design philosophy on systems of harmony and proportion. Le Corbusier's faith in the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden ratio and the Fibonacci number, which he described as "rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another. And these rhythms are at the very root of human activities. They resound in man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability which causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages and the learned."

Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his system for the scale of architectural proportion. He saw this system as a continuation of the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's " Vitruvian Man", the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others who used the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance and function of architecture. In addition to the golden ratio, Le Corbusier based the system on human measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and the double unit. He took Leonardo's suggestion of the golden ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model human body's height at the navel with the two sections in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the Modulor system.

In The Modulor: A Harmonious Measure to the Human Scale, Universally Applicable to Architecture and Mechanics Le Corbusier reveals he used his system in the Marseilles Unité d'habitation (in the general plan and section, the front elevation, plan and section of the apartment, in the woodwork, the wall, the roof and some prefabricated furniture), a small office in 35 rue de Sèvres, a factory in Saint-Die and the United Nations Headquarters building in New York City. Many authors claim that the shape of the facade of the second is the result of three golden rectangles; however, each of the three rectangles that can actually be appreciated have different heights.

Josep Lluís Sert

Catalan architect Josep Lluis Sert, a disciple of Le Corbusier, applied the measures of the Modulor in all his particular works, including the Sert's House in Cambridge and the Joan Miró Foundation in Barcelona.

According to the official tourism page of Buenos Aires, Argentina, the ground floor of the Palacio Barolo (1923), designed by Italian architect Mario Palanti, is built according to the golden ratio.

Another Swiss architect, Mario Botta, bases many of his designs on geometric figures. Several private houses he designed in Switzerland are composed of squares and circles, cubes and cylinders. In a house he designed in Origlio, the golden ratio is the proportion between the central section and the side sections of the house.

Ernő Lendvai analyzes Béla Bartók's works as being based on two opposing systems, that of the golden ratio and the acoustic scale, though other music scholars reject that analysis.

The musicologist Roy Howat has observed that the formal boundaries of Debussy's La mer correspond exactly to the golden section. Trezise finds the intrinsic evidence "remarkable", but cautions that no written or reported evidence suggests that Debussy consciously sought such proportions.

Leonid Sabaneyev hypothesizes that the separate time intervals of the musical pieces connected by the "culmination event", as a rule, are in the ratio of the golden section. However, the author attributes this incidence to the instinct of the musicians: "All such events are timed by author's instinct to such points of the whole length that they divide temporary durations into separate parts being in the ratio of the golden section."

Ron Knott exposes how the golden ratio is unintentionally present in several pieces of classical music:

An article of American Scientist ("Did Mozart use the Golden mean?", March/April 1996), reports that John Putz found that there was considerable deviation from ratio section division in many of Mozart's sonatas and claimed that any proximity to this number can be explained by constraints of the sonata form itself.

Derek Haylock claims that the opening motif of Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op. 67 (c. 1804-08), occurs exactly at the golden mean point 0.618 in bar 372 of 601 and again at bar 228 which is the other golden section point (0.618034 from the end of the piece) but he has to use 601 bars to get these figures. This he does by ignoring the final 20 bars that occur after the final appearance of the motif and also ignoring bar 387.

According to author Leon Harkleroad, "Some of the most misguided attempts to link music and mathematics have involved Fibonacci numbers and the related golden ratio."

With few exceptions, numerators for the meter signatures (over 100) in Karlheinz Stockhausen's Klavierstück IX are either Fibonacci or Lucas numbers.

1. ^ Markowsky, George (January 1992). "Misconceptions About the Golden Ratio". The College Mathematics Journal. 23 (1): 2-19. doi:10.2307/2686193. JSTOR 2686193.

2. ^ Chanfón Olmos, Carlos. Curso sobre Proporción. Procedimientos reguladores en construcción. Convenio de intercambio UNAM-UADY. México - Mérida, 1991

3. ^ Van Mersbergen; Audrey M. (1998). "Rhetorical Prototypes in Architecture: Measuring the Acropolis". Communication Quarterly. Eastern Communication Association. 46 (2): 194-195. doi:10.1080/01463379809370095.

4. ^ Livio, Mario (2002). The Golden Ratio: The Story of Phi, The World's Most Astonishing Number. New York: Broadway Books. ISBN 0-7679-0815-5.

5. ^ Scott, T.C.; Marketos, P. (March 2014), On the Origin of the Fibonacci Sequence (PDF), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews

6. ^ Manue Amabilis. (1956) La Arquitectura Precolombina en Mexico. Editorial Orion. P. 200, 202.

7. ^ Boussora, Kenza; Mazouz, Said (Spring 2004). "The Use of the Golden Section in the Great Mosque of Kairouan". Nexus Network Journal. 6 (1): 7-16. doi:10.1007/s00004-004-0002-y. The geometric technique of construction of the golden section seems to have determined the major decisions of the spatial organisation. The golden section appears repeatedly in some part of the building measurements. It is found in the overall proportion of the plan and in the dimensioning of the prayer space, the court and the minaret. The existence of the golden section in some parts of Kairouan mosque indicates that the elements designed and generated with this principle may have been realised at the same period.

8. ^ Brinkworth, Peter; Scott, Paul (2001). "The Place of Mathematics". Australian Mathematics Teacher. 57 (3): 2.

9. ^ "The geometry of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals. (Ad Quadratum: The Application of Geometry to Medieval Architecture) (Book Review)". Architectural Science Review. 46 (3): 337-338. September 1, 2003.

10. Pacioli, Luca. De Divina Proportione. Venice, 1509.

11. Keith Devlin (June 2004). "Good stories, pity they're not true". MAA Online. Mathematical Association of America. Archived from the original on 2013-07-01.

12. Staszkow, Ronald and Bradshaw, Robert. The Mathematical Palette. Thomson Brooks/Cole. P. 372

13. Robert L. Herbert, Georges Seurat, 1859-1891, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1991, pp. 340-345, archive.org (full text online)

14. ^ Sano, Junichi. Study on the Golden Ratio in the works of Mies van der Rolle : On the Golden Ratio in the plans of House with three Courts and IIT Chapel. Journal of Architecture, Planning and Environmental Engineering （Academic Journal, 1993 ） 453,153-158 / ,

15. Le Corbusier, ^ The Modulor p. 25, as cited in Padovan, Richard, Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture (1999), p. 316, Taylor and Francis, ISBN 0-419-22780-6

16. Le Corbusier, ^ The Modulor, p. 35, as cited in Padovan, Richard, Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture (1999), p. 320. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-419-22780-6: "Both the paintings and the architectural designs make use of the golden section".

17. ^ "Sert's House in Cambridge - WikiArquitectura - Buildings of the World". en.wikiarquitectura.com. Archived from the original on 2011-04-14.

18. ^ Official tourism page of the city of Buenos Aires Archived 2008-06-09 at the Wayback Machine

19. Knott, Ron, ^ [Ron Knott's web pages on Mathematics], Fibonacci Numbers and The Golden Section in Art, Architecture and Music Archived 2009-02-28 at the Wayback Machine, Surrey University

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
List of works designed with the golden ratio - Wikipedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Many works of art are claimed to have been designed using the golden ratio. However, many of these claims are disputed, or refuted by measurement. The golden ratio, an irrational number, is approximately 1.618; it is often denoted by the Greek letter φ ( phi).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Orb are an English electronic music group founded in 1988 by Alex Paterson and Jimmy Cauty. Known for their psychedelic sound, the Orb developed a cult following among clubbers "coming down" from drug-induced highs. Their influential 1991 debut album The Orb's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld pioneered the UK's nascent ambient house movement, while its UK chart-topping follow-up represented the genre's commercial peak.

Beginning as ambient and dub DJs in London, the Orb's early performances were inspired by electronic artists of the 1970s, most notably Brian Eno, Cluster, and Kraftwerk. The Orb have maintained their signature science fiction aesthetic despite numerous personnel changes, including the departure of Cauty and members Kris Weston, Andy Falconer, Simon Phillips, Nick Burton, and Andy Hughes. Paterson has been the only permanent member, continuing to work as the Orb with Swiss-German producer Thomas Fehlmann, and later, with Martin "Youth" Glover, bassist of Killing Joke. Paterson's unauthorised use of other artists' works has led to multiple disputes, most notably with Rickie Lee Jones.

During their live shows in the 1990s, the Orb performed using digital audio tape machines optimised for live mixing and sampling before switching to laptops and other digital media. Featuring colourful light shows and psychedelic imagery, their performances often incited comparisons to Pink Floyd, whose guitarist, David Gilmour, later collaborated with them on the album Metallic Spheres in 2010.

Their sixteenth studio album, Abolition of the Royal Familia, was released on 27 March 2020 by Cooking Vinyl.

Alex Paterson began his music career in the early 1980s as a roadie for the post-punk rock band Killing Joke, for whom his childhood friend Martin "Youth" Glover played bass. Having left Killing Joke's employ, in 1986 Paterson became an A&R man. Paterson and Youth shared a flat in Battersea and Jimmy Cauty, Youth's former bandmate from Brilliant, was a regular visitor. Paterson and Cauty began DJing and producing music together under the name the Orb. Their first release was a 1988 acid house anthem track, "Tripping on Sunshine", released on Youth's compilation album Eternity Project One. The following year, the Orb released the , a four-track EP based on samples from New York City's KISS FM. It was released on Paterson and Glover's new record label WAU! Mr. Modo Records, which they created out of a desire to maintain financial independence from larger record labels. After spending a weekend of making what Paterson described as "really shit drum sounds", the duo decided to abandon beat-heavy music and instead work on music for after-hours listening by removing the percussion tracks. Paterson and Cauty began DJing in London and landed a deal for the Orb to play the chill out room at London nightclub Heaven. Resident DJ Paul Oakenfold brought in the duo as ambient DJs for his "The Land of Oz" event at Heaven. Though the Orb's Monday night performances had only several hardcore followers initially, their chill-out room act grew popular over the course of their six-month stay to the point that the room was often packed with around 100 people. The Orb's performances became most popular among weary DJs and clubbers seeking solace from the loud, rhythmic music of the dancefloor. The Orb built up melodies using multitrack recordings linked to multiple record decks and a mixer. The group incorporated many CDs, cassettes, and BBC sound effects into the act, often accompanied with pieces of popular dance tracks such as " Sueño Latino". Though the group used a variety of samples, they avoided heavy rhythm and drums so that the intended ambient atmosphere was not disrupted. Most often, the group played dub and other chill-out music, which it described as ambient house for the E generation.

Throughout 1989 the Orb, along with Youth, developed a music production style that incorporated ambient music with a diverse array of samples and recordings. The British music press later labelled the music ambient house. The culmination of the group's musical work came toward the end of the same year when they recorded a session for John Peel on BBC Radio 1. The track, then known as "Loving You," was largely improvisational and featured a wealth of sound effects and samples from science fiction radio plays, nature sounds, and Minnie Riperton's " Lovin' You". For its release as a single on the record label Big Life, the Orb changed the title to " A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain That Rules from the Centre of the Ultraworld". Upon the single's release, Riperton's management forced Big Life to remove the unlicensed Riperton sample, ensuring that only the initial first-week release of the single contained the original vocals of Minnie Riperton; subsequent pressings used vocals from a sound-alike. Despite its running time of 22 minutes, the sample-laden single reached #78 on the British singles charts. Soon thereafter, the Orb were commissioned by Dave Stewart to remix his top-20 single " Lily Was Here". The group obliged and were soon offered several more remix jobs from artists including Erasure and System 7.

In 1990, Paterson and Cauty held several recording sessions at Cauty's studio, Trancentral. When offered an album deal by Big Life, the Orb found themselves at a crossroads: Cauty preferred that the Orb release their music through his KLF Communications label, whereas Paterson wanted to ensure that the group did not become a side-project of Cauty and Bill Drummond's KLF. Because of these issues, Cauty and Paterson split in April 1990, with Paterson keeping the name the Orb. As a result of the break-up, Cauty removed Paterson's contributions from the in-progress recordings and released the album as on KLF Communications. Also out of these sessions came the KLF album , on which Reynolds (1999) and Prendergast (2003) report Paterson appeared in an uncredited role. In a 2011 interview with Magnetic Magazine, Alex Paterson corroborated his involvement and contribution to the Chill Out album and said he had in fact been "ripped off" by The KLF and notably Jimmy Cauty, stating:

KLF put the Chill Out album out, which was basically a bunch of my DJ sessions at Trancentral which I never got credited for. That was one of the major reasons why Jimi and I split up. It was becoming apparent to me that everything he said he had given me, he never gave me. That shaped quite a lot of things in my head. Never to be ripped off again, I suppose. Don't worry, I got ripped off again. But as Jimi said to me, you're never really famous until you've been ripped off.

Following the split, Paterson began working with Youth on the track " Little Fluffy Clouds". The group incorporated samples from Steve Reich's Electric Counterpoint. The signature of the piece centres around the repeated phrases sampled from the voice of singer/songwriter Rickie Lee Jones, her spaced-out childlike ramble taken from a promotional CD released by Geffen Records for her 1989 album, Flying Cowboys. In it she muses on the picturesque images of clouds from her Arizona childhood.

In 1991, Paterson invited freelance studio engineer Andy Falconer to join the Orb. He was closely followed by studio engineer Kris "Thrash" Weston. Steve Hillage, who Paterson had met while DJing in London, also joined as a guitarist. Along with producer Thomas Fehlmann, the Orb completed several additional tracks for their first album, The Orb's Adventures Beyond The Ultraworld. At least six studios and twenty outside musicians were used during the three weeks of recording. Falconer's and Weston's technical abilities and Hillage's guitar work allowed the group to craft panoramic sounds portraying aspects of space travel, including the launch of . Adventures sold well in the United Kingdom and received praise for its balance of ambient music, house music, and sampling. Retrospectively, Adventures is considered ground-breaking for changing the way musicians view sampling and as a vital work for the genres of ambient and dance music. The completion of Adventures saw the departure of Andy Falconer, whose last contribution was to one of the Orb's Peel Sessions. To promote the release of an edited single-disc version for an American release on Mercury Records, the Orb embarked on their first tour of the United States beginning in Phoenix, Arizona, in October 1991.

In late 1991 and early 1992, Paterson and Weston wrote their next single, " Blue Room". Assisting with the recording was bassist Jah Wobble, keyboardist Miquette Giraudy, and guitarist Hillage. Despite its playing time of almost 40 minutes, "Blue Room" entered the British charts at No.12 and peaked at No.8, making it the longest track to reach the charts. The Orb promoted this single with a "legendary avant-garde" performance on Top of the Pops where Patterson and Weston played a game of chess in space suits while footage of dolphins and an edited version of "Blue Room" ran in the background. In July 1992, was released featuring "Blue Room" and, in the US release, the Orb's next single, " Assassin". Weston integrated his technical and creative expertise with Paterson's Eno-influenced ambience on U.F.Orb, combining "drum and bass rhythms" with "velvet keyboards" and "rippling synth lines". U.F.Orb reached No.1 on the British album charts to the shock of critics, who were surprised that fans had embraced what journalists considered to be progressive rock. Despite the Orb's success, Paterson and Weston preferred to avoid personal publicity and instead allow their music to be the focus of attention. Because of this partial anonymity and the Orb's rotating membership, they are often recognised as more of a musical collective than a "band".

Over the next year and a half, Paterson and Weston continued to produce "new" material, and the Orb left Big Life to sign a deal with Island Records. Their first release on Island Records was the live album , which gathered highlights from their recent performances in Europe and Asia. It featured the live crew of Paterson, Weston, producers Nick Burton and Simon Phillips, as well as audio engineer Andy Hughes, who had stepped in previously when Weston had decided to stop touring. The Orb's first studio production on Island Records was Pomme Fritz, a chaotic EP noted for its heavy use of strange samples and its lack of conventional harmonies. Though Pomme Fritz reached No.6 on the British charts, critics panned it as "doodling". Island Records "hated it" and "didn't understand it at all", according to Paterson. Soon after production finished on Pomme Fritz, Paterson, Weston, and Orb contributor Thomas Fehlmann joined with Robert Fripp to form the group FFWD as a side project. FFWD released a single self-titled album on Paterson's Inter-Modo label, which Fehlmann later described as "an Orb track which became so long that it became a whole album!". Due to this aimlessness, FFWD lacked an artistic goal and disbanded after a single release. Also in the summer of 1994 the Orb provided music for The Jupiter Collision, the BBC's brief info series about the Shoemaker-Levy comet. Soon after the release of FFWD in August 1994, Weston suddenly left the Orb. Paterson claimed that Weston's departure was due to his desire to have more control in the Orb. In an interview with , Weston attributed the split to Paterson, saying that Paterson "didn't do his 50 per cent of the work". Paterson reaffirmed the status of the Orb saying, "The Orb is the Orb, and nothing can change that", and continued work with Hughes and Fehlmann.

Following Weston's departure from the Orb, Thomas Fehlmann joined as a full-time studio member, but did not always participate in live performances. Paterson, Hughes, and Fehlmann then finished producing the album Orbus Terrarum, on which Paterson and Weston had been working. Orbus Terrarum, released in 1995, featured more "earthbound" and "organic" sounds than their previous trippy science-fiction-themed music. Orbus Terrarum suffered, as Paterson described it, "a good kicking" at the hands of the British press, who described it as "generic" and a low point for Paterson's creativity. Orbus Terrarum alienated many of the group's fans, and reached only No.20 on the British charts. American critics gave it great acclaim, including Rolling Stone who made it their album of the month, citing its symphonic flow coupled with the Orb's "uniquely British wit". After a long world tour, the Orb, with Andy Hughes and Steve Hillage, settled down to produce their next album, -the process of which saw a return to their spacey sounds. Though Orblivion was recorded in May 1996, it was not released until almost a year later, due to Island Records' desire to promote it as a follow up to U2's techno-rock album . Orblivion sold well in Europe as well as the United States, where it reached the Billboard Top 200. The first Orblivion single, " Toxygene", was the highest-charting single by the Orb, reaching No.4 in the United Kingdom on 8February 1997. Despite high sales, Orblivion received a lukewarm reception from the British press. As with Orbus Terrarum, Orblivion was better received by American critics, including Rolling Stone, who praised its "contrast of chaos and euphony". Meanwhile, the stresses of touring sat heavily on Paterson; he considered retiring the Orb, but continued touring and producing. In 1997 the band sold their studio Joe's Garage to the Godfrey brothers of Morcheeba. That same year, they contributed a cover of " Jo the Waiter" to the Gary Numan tribute album .

Paterson and Fehlmann, along with usual collaborators Hughes, Nick Burton, and Phillips, wrote and produced for a planned 1999 release. Featured on the album were appearances from Robert Fripp, John Roome (Witchman), and Fil Le Gonidec, one of the Orb's live performers. Singers Nina Walsh and Aki Omori appeared on two tracks each, providing vocals and co-writing lyrics with Paterson. Paterson felt that this new direction of songwriting for the Orb was more similar to the experimental work of Orbus Terrarum than to the techno-pop of Orblivion. Island Records was in a period of restructuring due to its recent purchase by Universal Music Group, and Cydonia was not released until 2001. Upon release, critics noted that Cydonia merged pop, trance, and ambient-dub music, which they felt to be a conglomeration of bland vocals and uninventive ambience that lacked the appeal of the Orb's earlier work. harshly described it as "a stillborn relic, flawed throughout by chronically stunted ambitions" and describing its only appropriate audience to be "old ravers" seeking nostalgia. The Orb were generally regarded by the British press as past their prime and an "ambient dinosaur" out of place in the current dance music environment. After the release of Cydonia, Hughes left the group for undisclosed reasons, becoming "another acrimonious departure from the Orb" according to The Guardian.

In 2001, Alex Paterson formed the record label Badorb.com as an outlet for Orb members' side projects. To promote both Badorb.com and Cydonia, the Orb toured internationally, including their first visit to the United States in four years. NME described the Orb's tour as "charming" and that they were "freed from the Floydian pretensions that dogged the band throughout the mid-'90s".

The Orb, now composed of Paterson, Phillips, and Fehlmann, with guest John Roome, accepted an invitation to join the Area:One concert tour with Moby, Paul Oakenfold, New Order and other alternative and electronic artists. Though the Orb were paired with more mainstream artists during the tour such as Incubus, Paterson and Fehlmann made their next releases a series of several low-key EPs for German label Kompakt in 2002. The Orb found critical success on Kompakt; but Badorb.com collapsed soon after releasing the compilation Bless You. Badorb.com had released fourteen records over the course of fourteen months from artists including Guy Pratt (Conduit), Ayumi Hamasaki, and Takayuki Shiraishi, as well as the Orb's three-track Daleth of Elphame EP. Though Badorb.com was an internet-based record label, they sold only vinyl releases (with one exception, the Orb EP), which Paterson later remarked was a poor idea because "not many people... have record players".

Though their musical style had changed somewhat since the 1990s, the Orb continued to use their odd synthetic sounds on 2004's Bicycles & Tricycles, to mixed reviews. The Daily Telegraph praised Bicycles & Tricycles as being "inclusive, exploratory, and an enjoyable journey"; other publications dismissed it as "stoner dub" and irrelevant to current electronic music. Like Cydonia, Bicycles & Tricycles featured vocals, including rapper MC Soom-T who added a hip hop contribution to the album. The Orb left Island Records and released the album on Cooking Vinyl and Sanctuary Records. To promote the album, the band began a UK tour with dub artist Mad Professor. Though the Orb still pulled in large crowds, The Guardian noted that they lacked the intensity found in their earlier performances.

After two more EPs on Kompakt, the Orb (now composed of only Paterson and Fehlmann) released Okie Dokie It's the Orb on Kompakt, which featured new material in addition to tweaked versions of their previous Kompakt output. By this stage, observed, Thomas Fehlmann had become the primary creative figure in the Orb, "inhibiting Alex Paterson's whimsical impulses". Because of this, Okie Dokie was considerably more focused and less "goofy" than Cydonia and Bicycles & Tricycles. Fehlmann's trademark hypnotic loops and delays made him the centre of Okie Dokie production and, according to Pitchfork Media, made it "difficult to say where [Paterson] is in the picture". The Orb's releases with Kompakt gained them back much of their musical credibility with the press and showed that they could "age gracefully".

In August 2006, the founders of the Orb - Paterson and Cauty - released Living in a Giant Candle Winking at God, their debut album as the Transit Kings with Guy Pratt and Pratt's associate, Dom Beken. The album featured appearances from Smiths' guitarist Johnny Marr and comedian Simon Day. Beken described Living in a Giant Candle Winking at God as "self-consciously musically written and less sample-based" compared to the members' previous work. Living had been in production since 2001, but due to members' other obligations, it was delayed for several years. The album received mixed critical reactions; called it "Orb-lite" and proclaimed it to be " Deep Forest-style sludge". After the album's release, Cauty left the Transit Kings on "extended leave", leaving the project in indefinite limbo, and Beken joined the Orb for a period. Paterson and Beken reunited in 2008 as High Frequency Bandwidth, an ambient hip hop group on the Malicious Damage label.

The Orb's next studio album, , was released in Japan in 2007 and the following year in the United States and United Kingdom. Fehlmann is absent on The Dream and Paterson was instead reunited with Youth and joined by Tim Bran of Dreadzone. The album saw a return to the Orb's sounds of the early 1990s, with peculiar vocals and playful samples. The Orb also brought in jazz and house music singer Juliet Roberts and guitarist Steve Hillage.

After the July 2006 re-release of The Orb's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld 3-CD Deluxe Edition, 2007 and 2008 saw releases of expanded 2-CD editions of the band's subsequent regular studio records: U.F.Orb, Pomme Fritz EP, Orbus Terrarum, Orblivion and Cydonia. In late 2008 a double-cd compilation of BBC Radio 1 sessions called The Orb: Complete BBC Sessions 1989-2001 was released.

In May 2009, the British Malicious Damage Records (run by the members of Killing Joke) announced the release of the Orb's ninth regular studio album Baghdad Batteries (Orbsessions Volume III) on 11 September 2009. A reunification of Paterson and long-term collaborator Thomas Fehlmann who last worked together on Okie Dokie It's the Orb on Kompakt, the album was promoted with a launch party with Paterson and Fehlmann performing the whole album live at The-Situation Modern in Clapham, England on 10 September. A track "Chocolate Fingers" was uploaded onto the label's MySpace profile. Unlike the first 2 albums in the Orbsessions series, which consisted of archive recordings, Baghdad Batteries comprised brand new material recorded at Fehlmann's Berlin studio.

In March 2010, Internet station Dandelion Radio broadcast a seventeen and a half-minute long Orb session track by Paterson and Fehlmann on the Andrew Morrison show. This new track was titled "Battersea Bunches" and was a remixed version of the soundtrack to a short movie of the same title by Mike Coles and Alex Paterson - a film installation to be seen at London's Battersea Power Station on 1June 2010 as part of an evening of art and music. The film and its soundtrack (together with remixes) were later released as the CD/DVD album on 11 November 2011.

In mid-2010, Alex Paterson teamed up with Youth to compile a retrospective compilation album of tracks from the WAU! Mr Modo label. The album titled Impossible Oddities was released on CD and double Vinyl on 25 October 2010 via Year Zero records.

The Orb released the Metallic Spheres album in October 2010, featuring David Gilmour of Pink Floyd. It was released by Columbia Records.

In 2011, Alex Paterson teamed up with producer Gaudi and vocalist Chester Taylor for the creation of their experimental and ongoing collaborative project SCREEN, releasing the album "We are Screen" by Malicious Damage Records.

In 2012, the Orb worked with dub musician Lee "Scratch" Perry to produce a reggae-infused album titled The Orbserver in the Star House, which was recorded in Berlin over a period of several months and features the single "Golden Clouds". The title song was based on an earlier version of Little Fluffy Clouds, with the lyrics rewritten by Perry reflecting his childhood in Jamaica and the property Golden Clouds near his home.

In 2013, the Orb performed with the Kakatsisi drummers of Ghana on the West Holts stage at Glastonbury Festival.

On 22 June 2018, the Orb released their fifteenth studio album, No Sounds Are Out of Bounds.

During 2019, the Orb have been touring with a 30th anniversary tour, performed by Alex Paterson and London based producer/sound engineer Michael Rendall.

The Orb released their sixteenth studio album, Abolition of the Royal Familia, on 27 March 2020. It includes contributions from Youth, Roger Eno, Gaudi, David Harrow and Steve Hillage and Miquette Giraudy ( System 7).

The Orb's members have drawn from an assortment of influences in their music. The Orb's central figure, Alex Paterson, had early musical tastes and influences that included King Tubby, Alice Cooper, Prince, Kraftwerk, and T.Rex. Among these, Paterson cites Kraftwerk as one of the most important, claiming they created the foundation from which all modern dance music has been built. While in Brixton with Martin Glover as a teenager, Paterson was also exposed to a large amount of reggae music, such as The Mighty Diamonds, The Abyssinians, and Bob Marley. The reggae influence on Paterson and the Orb can readily be heard in tracks such as the single "Perpetual Dawn" and U.F.Orb's "Towers of Dub". The earliest ambient influences of the Orb came in 1979 during Paterson's roadie days with Killing Joke. While with the band in Neuss, Paterson listened to Brian Eno's Music for Films while on LSD and watched "the Ruhr steel works explode in the distance", noting that "[t]he scene seemed to be taking place in the music as well". The same night, Paterson was also inspired while listening to Cluster's Grosses Wasser and found that the steel works' "huge metal arms were crushing molten rocks in time to the music", which was something he'd "never seen, or heard, anything like it before". Along with Cluster and Kraftwerk, Paterson was also influenced by other German experimental music from Can and composer Karlheinz Stockhausen. Modulations calls Paterson's music a "maximal" version of Brian Eno's "minimal" ambience, though according to Paterson, Eno resents Paterson's use of his music as an influence.

The Orb have often been described as "The Pink Floyd of the Nineties", but Paterson has stated that their music is more influenced by experimental electronic music than progressive rock of the 1970s. He has noted though that the Pink Floyd album was influential to him as a child in the 1970s. The psychedelic prog-rock similarities have led critics to describe the Orb as hippie revivalists; Paterson has strongly rejected the tag, claiming that even as a youth, he was "one of those punks who hated hippies".

During production of Cydonia and Bicycles & Tricycles, Paterson's biggest influences were drum and bass and trip hop music, as seen on the tracks "Ghostdancing", "Thursday's Keeper", and "Aftermath". The Orb's more recent influences consist largely of German techno producers, such as Triola, who were inspired by the Orb's earlier work. Paterson cites the music of Kompakt as one of his primary modern influences and claims it to be among the best modern ambient music.

Imagery has always been an important part of the Orb's persona. This is most prominent during live performances, where they often project surreal images against onstage screens. Common images include morphing faces, futuristic cityscapes, and aliens. They have long associated their act with absurd symbology with images such as floating pigs. This has carried over to their music videos, most of which are spacy, brightly coloured montages of surreal images including astronauts, clouds, and neon dolphins. Because of their use of psychedelic images at shows, the Orb's shows are frequently compared to those of Pink Floyd, who also used in-show imagery and films. Paterson cites Godfrey Reggio's and Philip Glass's film Koyaanisqatsi as a primary influence to their concert imagery.

The Orb's album art features much of the same imagery as their live act. Graphic design group The Designers Republic created the cover art for the earlier work, including Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld, U.F.Orb, and the singles from those two albums. For their next album, the Orb poked fun at their Pink Floyd comparisons with the cover of Live 93 featuring a floating stuffed sheep over the Battersea Power Station, which had appeared on the cover of Pink Floyd's . The artwork found in Badorb.com releases was similar to the Orb's odd artwork of the mid-1990s, as it was stylistically similar and contained little writing.

Some of the more prominent motifs in the Orb's work are outer space and science fiction, including alien visitations, space flight, and mind control. These have included the use of samples from serious sources such as NASA transmissions to comedic clips from films like Woody Allen's . U.F.Orb especially expressed a fascination with alien life with its bizarre sound samples and in the album's title itself. The title of its most popular single, "Blue Room", is a reference to the supposed Blue Room of Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, which was investigated as a possible UFO evidence holding room. Their 2001 album is named after the Cydonia Mensae region of Mars. Due to Paterson's focus on science fiction and astronomical phenomena, The Guardian described Paterson as "pop [music]'s primary spokesperson on aliens".

Techniques, technology, live performances

In the Orb's early DJ events in the 1980s, Paterson and Cauty performed with three record decks, a cassette player, and a CD player all of which were mixed through an Akai 12-track mixer. They used their equipment to harmonise recorded music and sound effect samples into an "endless sound continuum" for audiences of worn-out dancers. Even after the Orb began producing original material, they kept the same sample-heavy model for live acts by spontaneously integrating obscure samples into their pre-recorded tracks. During promotional tours for Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld and U.F.Orb, they performed using a digital audio tape machine and experimented with other media sources such as dubplates. The tape machines held individual chords, rhythms, and basslines for each composition, allowing the Orb to reprocess them and mimic the act of DJing. Members could then easily improvise with these samples and manipulate them using sound effect racks. Often, the Orb had a live musician accompanying them, such as Steve Hillage on guitar. Their shows in the early 1990s would often be three hours of semi-improvised, continuous music featuring a wealth of triggered samples, voices, and pre-recorded tracks which were barely identifiable as the original piece.

The Orb began performing regularly at the Brixton Academy in the early 1990s, where they used the high ceilings and large space for their "well-suited amorphous sound", frequently performing their newest and more experimental pieces there. Andy Hughes took Weston's place at live performances after the 1993 tour, though Weston did reappear for the Orb's concert at the rainy Woodstock '94. The Orb played for late night raves on the first two nights of Woodstock '94 in addition to artists including Aphex Twin, Orbital, and Deee-Lite. The next year, the Orb's touring group consisted of Paterson, Hughes, Nick Burton on drums, and Simon Phillips on bass. This live setup created a "cacophony" of "gigantic, swarming sounds". Though the Orb's performances use much onstage equipment and many props, Paterson prefers to present them as "a non-centralised figure of amusement on stage".

The Orb used ADAT recorders for performances from 1993 to 2001 and utilised large 48-track decks, which Paterson described as being a "studio onstage". They hooked synthesisers, such as the ARP 2600, to MIDI interfaces to recreate specific sounds that appeared on their albums. The Orb's methods of studio music creation changed as well. For more recent albums such as Cydonia, they used inexpensive equipment such as Korg's Electribe products, which Paterson described as employing more of a "bedroom techno" approach. Despite their use of laptops during performances and in-studio computers, Paterson says that he still cherishes vinyl and does not find purchasing CDs or downloading music to be nearly as satisfying.

One of the Orb's most notable contributions to electronic music is their idea of blurring the distinction between sampling and remixing. Albums such as Pomme Fritz, though released as a piece of original work, consist largely of manipulated samples. Conversely, the Orb's remixes typically use only small sections of the original track, most notably in the case of their single "Toxygene". "Toxygene" was originally commissioned as a remix of Jean Michel Jarre's "Oxygene 8" from Oxygene 7-13. The Orb "obliterated it" and reassembled only a few fragments for their remix, much to the chagrin of Jarre, who reportedly refused to release it; The Orb released the track themselves under the name "Toxygene", which further irritated Jarre, to whom Paterson retorted "The French are always five years behind us, anyway." In statements made after the release of "Toxygene", Jarre denied that he rejected the original remix because of disliking it.

Other artists have become agitated due to the Orb sampling their work, though Paterson jokingly suggests that "[t]hey don't know the half of it." Paterson says that he finds a "beauty" and a "cleverness" with slipping unlicensed samples into compositions without anyone recognizing it. Even though fans often try to guess the origins of many of the samples, Paterson states that they are rarely correct and that they would "die" if they discovered, for example, where the drums on "Little Fluffy Clouds" originated from. He has said that record labels have cautioned him, "Don't tell anyone where you got your samples until we get them cleared!".

The Orb have used a wide variety of audio clips from sources ranging from McCarthy era speeches to prank phone calls by Victor Lewis-Smith to David Thewlis' apocalypse-driven rant from the film . Paterson obtains many samples from recording TV and radio for hours at a time and picking out his favourite clips. He and other members of the Orb record nature sounds for use on albums, especially FFWD and Orbus Terrarum. The Orb's combination of ambient music and sampling from lower fidelity audio sources often creates a "fuzzy texture" in the sound quality, depersonalising the Orb's music. The Orb are lauded for their " Monty Python-esque levity" in their use of audio samples, though NME asserts that Paterson "sabotage[s] his majestic soundscapes" with "irritatingly zany" sounds.

The Orb has been a prolific remixing team, having completed over 80 commissioned remixes since 1989. Even during periods of label conflict and contractual limbo, the Orb found steady work remixing for artists including Depeche Mode, Lisa Stansfield, and Front 242. The Orb's remixes from the early and mid-1990s feature a large number of comical samples, Progressive-Sounds describe them as "ahead of their time" and NME notes them as "not entirely incompatible with contemporary chilling". Some pieces, such as their Bee Gees cover collaboration with Robbie Williams, received criticism for being "beyond a joke" for their use of strange noises. The Orb's remix of Nine Inch Nails' " The Perfect Drug", too, was described as "silly", as they made it sound like Trent Reznor was "drowning in his bathtub". Though Paterson maintains that much of the Orb's remix work is done to support other artists, he admits some of their remixes for major artists were performed so they could "pay the bills".

1. ^ Prendergast, Mark (2003). The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Moby-The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. pp. 407-412. ISBN 1-58234-323-3.

2. Simpson, Dave (19 January 2001). "The Friday Interview: 'If you print that, I'll come looking for you'". The Guardian. p. 6.

3. "Remixologist #2". i-D. No. 117. June 1993. Reprinted in Beard, Steve (21 March 2002). Aftershocks: The End of Style Culture (Compendium of writings by Steve Beard). Wallflower Press. pp. 14-19. ISBN 9781903364246.

4. ^ Longmire, Ernie; et al. (2020) [1998]. "Discography: The KLF (including The JAMS, The Timelords, 2K etc.)". Archived from the original on 29 February 2020.

5. Bush, John. The Orb at AllMusic. Retrieved 5 March 2020.

6. ^ McCormick, Neil (11 October 1998). "Yes, this is the cutting edge of rave music". The Arts. The Daily Telegraph. London. p. 26. Archived from the original on 26 February 2016.

7. This phrase was printed on the reverse of the "A Huge Ever-Growing Pulsating Brain..." vinyl single -

8. ^ "KLF Communications Info Sheet Nine". KLF Communications. June 1990. Archived (via the Library of Mu) on 12 March 2007.

9. ^ Reynolds, Simon (1999). Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture. Routledge. p. 191. ISBN 0-415-92373-5. After appearing uncredited on the KLF's Chill Out, Paterson collaborated with Jimmy Cauty on "A Huge Ever Growing Brain."

10. ^ "The year 1990 began with the release of The KLF's Ambient manifesto, Chill Out. Coming direct from the same Trancentral sessions that had produced 'Loving You', Chill Out featured no credit to Paterson and soon after its release Jimmy Cauty split from The Orb."

11. ^ Tandt, Christophe Den (20 May 2004). "From Craft to Corporate Interfacing: Rock Musicianship in the Age of Music Television and Computer-Programmed Music" (PDF). Popular Music & Society. Routledge. 27 (2): 139-160. doi:10.1080/03007760410001685804. S2CID 194074850.

12. ^ "Sound On Sound Morcheeba studio 1997" Sue Sillitoe, "Morcheeba: From Clapham to The Orb" Sound on Sound, December 1997

13. ^ Reimer, Courtney (23 April 2001). "Area:One Festival's Details Come into Focus". MTV. Archived from the original on 6 June 2004.

14. ^ "malicious update 26.05.09". MySpace, Malicious Damage Records. 26 May 2009. Archived from the original on 7 February 2009.

15. ^ Shapiro, Peter, ed. (2000). Modulations - A History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound. Caipirinha Productions. pp. 160-162. ISBN 1-891024-06-X.

16. "Orb:Albums". Archived from the original on 29 May 2006.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Orb are an English electronic music group founded in 1988 by Alex Paterson and Jimmy Cauty. Known for their psychedelic sound, the Orb developed a cult following among clubbers "coming down" from drug-induced highs. Their influential 1991 debut album The Orb's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld pioneered the UK's nascent ambient house movement, while its UK chart-topping follow-up represented the genre's commercial peak.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Toggle the table of contents

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

August 22 is the 234th day of the year (235th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar; 131 days remain until the end of the year.

Pre-1600

Pre-1600

1601 - Georges de Scudéry, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1667)

1624 - Jean Regnault de Segrais, French author and poet (d. 1701)

1679 - Pierre Guérin de Tencin, French cardinal (d. 1758)

1760 - Pope Leo XII (d. 1829)

1764 - Charles Percier, French architect and interior designer (d. 1838)

1771 - Henry Maudslay, English engineer (d. 1831)

1773 - Aimé Bonpland, French botanist and explorer (d. 1858)

1800 - Samuel David Luzzatto, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1865)

1827 - Ezra Butler Eddy, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1906)

1834 - Samuel Pierpont Langley, American physicist and astronomer (d. 1906)

1836 - Archibald Willard, American soldier and painter (d. 1918)

1844 - George W. De Long, American Naval officer and explorer (d. 1881)

1848 - Melville Elijah Stone, American publisher, founded the Chicago Daily News (d. 1929)

1854 - Milan I of Serbia (d. 1901)

1857 - Ned Hanlon, American baseball player and manager (d. 1937)

1860 - Alfred Ploetz, German physician, biologist, and eugenicist (d. 1940)

1862 - Claude Debussy, French pianist and composer (d. 1918)

1867 - Maximilian Bircher-Benner, Swiss physician and nutritionist (d. 1939)

1867 - Charles Francis Jenkins, American inventor (d. 1934)

1868 - Willis R. Whitney, American chemist (d. 1958)

1873 - Alexander Bogdanov, Russian physician and philosopher (d. 1928)

1874 - Max Scheler, German philosopher and author (d. 1928)

1880 - Gorch Fock, German author and poet (d. 1916)

1880 - George Herriman, American cartoonist (d. 1944)

1882 - Raymonde de Laroche, French pilot (d. 1919)

1890 - Cecil Kellaway, South African actor (d. 1973)

1891 - Henry Bachtold, Australian soldier and railway engineer (d. 1983)

1891 - Jacques Lipchitz, Lithuanian-Italian sculptor (d. 1973)

1893 - Dorothy Parker, American poet, short story writer, critic, and satirist (d. 1967)

1893 - Ernest H. Volwiler, American chemist (d. 1992)

1895 - László Almásy, Hungarian captain, pilot, and explorer (d. 1951)

1895 - Paul Comtois, Canadian lawyer and politician, 21st Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 1966)

1896 - Laurence McKinley Gould, American geologist, educator, and polar explorer (d. 1995)

1897 - Bill Woodfull, Australian cricketer and educator (d. 1965)

1900 - Lisy Fischer, Swiss-born pianist and child prodigy (d. 1999)

1902 - Thomas Pelly, American lawyer and politician (d. 1973)

1902 - Leni Riefenstahl, German actress, film director and propagandist (d. 2003)

1902 - Edward Rowe Snow, American historian and author (d. 1982)

1908 - Henri Cartier-Bresson, French photographer and painter (d. 2004)

1908 - Erwin Thiesies, German rugby player and coach (d. 1993)

1909 - Julius J. Epstein, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2000)

1909 - Mel Hein, American football player and coach (d. 1992)

1913 - Leonard Pagliero, English businessman and pilot (d. 2008)

1913 - Bruno Pontecorvo, Italian physicist and academic (d. 1993)

1914 - Jack Dunphy, American author and playwright (d. 1992)

1914 - Connie B. Gay, American businessman, co-founded the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum (d. 1989)

1915 - David Dellinger, American activist (d. 2004)

1915 - James Hillier, Canadian-American scientist, co-designed the electron microscope (d. 2007)

1915 - Edward Szczepanik, Polish economist and politician, 15th Prime Minister of the Polish Republic in Exile (d. 2005)

1917 - John Lee Hooker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001)

1918 - Mary McGrory, American journalist and author (d. 2004)

1920 - Ray Bradbury, American science fiction writer and screenwriter (d. 2012)

1921 - Dinos Dimopoulos, Greek director and screenwriter (d. 2003)

1921 - Tony Pawson, English cricketer, footballer, and journalist (d. 2012)

1922 - Roberto Aizenberg, Argentine painter and sculptor (d. 1996)

1922 - Theoni V. Aldredge, Greek-American costume designer (d. 2011)

1924 - James Kirkwood, Jr., American playwright and author (d. 1989)

1924 - Harishankar Parsai, Indian writer, satirist and humorist (d. 1995)

1926 - Bob Flanigan, American pop singer (d. 2011)

1928 - Tinga Seisay, Sierra Leonean academic and diplomat (d.2015)

1929 - Valery Alekseyev, Russian anthropologist and author (d. 1991)

1929 - Ulrich Wegener, German police officer and general (d. 2017)

1930 - Gylmar dos Santos Neves, Brazilian footballer (d. 2013)

1932 - Gerald P. Carr, American engineer, colonel, and astronaut (d. 2020)

1933 - Sylva Koscina, Italian actress (d. 1994)

1934 - Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., American general and engineer (d. 2012)

1935 - Annie Proulx, American novelist, short story writer, and journalist

1936 - Chuck Brown, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2012)

1936 - John Callaway, American journalist and producer (d. 2009)

1936 - Dale Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)

1936 - Werner Stengel, German roller coaster designer and engineer, designed the Maverick roller coaster

1938 - Jean Berkey, American businesswoman and politician (d. 2013)

1943 - Masatoshi Shima, Japanese computer scientist and engineer, co-designed the Intel 4004

1944 - Roger Cashmore, English physicist and academic

1948 - David Marks, American singer-songwriter and guitarist

1950 - Ray Burris, American baseball player and coach

1950 - Scooter Libby, American lawyer and politician, Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States

1952 - Peter Laughner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1977)

1953 - Paul Ellering, American weightlifter, wrestler, and manager

1955 - Chiranjeevi, Indian film actor, producer and politician

1956 - Paul Molitor, American baseball player and coach

1956 - Peter Taylor, Australian cricketer

1957 - Steve Davis, English snooker player, sportscaster, and author

1957 - Holly Dunn, American country music singer-songwriter (d. 2016)

1958 - Colm Feore, American-Canadian actor

1958 - Stevie Ray, American semi-retired wrestler

1958 - Vernon Reid, English-born American guitarist and songwriter

1959 - Juan Croucier, Cuban-American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer

1959 - Pia Gjellerup, Danish lawyer and politician, Danish Minister of Finance

1959 - Mark Williams, English actor

1960 - Holger Gehrke, German footballer and manager

1960 - Collin Raye, American country music singer

1961 - Andrés Calamaro, Argentine singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer

1961 - Debbi Peterson, American singer-songwriter and drummer

1962 - Stefano Tilli, Italian sprinter

1963 - Tori Amos, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer

1963 - James DeBarge, American R&B/soul singer

1963 - Terry Catledge, American basketball player

1964 - Mats Wilander, Swedish-American tennis player and coach

1965 - Wendy Botha, South African-Australian surfer

1966 - GZA, American rapper and producer

1966 - Rob Witschge, Dutch footballer and manager

1967 - Ty Burrell, American actor and comedian

1967 - Paul Colman, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist

1967 - Alfred Gough, American screenwriter and producer

1967 - Layne Staley, American singer-songwriter (d. 2002)

1968 - Casper Christensen, Danish comedian, actor, and screenwriter

1968 - Rich Lowry, American writer and magazine editor (National Review)

1968 - Aleksandr Mostovoi, Russian footballer

1968 - Elisabeth Murdoch, Australian businesswoman

1968 - Horst Skoff, Austrian tennis player (d. 2008)

1970 - Charlie Connelly, English author and broadcaster

1970 - Giada De Laurentiis, Italian-American chef and author

1971 - Craig Finn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist

1972 - Okkert Brits, South African pole vaulter

1972 - Paul Doucette, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and drummer

1972 - Steve Kline, American baseball player and coach

1972 - Max Wilson, German-Brazilian race car driver

1973 - Howie Dorough, American singer-songwriter and dancer

1973 - Kristen Wiig, American actress, comedian, and screenwriter

1973 - Eurelijus Žukauskas, Lithuanian basketball player

1974 - Cory Gardner, American politician

1974 - Agustín Pichot, Argentinian rugby player

1975 - Clint Bolton, Australian footballer

1975 - Rodrigo Santoro, Brazilian actor

1976 - Marius Bezykornovas, Lithuanian footballer

1976 - Bryn Davies, American bassist, cellist, and pianist

1976 - Laurent Hernu, French decathlete

1976 - Randy Wolf, American baseball player

1977 - Heiðar Helguson, Icelandic footballer

1977 - Keren Cytter, Israeli visual artist and writer

1978 - James Corden, English actor, comedian, writer, and television presenter

1978 - Ioannis Gagaloudis, Greek basketball player

1979 - Matt Walters, American football player

1980 - Roland Benschneider, German footballer

1980 - Nicolas Macrozonaris, Canadian sprinter

1980 - Seiko Yamamoto, Japanese wrestler

1981 - Alex Holmes, American football player

1981 - Jang Hyun-kyu, South Korean footballer (d. 2012)

1981 - Christina Obergföll, German athlete

1983 - Theo Bos, Dutch cyclist

1983 - Jahri Evans, American football player

1984 - Lee Camp, English footballer

1984 - Lawrence Quaye, Ghanaian-Qatari footballer

1985 - Luke Russert, American journalist

1985 - Jey Uso, Samoan-American wrestler

1985 - Jimmy Uso, Samoan-American wrestler

1986 - Stephen Ireland, Irish footballer

1986 - Benjamin Satterley, English wrestler

1986 - Tokushōryū Makoto, Japanese sumo wrestler

1987 - Leonardo Moracci, Italian footballer

1987 - Apollo Crews, American wrestler

1989 - Giacomo Bonaventura, Italian footballer

1990 - Randall Cobb, American football player

1990 - Drew Hutchison, American baseball player

1990 - Robbie Rochow, Australian rugby league player

1991 - Federico Macheda, Italian footballer

1991 - Brayden Schenn, Canadian ice hockey player

1992 - Ema Burgić Bucko, Bosnian tennis player

1994 - Olli Määttä, Finnish ice hockey player

Pre-1600

408 - Stilicho, Roman general (b. 359)

1155 - Emperor Konoe of Japan (b. 1139)

1241 - Pope Gregory IX, (b. 1143)

1304 - John II, Count of Holland (b. 1247)

1338 - William II, Duke of Athens (b. 1312)

1358 - Isabella of France (b. 1295)

1425 - Eleanor, Princess of Asturias (b. 1423)

1456 - Vladislav II of Wallachia

1485 - James Harrington, Yorkist knight

1485 - John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk (b. 1430)

1485 - Richard Ratcliffe, supporter of Richard III

1485 - William Brandon, supporter of Henry VII (b. 1426)

1584 - Jan Kochanowski, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1530)

1599 - Luca Marenzio, Italian singer-songwriter (b. 1553)

1664 - Maria Cunitz, Polish astronomer and author (b. 1610)

1680 - John George II, Elector of Saxony (b. 1613)

1681 - Philippe Delano, Dutch Plymouth Colony settler (b. 1602)

1711 - Louis François, duc de Boufflers, French general (b. 1644)

1752 - William Whiston, English mathematician, historian, and theologian (b. 1667)

1773 - George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton, English poet and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1709)[29]

1793 - Louis de Noailles, French general (b. 1713)

1797 - Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, French-Austrian field marshal (b. 1724)

1806 - Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French painter and illustrator (b. 1732)

1850 - Nikolaus Lenau, Romanian-Austrian poet and author (b. 1802)

1861 - Xianfeng, Emperor of China (b. 1831)

1891 - Jan Neruda, Czech journalist, author, and poet (b. 1834)

1904 - Kate Chopin, American novelist and poet (b. 1850)

1909 - Henry Radcliffe Crocker, English dermatologist and author (b. 1846)

1914 - Giacomo Radini-Tedeschi, Italian bishop and academic (b. 1859)

1918 - Korbinian Brodmann, German neurologist and academic (b. 1868)

1920 - Anders Zorn, Swedish artist (b. 1860)

1926 - Charles William Eliot, American academic (b. 1834)

1933 - Alexandros Kontoulis, Greek general and diplomat (b. 1858)

1940 - Oliver Lodge, English physicist and academic (b. 1851)

1940 - Gerald Strickland, 1st Baron Strickland, Maltese lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Malta (b. 1861)

1942 - Michel Fokine, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1880)

1950 - Kirk Bryan, American geologist and academic (b. 1888)

1951 - Jack Bickell, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1884)

1953 - Jim Tabor, American baseball player (b. 1916)

1970 - Vladimir Propp, Russian philologist and scholar (b. 1895)

1974 - Jacob Bronowski, Polish-English mathematician, biologist, and author (b. 1908)

1976 - Gina Bachauer, Greek pianist and composer (b. 1913)

1976 - Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazilian physician and politician, 21st President of Brazil (b. 1902)

1977 - Sebastian Cabot, English actor (b. 1918)

1977 - Chunseong, Korean monk, philosopher and writer (b. 1891)

1979 - James T. Farrell, American novelist, short-story writer, and poet (b. 1904)

1981 - Vicente Manansala, Filipino painter (b. 1910)

1987 - Joseph P. Lash, American author and journalist (b. 1909)

1989 - Robert Grondelaers, Belgian cyclist (b. 1933)

1989 - Huey P. Newton, American activist, co-founded the Black Panther Party (b. 1942)

1991 - Colleen Dewhurst, Canadian-American actress (b. 1924)

1991 - Boris Pugo, Russian soldier and politician, Soviet Minister of Interior (b. 1937)

1994 - Gilles Groulx, Canadian director and screenwriter (b. 1931)

1994 - Allan Houser, American sculptor and painter (b. 1914)

1995 - Johnny Carey, Irish footballer and manager (b. 1919)

1996 - Erwin Komenda, Austrian car designer and engineer (b. 1904)

2003 - Arnold Gerschwiler, Swiss figure skater and coach (b. 1914)

2004 - Konstantin Aseev, Russian chess player and trainer (b. 1960)

2004 - Angus Bethune, Australian soldier and politician, 33rd Premier of Tasmania (b. 1908)

2004 - Daniel Petrie, Canadian director and producer (b. 1920)

2005 - Luc Ferrari, French-Italian director and composer (b. 1929)

2005 - Ernest Kirkendall, American chemist and metallurgist (b. 1914)

2007 - Grace Paley, American short story writer and poet (b. 1922)

2008 - Gladys Powers, English-Canadian soldier (b. 1899)

2009 - Muriel Duckworth, Canadian pacifist, feminist, and activist (b. 1908)[31]

2009 - Elmer Kelton, American journalist and author (b. 1926)

2010 - Stjepan Bobek, Croatian footballer and manager (b. 1923)

2011 - Nick Ashford, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1942)

2011 - Jack Layton, Canadian academic and politician (b. 1950)

2011 - Casey Ribicoff, American philanthropist (b. 1922)

2012 - Nina Bawden, English author (b. 1925)

2012 - Paul Shan Kuo-hsi, Chinese cardinal (b. 1923)

2012 - Jeffrey Stone, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1926)

2013 - Andrea Servi, Italian footballer (b. 1984)

2014 - U. R. Ananthamurthy, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1932)

2014 - Emmanuel Kriaras, Greek lexicographer and philologist (b. 1906)

2014 - Pete Ladygo, American football player and coach (b. 1928)

2014 - Noella Leduc, American baseball player (b. 1933)

2014 - John Sperling, American businessman, founded the University of Phoenix (b. 1921)

2014 - John S. Waugh, American chemist and academic (b. 1929)

2015 - Arthur Morris, Australian cricketer and journalist (b. 1922)

2015 - Ieng Thirith, Cambodian academic and politician (b. 1932)

2015 - Eric Thompson, English race car driver and book dealer (b. 1919)

2016 - Toots Thielemans, Belgian and American jazz musician (b. 1922)

1. ^ Ride, Lindsay Tasman; Ride, Violet May (1999). The Voices of Macao Stones (Abridged ed.). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. p. 45. ISBN 9789622094871.

2. ^ Pictet, Jean S. (1951), "The New Geneva Conventions for the Protection of War Victims", The American Journal of International Law, 45 (3): 462-475, doi:10.2307/2194544, JSTOR 2194544

3. ^ Chen, Qingyu; Fu, Bihong; Shi, Pilong; Li, Zhao (2022). Livio, Franz; Ferrario, Maria Francesca (eds.). "Surface Deformation Associated with the 22 August 1902 Mw 7.7 Atushi Earthquake in the Southwestern Tian Shan, Revealed from Multiple Remote Sensing Data". Remote Sensing. MDPI. 14 (7): 1663. Bibcode:2022RemS...14.1663C. doi:10.3390/rs14071663.

4. ^ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas MD-11 B-150 Hong Kong-Chek Lap Kok International Airport (HKG)". aviation-safety.net. Aviation Safety Network.

5. ^ Gottfried Opitz. Neue Deutsche Biographie (in German). p. 568.

6. ^ John McClintock (1981). Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Baker Book House. ISBN 978-0-8010-6123-3.

7. ^ Seagle, William (1945). "Rudolf von Jhering: Or Law as a Means to an End". University of Chicago Law Review. 13 (1): 71-89 [76]. doi:10.2307/1597562. ISSN 0041-9494. JSTOR 1597562.

8. ^ Staunton, Anthony (1988). "Newland, James Ernest (1881-1949)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. ISSN 1833-7538.

9. ^ Willerson, JT (6 January 2017). "Denton Arthur Cooley, MD". Circulation Research. 120 (1): 17-19. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.310451. PMID 28057783.

10. ^ Karl Heinrich Wörner (18 February 1977). Stockhausen. University of California Press. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-520-03272-9.

11. ^ "Valerie Harper Biography". The Biography Channel (A&E Networks).

12. ^ Colin Larkin, ed. (1992). The Guinness Encyclopedia of Popular Music (First ed.). Guinness Publishing. p. 626. ISBN 0-85112-939-0.

13. ^ Lukanic, Steven A (1991). Film Actors Guide. Lone Eagle. p. 421. ISBN 9780943728384.

14. ^ "David Reimer and John Money Gender Reassignment Controversy: The John/Joan Case - The Embryo Project Encyclopedia". embryo.asu.edu.

15. ^ "Tímea Nagy". International Olympic Committee.

16. ^ Salih Yoluc career profile, Driver Database

17. ^ "Pregnant Gigi Hadid Wishes 'Sister' Dua Lipa a Happy 25th Birthday: 'You're a Special One'". People. Archived from the original on 22 August 2020.

18. ^ "APPLEGATE Jessica-Jane". Paralympic.org.

19. ^ "KARD". DSPmedia.

20. ^ Barker, George Fisher Russell (1893). "Lyttelton, George (1709-1773)" . In Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 34. London: Smith, Elder & Co.

21. ^ The Athletic Staff (22 August 2021). "Rod Gilbert, Rangers legend and Hall of Famer, dies at 80". The Athletic. Archived from the original on 23 August 2021.

22. ^ Saint Guinefort: The Holy Greyhound

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Toggle the table of contents From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia August 22 is the 234th day of the year (235th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar; 131 days remain until the end of the year. 1601 - Georges de Scudéry, French author, poet, and playwright (d.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
(Achille) Claude Debussy ( French: [aʃil klod dəbysi]; 22 August 1862 - 25 March 1918) was a French composer. He is sometimes seen as the first Impressionist composer, although he vigorously rejected the term. He was among the most influential composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Born to a family of modest means and little cultural involvement, Debussy showed enough musical talent to be admitted at the age of ten to France's leading music college, the Conservatoire de Paris. He originally studied the piano, but found his vocation in innovative composition, despite the disapproval of the Conservatoire's conservative professors. He took many years to develop his mature style, and was nearly 40 when he achieved international fame in 1902 with the only opera he completed, Pelléas et Mélisande.

Debussy's orchestral works include Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune (1894), (1897-1899) and (1905-1912). His music was to a considerable extent a reaction against Wagner and the German musical tradition. He regarded the classical symphony as obsolete and sought an alternative in his "symphonic sketches", (1903-1905). His piano works include sets of 24 Préludes and 12 Études. Throughout his career he wrote based on a wide variety of poetry, including his own. He was greatly influenced by the Symbolist poetic movement of the later 19th century. A small number of works, including the early La Damoiselle élue and the late Le Martyre de saint Sébastien have important parts for chorus. In his final years, he focused on chamber music, completing three of six planned sonatas for different combinations of instruments.

With early influences including Russian and Far Eastern music, Debussy developed his own style of harmony and orchestral colouring, derided - and unsuccessfully resisted - by much of the musical establishment of the day. His works have strongly influenced a wide range of composers including Béla Bartók, Olivier Messiaen, George Benjamin, and the jazz pianist and composer Bill Evans. Debussy died from cancer at his home in Paris at the age of 55 after a composing career of a little more than 30 years.

Debussy was born on 22 August 1862 in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Seine-et-Oise, on the north-west fringes of Paris. He was the eldest of the five children of Manuel-Achille Debussy and his wife, Victorine, née Manoury. Debussy senior ran a china shop and his wife was a seamstress. The shop was unsuccessful, and closed in 1864; the family moved to Paris, first living with Victorine's mother, in Clichy, and, from 1868, in their own apartment in the Rue Saint-Honoré. Manuel worked in a printing factory.

In 1870, to escape the siege of Paris during the Franco-Prussian War, Debussy's pregnant mother took him and his sister Adèle to their paternal aunt's home in Cannes, where they remained until the following year. During his stay in Cannes, the seven-year-old Debussy had his first piano lessons; his aunt paid for him to study with an Italian musician, Jean Cerutti. Manuel Debussy remained in Paris and joined the forces of the Commune; after its defeat by French government troops in 1871 he was sentenced to four years' imprisonment, of which he only served one year. His fellow Communard prisoners included his friend Charles de Sivry, a musician. Sivry's mother, Antoinette Mauté de Fleurville, gave piano lessons, and at his instigation the young Debussy became one of her pupils.

Debussy's talents soon became evident, and in 1872, aged ten, he was admitted to the Conservatoire de Paris, where he remained a student for the next eleven years. He first joined the piano class of Antoine François Marmontel, and studied solfège with Albert Lavignac and, later, composition with Ernest Guiraud, harmony with Émile Durand, and organ with César Franck. The course included music history and theory studies with Louis-Albert Bourgault-Ducoudray, but it is not certain that Debussy, who was apt to skip classes, actually attended these.

At the Conservatoire, Debussy initially made good progress. Marmontel said of him "A charming child, a truly artistic temperament; much can be expected of him". Another teacher was less impressed: Émile Durand wrote in a report "Debussy would be an excellent pupil if he were less sketchy and less cavalier." A year later he described Debussy as "desperately careless". In July 1874 Debussy received the award of deuxième accessit for his performance as soloist in the first movement of Chopin's Second Piano Concerto at the Conservatoire's annual competition. He was a fine pianist and an outstanding sight reader, who could have had a professional career had he wished, but he was only intermittently diligent in his studies. He advanced to premier accessit in 1875 and second prize in 1877, but failed at the competitions in 1878 and 1879. These failures made him ineligible to continue in the Conservatoire's piano classes, but he remained a student for harmony, solfège and, later, composition.

With Marmontel's help Debussy secured a summer vacation job in 1879 as resident pianist at the Château de Chenonceau, where he rapidly acquired a taste for luxury that was to remain with him all his life. His first compositions date from this period, two settings of poems by Alfred de Musset: "Ballade à la lune" and "Madrid, princesse des Espagnes". The following year he secured a job as pianist in the household of Nadezhda von Meck, the patroness of Tchaikovsky. He travelled with her family for the summers of 1880 to 1882, staying at various places in France, Switzerland and Italy, as well as at her home in Moscow. He composed his Piano Trio in G major for von Meck's ensemble, and made a transcription for piano duet of three dances from Tchaikovsky's .

At the end of 1880 Debussy, while continuing his studies at the Conservatoire, was engaged as accompanist for Marie Moreau-Sainti's singing class; he took this role for four years. Among the members of the class was Marie Vasnier; Debussy was greatly taken with her, and she inspired him to compose: he wrote 27 songs dedicated to her during their seven-year relationship. She was the wife of Henri Vasnier, a prominent civil servant, and much younger than her husband. She soon became Debussy's lover as well as his muse. Whether Vasnier was content to tolerate his wife's affair with the young student or was simply unaware of it is not clear, but he and Debussy remained on excellent terms, and he continued to encourage the composer in his career.

At the Conservatoire, Debussy incurred the disapproval of the faculty, particularly his composition teacher, Guiraud, for his failure to follow the orthodox rules of composition then prevailing. Nevertheless, in 1884 Debussy won France's most prestigious musical award, the Prix de Rome, with his cantata L'enfant prodigue. The Prix carried with it a residence at the Villa Medici, the French Academy in Rome, to further the winner's studies. Debussy was there from January 1885 to March 1887, with three or possibly four absences of several weeks when he returned to France, chiefly to see Marie Vasnier.

Initially Debussy found the artistic atmosphere of the Villa Medici stifling, the company boorish, the food bad, and the accommodation "abominable". Neither did he delight in Italian opera, as he found the operas of Donizetti and Verdi not to his taste. He was much more impressed by the music of the 16th-century composers Palestrina and Lassus, which he heard at Santa Maria dell'Anima: "The only church music I will accept". He was often depressed and unable to compose, but he was inspired by Franz Liszt, who visited the students and played for them. In June 1885, Debussy wrote of his desire to follow his own way, saying, "I am sure the Institute would not approve, for, naturally it regards the path which it ordains as the only right one. But there is no help for it! I am too enamoured of my freedom, too fond of my own ideas!"

Debussy finally composed four pieces that were submitted to the Academy: the symphonic ode Zuleima (based on a text by Heinrich Heine); the orchestral piece Printemps; the cantata La Damoiselle élue (1887-1888), the first piece in which the stylistic features of his later music began to emerge; and the Fantaisie for piano and orchestra, which was heavily based on Franck's music and was eventually withdrawn by Debussy. The Academy chided him for writing music that was "bizarre, incomprehensible and unperformable". Although Debussy's works showed the influence of Jules Massenet, the latter concluded, "He is an enigma". During his years in Rome Debussy composed - not for the Academy - most of his Verlaine cycle, Ariettes oubliées, which made little impact at the time but was successfully republished in 1903 after the composer had become well known.

A week after his return to Paris in 1887, Debussy heard the first act of Wagner's Tristan und Isolde at the Concerts Lamoureux, and judged it "decidedly the finest thing I know". In 1888 and 1889 he went to the annual festivals of Wagner's operas at Bayreuth. He responded positively to Wagner's sensuousness, mastery of form, and striking harmonies, and was briefly influenced by them, but, unlike some other French composers of his generation, he concluded that there was no future in attempting to adopt and develop Wagner's style. He commented in 1903 that Wagner was "a beautiful sunset that was mistaken for a dawn".

In 1889, at the Paris Exposition Universelle, Debussy first heard Javanese gamelan music. The gamelan scales, melodies, rhythms, and ensemble textures appealed to him, and echoes of them are heard in "Pagodes" in his piano suite . He also attended two concerts of Rimsky-Korsakov's music, conducted by the composer. This too made an impression on him, and its harmonic freedom and non-Teutonic tone colours influenced his own developing musical style.

Marie Vasnier ended her liaison with Debussy soon after his final return from Rome, although they remained on good enough terms for him to dedicate to her one more song, "Mandoline", in 1890. Later in 1890 Debussy met Erik Satie, who proved a kindred spirit in his experimental approach to composition. Both were bohemians, enjoying the same café society and struggling to survive financially. In the same year Debussy began a relationship with Gabrielle (Gaby) Dupont, a tailor's daughter from Lisieux; in July 1893 they began living together.

Debussy continued to compose songs, piano pieces and other works, some of which were publicly performed, but his music made only a modest impact, although his fellow composers recognised his potential by electing him to the committee of the Société Nationale de Musique in 1893. His String Quartet was premiered by the Ysaÿe string quartet at the Société Nationale in the same year. In May 1893 Debussy attended a theatrical event that was of key importance to his later career - the premiere of Maurice Maeterlinck's play Pelléas et Mélisande, which he immediately determined to turn into an opera. He travelled to Maeterlinck's home in Ghent in November to secure his consent to an operatic adaptation.

1894-1902: Pelléas et Mélisande

In February 1894 Debussy completed the first draft of Act I of his operatic version of Pelléas et Mélisande, and for most of the year worked to complete the work. While still living with Dupont, he had an affair with the singer Thérèse Roger, and in 1894 he announced their engagement. His behaviour was widely condemned; anonymous letters circulated denouncing his treatment of both women, as well as his financial irresponsibility and debts. The engagement was broken off, and several of Debussy's friends and supporters disowned him, including Ernest Chausson, hitherto one of his strongest supporters.

In terms of musical recognition, Debussy made a step forward in December 1894, when the symphonic poem Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune, based on Stéphane Mallarmé's poem, was premiered at a concert of the Société Nationale. The following year he completed the first draft of Pelléas and began efforts to get it staged. In May 1898 he made his first contacts with André Messager and Albert Carré, respectively the musical director and general manager of the Opéra-Comique, Paris, about presenting the opera.

Debussy abandoned Dupont for her friend Marie-Rosalie Texier, known as "Lilly", whom he married in October 1899, after threatening suicide if she refused him. She was affectionate, practical, straightforward, and well liked by Debussy's friends and associates, but he became increasingly irritated by her intellectual limitations and lack of musical sensitivity. The marriage lasted barely five years.

From around 1900 Debussy's music became a focus and inspiration for an informal group of innovative young artists, poets, critics, and musicians who began meeting in Paris. They called themselves Les Apaches - roughly "The Hooligans" - to represent their status as "artistic outcasts" The membership was fluid, but at various times included Maurice Ravel, Ricardo Viñes, Igor Stravinsky and Manuel de Falla. In the same year the first two of Debussy's three orchestral were first performed. Although they did not make any great impact with the public they were well reviewed by musicians including Paul Dukas, Alfred Bruneau and Pierre de Bréville. The complete set was given the following year.

Like many other composers of the time, Debussy supplemented his income by teaching and writing. For most of 1901 he had a sideline as music critic of La Revue Blanche, adopting the pen name "Monsieur Croche". He expressed trenchant views on composers ("I hate sentimentality - his name is Camille Saint-Saëns"), institutions (on the Paris Opéra: "A stranger would take it for a railway station, and, once inside, would mistake it for a Turkish bath"), conductors (" Nikisch is a unique virtuoso, so much so that his virtuosity seems to make him forget the claims of good taste"), musical politics ("The English actually think that a musician can manage an opera house successfully!"), and audiences ("their almost drugged expression of boredom, indifference and even stupidity"). He later collected his criticisms with a view to their publication as a book; it was published after his death as Monsieur Croche, Antidilettante.

In January 1902 rehearsals began at the Opéra-Comique for the opening of Pelléas et Mélisande. For three months, Debussy attended rehearsals practically every day. In February there was conflict between Maeterlinck on the one hand and Debussy, Messager and Carré on the other about the casting of Mélisande. Maeterlinck wanted his mistress, Georgette Leblanc, to sing the role, and was incensed when she was passed over in favour of the Scottish soprano Mary Garden. The opera opened on 30 April 1902, and although the first-night audience was divided between admirers and sceptics, the work quickly became a success. It made Debussy a well-known name in France and abroad; commented that the opera had "provoked more discussion than any work of modern times, excepting, of course, those of Richard Strauss". The Apaches, led by Ravel (who attended every one of the 14 performances in the first run), were loud in their support; the conservative faculty of the Conservatoire tried in vain to stop its students from seeing the opera. The vocal score was published in early May, and the full orchestral score in 1904.

In 1903 there was public recognition of Debussy's stature when he was appointed a Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur, but his social standing suffered a great blow when another turn in his private life caused a scandal the following year. Among his pupils was Raoul Bardac, son of Emma, the wife of a Parisian banker, Sigismond Bardac. Raoul introduced his teacher to his mother, to whom Debussy quickly became greatly attracted. She was a sophisticate, a brilliant conversationalist, an accomplished singer, and relaxed about marital fidelity, having been the mistress and muse of Gabriel Fauré a few years earlier. After despatching Lilly to her parental home at Bichain in Villeneuve-la-Guyard on 15 July 1904, Debussy took Emma away, staying incognito in Jersey and then at Pourville in Normandy. He wrote to his wife on 11 August from Dieppe, telling her that their marriage was over, but still making no mention of Bardac. When he returned to Paris he set up home on his own, taking a flat in a different arrondissement. On 14 October, five days before their fifth wedding anniversary, Lilly Debussy attempted suicide, shooting herself in the chest with a revolver; she survived, although the bullet remained lodged in her vertebrae for the rest of her life. The ensuing scandal caused Bardac's family to disown her, and Debussy lost many good friends including Dukas and Messager. His relations with Ravel, never close, were exacerbated when the latter joined other former friends of Debussy in contributing to a fund to support the deserted Lilly.

The Bardacs divorced in May 1905. Finding the hostility in Paris intolerable, Debussy and Emma (now pregnant) went to England. They stayed at the Grand Hotel, Eastbourne in July and August, where Debussy corrected the proofs of his symphonic sketches, celebrating his divorce on 2 August. After a brief visit to London, the couple returned to Paris in September, buying a house in a courtyard development off the Avenue du Bois de Boulogne (now Avenue Foch), Debussy's home for the rest of his life.

In October 1905 La mer, Debussy's most substantial orchestral work, was premiered in Paris by the Orchestre Lamoureux under the direction of Camille Chevillard; the reception was mixed. Some praised the work, but Pierre Lalo, critic of , hitherto an admirer of Debussy, wrote, "I do not hear, I do not see, I do not smell the sea". In the same month the composer's only child was born at their home. Claude-Emma, affectionately known as "Chouchou", was a musical inspiration to the composer (she was the dedicatee of his Children's Corner suite). She outlived her father by scarcely a year, succumbing to the diphtheria epidemic of 1919. Mary Garden said, "I honestly don't know if Debussy ever loved anybody really. He loved his music - and perhaps himself. I think he was wrapped up in his genius", but biographers are agreed that whatever his relations with lovers and friends, Debussy was devoted to his daughter.

Debussy and Emma Bardac eventually married in 1908, their troubled union enduring for the rest of his life. The following year began well, when at Fauré's invitation, Debussy became a member of the governing council of the Conservatoire. His success in London was consolidated in April 1909, when he conducted Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune and the Nocturnes at the Queen's Hall; in May he was present at the first London production of Pelléas et Mélisande, at Covent Garden. In the same year, Debussy was diagnosed with colorectal cancer, from which he was to die nine years later.

Debussy's works began to feature increasingly in concert programmes at home and overseas. In 1910 Gustav Mahler conducted the Nocturnes and Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune in New York in successive months. In the same year, visiting Budapest, Debussy commented that his works were better known there than in Paris. In 1912 Sergei Diaghilev commissioned a new ballet score, . That, and the three , premiered the following year, were the composer's last orchestral works. Jeux was unfortunate in its timing: two weeks after the premiere, in March 1913, Diaghilev presented the first performance of Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring, a sensational event that monopolised discussion in musical circles, and effectively sidelined Jeux along with Fauré's , which had opened a week before.

In 1915 Debussy underwent one of the earliest colostomy operations. It achieved only a temporary respite, and occasioned him considerable frustration ("There are mornings when the effort of dressing seems like one of the twelve labours of Hercules"). He also had a fierce enemy at this period in the form of Camille Saint-Saëns, who in a letter to Fauré condemned Debussy's En blanc et noir: "It's incredible, and the door of the Institut [de France] must at all costs be barred against a man capable of such atrocities". Saint-Saëns had been a member of the Institut since 1881: Debussy never became one. His health continued to decline; he gave his final concert (the premiere of his Violin Sonata) on 14 September 1917 and became bedridden in early 1918.

Debussy died on 25 March 1918 at his home. The First World War was still raging and Paris was under German aerial and artillery bombardment. The military situation did not permit the honour of a public funeral with ceremonious graveside orations. The funeral procession made its way through deserted streets to a temporary grave at Père Lachaise Cemetery as the German guns bombarded the city. Debussy's body was reinterred the following year in the small Passy Cemetery sequestered behind the Trocadéro, fulfilling his wish to rest "among the trees and the birds"; his wife and daughter are buried with him.

In a survey of Debussy's oeuvre shortly after the composer's death, the critic Ernest Newman wrote, "It would be hardly too much to say that Debussy spent a third of his life in the discovery of himself, a third in the free and happy realisation of himself, and the final third in the partial, painful loss of himself". Later commentators have rated some of the late works more highly than Newman and other contemporaries did, but much of the music for which Debussy is best known is from the middle years of his career.

The analyst David Cox wrote in 1974 that Debussy, admiring Wagner's attempts to combine all the creative arts, "created a new, instinctive, dreamlike world of music, lyrical and pantheistic, contemplative and objective - a kind of art, in fact, which seemed to reach out into all aspects of experience". In 1988 the composer and scholar Wilfrid Mellers wrote of Debussy:

Because of, rather than in spite of, his preoccupation with chords in themselves, he deprived music of the sense of harmonic progression, broke down three centuries' dominance of harmonic tonality, and showed how the melodic conceptions of tonality typical of primitive folk-music and of medieval music might be relevant to the twentieth century"

Debussy did not give his works opus numbers, apart from his String Quartet, Op. 10 in G minor (also the only work where the composer's title included a key). His works were catalogued and indexed by the musicologist François Lesure in 1977 (revised in 2003) and their Lesure number ("L" followed by a number) is sometimes used as a suffix to their title in concert programmes and recordings.

Debussy's musical development was slow, and as a student he was adept enough to produce for his teachers at the Conservatoire works that would conform to their conservative precepts. His friend Georges Jean-Aubry commented that Debussy "admirably imitated Massenet's melodic turns of phrase" in the cantata L'enfant prodigue (1884) which won him the Prix de Rome. A more characteristically Debussian work from his early years is La Damoiselle élue, recasting the traditional form for oratorios and cantatas, using a chamber orchestra and a small body of choral tone and using new or long-neglected scales and harmonies. His early , inspired by Marie Vasnier, are more virtuosic in character than his later works in the genre, with extensive wordless ; from the Ariettes oubliées (1885-1887) onwards he developed a more restrained style. He wrote his own poems for the Proses lyriques (1892-1893) but, in the view of the musical scholar Robert Orledge, "his literary talents were not on a par with his musical imagination".

The musicologist Jacques-Gabriel Prod'homme wrote that, together with La Demoiselle élue, the Ariettes oubliées and the Cinq poèmes de Charles Baudelaire (1889) show "the new, strange way which the young musician will hereafter follow". Newman concurred: "There is a good deal of Wagner, especially of Tristan, in the idiom. But the work as a whole is distinctive, and the first in which we get a hint of the Debussy we were to know later - the lover of vague outlines, of half-lights, of mysterious consonances and dissonances of colour, the apostle of languor, the exclusivist in thought and in style." During the next few years Debussy developed his personal style, without, at this stage, breaking sharply away from French musical traditions. Much of his music from this period is on a small scale, such as the Two Arabesques, Valse romantique, Suite bergamasque, and the first set of Fêtes galantes. Newman remarked that, like Chopin, the Debussy of this period appears as a liberator from Germanic styles of composition - offering instead "an exquisite, pellucid style" capable of conveying "not only gaiety and whimsicality but emotion of a deeper sort". In a 2004 study, Mark DeVoto comments that Debussy's early works are harmonically no more adventurous than existing music by Fauré; in a 2007 book about the piano works, Margery Halford observes that Two Arabesques (1888-1891) and "Rêverie" (1890) have "the fluidity and warmth of Debussy's later style" but are not harmonically innovative. Halford cites the popular "Clair de Lune" (1890), the third of the four movements of Suite Bergamasque, as a transitional work pointing towards the composer's mature style.

Musicians from Debussy's time onwards have regarded Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune (1894) as his first orchestral masterpiece. Newman considered it "completely original in idea, absolutely personal in style, and logical and coherent from first to last, without a superfluous bar or even a superfluous note"; Pierre Boulez observed, "Modern music was awakened by Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune". Most of the major works for which Debussy is best known were written between the mid-1890s and the mid-1900s. They include the String Quartet (1893), Pelléas et Mélisande (1893-1902), the Nocturnes for Orchestra (1899) and (1903-1905). The suite Pour le piano (1894-1901) is, in Halford's view, one of the first examples of the mature Debussy as a composer for the piano: "a major landmark ... and an enlargement of the use of piano sonorities".

In the String Quartet (1893), the gamelan sonorities Debussy had heard four years earlier are recalled in the pizzicatos and cross-rhythms of the scherzo. Debussy's biographer Edward Lockspeiser comments that this movement shows the composer's rejection of "the traditional dictum that string instruments should be predominantly lyrical". The work influenced Ravel, whose own String Quartet, written ten years later, has noticeably Debussian features. The academic and journalist Stephen Walsh calls Pelléas et Mélisande (begun 1893, staged 1902) "a key work for the 20th century". The composer Olivier Messiaen was fascinated by its "extraordinary harmonic qualities and ... transparent instrumental texture". The opera is composed in what Alan Blyth describes as a sustained and heightened recitative style, with "sensuous, intimate" vocal lines. It influenced composers as different as Stravinsky and Puccini.

Orledge describes the Nocturnes as exceptionally varied in texture, "ranging from the Musorgskian start of 'Nuages', through the approaching brass band procession in 'Fêtes', to the wordless female chorus in 'Sirènes'". Orledge considers the last a pre-echo of the marine textures of La mer. for piano (1903) gives impressions of exotic locations, with further echoes of the gamelan in its pentatonic structures. Debussy believed that since Beethoven, the traditional symphonic form had become formulaic, repetitive and obsolete. The three-part, cyclic symphony by César Franck (1888) was more to his liking, and its influence can be found in La mer (1905); this uses a quasi-symphonic form, its three sections making up a giant sonata-form movement with, as Orledge observes, a cyclic theme, in the manner of Franck. The central "Jeux de vagues" section has the function of a symphonic development section leading into the final "Dialogue du vent et de la mer", "a powerful essay in orchestral colour and sonority" (Orledge) which reworks themes from the first movement. The reviews were sharply divided. Some critics thought the treatment less subtle and less mysterious than his previous works, and even a step backward; others praised its "power and charm", its "extraordinary verve and brilliant fantasy", and its strong colours and definite lines.

Of the later orchestral works, (1905-1912) is better known than (1913). The former follows the tripartite form established in the Nocturnes and La mer, but differs in employing traditional British and French folk tunes, and in making the central movement, "Ibéria", far longer than the outer ones, and subdividing it into three parts, all inspired by scenes from Spanish life. Although considering Images "the pinnacle of Debussy's achievement as a composer for orchestra", Trezise notes a contrary view that the accolade belongs to the ballet score Jeux. The latter failed as a ballet because of what Jann Pasler describes as a banal scenario, and the score was neglected for some years. Recent analysts have found it a link between traditional continuity and thematic growth within a score and the desire to create discontinuity in a way mirrored in later 20th century music. In this piece, Debussy abandoned the whole-tone scale he had often favoured previously in favour of the octatonic scale with what the Debussy scholar François Lesure describes as its tonal ambiguities.

Among the late piano works are two books of (1909-10, 1911-13), short pieces that depict a wide range of subjects. Lesure comments that they range from the frolics of minstrels at Eastbourne in 1905 and the American acrobat "General Lavine" "to dead leaves and the sounds and scents of the evening air". En blanc et noir (In white and black, 1915), a three-movement work for two pianos, is a predominantly sombre piece, reflecting the war and national danger. The (1915) for piano have divided opinion. Writing soon after Debussy's death, Newman found them laboured - "a strange last chapter in a great artist's life"; Lesure, writing eighty years later, rates them among Debussy's greatest late works: "Behind a pedagogic exterior, these 12 pieces explore abstract intervals, or - in the last five - the sonorities and timbres peculiar to the piano." In 1914 Debussy started work on a planned set of six sonatas for various instruments. His fatal illness prevented him from completing the set, but those for cello and piano (1915), flute, viola and harp (1915), and violin and piano (1917 - his last completed work) are all concise, three-movement pieces, more diatonic in nature than some of his other late works.

Le Martyre de saint Sébastien (1911), originally a five-act musical play to a text by Gabriele D'Annunzio that took nearly five hours in performance, was not a success, and the music is now more often heard in a concert (or studio) adaptation with narrator, or as an orchestral suite of "Fragments symphoniques". Debussy enlisted the help of André Caplet in orchestrating and arranging the score. Two late stage works, the ballets (1912) and La boîte à joujoux (1913), were left with the orchestration incomplete, and were completed by Charles Koechlin and Caplet, respectively.

The application of the term "Impressionist" to Debussy and the music he influenced has been much debated, both during his lifetime and since. The analyst Richard Langham Smith writes that Impressionism was originally a term coined to describe a style of late 19th-century French painting, typically scenes suffused with reflected light in which the emphasis is on the overall impression rather than outline or clarity of detail, as in works by Monet, Pissarro, Renoir and others. Langham Smith writes that the term became transferred to the compositions of Debussy and others which were "concerned with the representation of landscape or natural phenomena, particularly the water and light imagery dear to Impressionists, through subtle textures suffused with instrumental colour".

Among painters, Debussy particularly admired Turner, but also drew inspiration from Whistler. With the latter in mind the composer wrote to the violinist Eugène Ysaÿe in 1894 describing the orchestral Nocturnes as "an experiment in the different combinations that can be obtained from one colour - what a study in grey would be in painting."

Debussy strongly objected to the use of the word "Impressionism" for his (or anybody else's) music, but it has continually been attached to him since the assessors at the Conservatoire first applied it, opprobriously, to his early work Printemps. Langham Smith comments that Debussy wrote many piano pieces with titles evocative of nature - "Reflets dans l'eau" (1905), "Les Sons et les parfums tournent dans l'air du soir" (1910) and "Brouillards" (1913) - and suggests that the Impressionist painters' use of brush-strokes and dots is paralleled in the music of Debussy. Although Debussy said that anyone using the term (whether about painting or music) was an imbecile, some Debussy scholars have taken a less absolutist line. Lockspeiser calls La mer "the greatest example of an orchestral Impressionist work", and more recently in The Cambridge Companion to Debussy Nigel Simeone comments, "It does not seem unduly far-fetched to see a parallel in Monet's seascapes".

In this context may be placed Debussy's pantheistic eulogy to Nature, in a 1911 interview with Henry Malherbe:

I have made mysterious Nature my religion ... When I gaze at a sunset sky and spend hours contemplating its marvellous ever-changing beauty, an extraordinary emotion overwhelms me. Nature in all its vastness is truthfully reflected in my sincere though feeble soul. Around me are the trees stretching up their branches to the skies, the perfumed flowers gladdening the meadow, the gentle grass-carpeted earth, ... and my hands unconsciously assume an attitude of adoration.

In contrast to the "impressionistic" characterisation of Debussy's music, several writers have suggested that he structured at least some of his music on rigorous mathematical lines. In 1983 the pianist and scholar Roy Howat published a book contending that certain of Debussy's works are proportioned using mathematical models, even while using an apparent classical structure such as sonata form. Howat suggests that some of Debussy's pieces can be divided into sections that reflect the golden ratio, which is approximated by ratios of consecutive numbers in the Fibonacci sequence. Simon Trezise, in his 1994 book Debussy: La Mer, finds the intrinsic evidence "remarkable", with the caveat that no written or reported evidence suggests that Debussy deliberately sought such proportions. Lesure takes a similar view, endorsing Howat's conclusions while not taking a view on Debussy's conscious intentions.

Debussy wrote "We must agree that the beauty of a work of art will always remain a mystery [...] we can never be absolutely sure 'how it's made.' We must at all costs preserve this magic which is peculiar to music and to which music, by its nature, is of all the arts the most receptive."

Nevertheless, there are many indicators of the sources and elements of Debussy's idiom. Writing in 1958, the critic Rudolph Reti summarised six features of Debussy's music, which he asserted "established a new concept of tonality in European music": the frequent use of lengthy pedal points - "not merely bass pedals in the actual sense of the term, but sustained 'pedals' in any voice"; glittering passages and webs of figurations which distract from occasional absence of tonality; frequent use of parallel chords which are "in essence not harmonies at all, but rather 'chordal melodies', enriched unisons", described by some writers as non-functional harmonies; bitonality, or at least bitonal chords; use of the whole-tone and pentatonic scales; and unprepared modulations, "without any harmonic bridge". Reti concludes that Debussy's achievement was the synthesis of monophonic based "melodic tonality" with harmonies, albeit different from those of "harmonic tonality".

In 1889, Debussy held conversations with his former teacher Guiraud, which included exploration of harmonic possibilities at the piano. The discussion, and Debussy's chordal keyboard improvisations, were noted by a younger pupil of Guiraud, Maurice Emmanuel. The chord sequences played by Debussy include some of the elements identified by Reti. They may also indicate the influence on Debussy of Satie's 1887 Trois Sarabandes. A further improvisation by Debussy during this conversation included a sequence of whole tone harmonies which may have been inspired by the music of Glinka or Rimsky-Korsakov which was becoming known in Paris at this time. During the conversation, Debussy told Guiraud, "There is no theory. You have only to listen. Pleasure is the law!" - although he also conceded, "I feel free because I have been through the mill, and I don't write in the fugal style because I know it."

"Chabrier, Moussorgsky, Palestrina, voilà ce que j'aime" - they are what I love.

Among French predecessors, Chabrier was an important influence on Debussy (as he was on Ravel and Poulenc); Howat has written that Chabrier's piano music such as "Sous-bois" and "Mauresque" in the Pièces pittoresques explored new sound-worlds of which Debussy made effective use 30 years later. Lesure finds traces of Gounod and Massenet in some of Debussy's early songs, and remarks that it may have been from the Russians - Tchaikovsky, Balakirev, Rimsky-Korsakov, Borodin and Mussorgsky - that Debussy acquired his taste for "ancient and oriental modes and for vivid colorations, and a certain disdain for academic rules". Lesure also considers that Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov directly influenced Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande. In the music of Palestrina, Debussy found what he called "a perfect whiteness", and he felt that although Palestrina's musical forms had a "strict manner", they were more to his taste than the rigid rules prevailing among 19th-century French composers and teachers. He drew inspiration from what he called Palestrina's "harmony created by melody", finding an arabesque-like quality in the melodic lines.

Debussy opined that Chopin was "the greatest of them all, for through the piano he discovered everything"; he professed his "respectful gratitude" for Chopin's piano music. He was torn between dedicating his own Études to Chopin or to François Couperin, whom he also admired as a model of form, seeing himself as heir to their mastery of the genre. Howat cautions against the assumption that Debussy's Ballade (1891) and Nocturne (1892) are influenced by Chopin - in Howat's view they owe more to Debussy's early Russian models - but Chopin's influence is found in other early works such as the Two arabesques (1889-1891). In 1914 the publisher A. Durand & fils began publishing scholarly new editions of the works of major composers, and Debussy undertook the supervision of the editing of Chopin's music.

Although Debussy was in no doubt of Wagner's stature, he was only briefly influenced by him in his compositions, after La damoiselle élue and the Cinq poèmes de Baudelaire (both begun in 1887). According to Pierre Louÿs, Debussy "did not see 'what anyone can do beyond Tristan'," although he admitted that it was sometimes difficult to avoid "the ghost of old Klingsor, alias Richard Wagner, appearing at the turning of a bar". After Debussy's short Wagnerian phase, he started to become interested in non-Western music and its unfamiliar approaches to composition. The piano piece Golliwogg's Cakewalk, from the 1908 suite Children's Corner, contains a parody of music from the introduction to Tristan, in which, in the opinion of the musicologist Lawrence Kramer, Debussy escapes the shadow of the older composer and "smilingly relativizes Wagner into insignificance".

A contemporary influence was Erik Satie, according to Nichols Debussy's "most faithful friend" amongst French musicians. Debussy's orchestration in 1896 of Satie's Gymnopédies (which had been written in 1887) "put their composer on the map" according to the musicologist Richard Taruskin, and the Sarabande from Debussy's Pour le piano (1901) "shows that [Debussy] knew Satie's Trois Sarabandes at a time when only a personal friend of the composer could have known them." (They were not published until 1911). Debussy's interest in the popular music of his time is evidenced not only by the Golliwogg's Cakewalk and other piano pieces featuring rag-time, such as The Little Nigar (Debussy's spelling) (1909), but by the slow waltz La plus que lente ( The more than slow), based on the style of the gipsy violinist at a Paris hotel (to whom he gave the manuscript of the piece).

In addition to the composers who influenced his own compositions, Debussy held strong views about several others. He was for the most part enthusiastic about Richard Strauss and Stravinsky, respectful of Mozart and was in awe of Bach, whom he called the "good God of music" ( le Bon Dieu de la musique). His relationship to Beethoven was complex; he was said to refer to him as le vieux sourd ('the old deaf one') and asked one young pupil not to play Beethoven's music for "it is like somebody dancing on my grave;" but he believed that Beethoven had profound things to say, yet did not know how to say them, "because he was imprisoned in a web of incessant restatement and of German aggressiveness." He was not in sympathy with Schubert, Schumann, Brahms and Mendelssohn, the latter being described as a "facile and elegant notary".

With the advent of the First World War, Debussy became ardently patriotic in his musical opinions. Writing to Stravinsky, he asked "How could we not have foreseen that these men were plotting the destruction of our art, just as they had planned the destruction of our country?" In 1915 he complained that "since Rameau we have had no purely French tradition [...] We tolerated overblown orchestras, tortuous forms [...] we were about to give the seal of approval to even more suspect naturalizations when the sound of gunfire put a sudden stop to it all." Taruskin writes that some have seen this as a reference to the composers Gustav Mahler and Arnold Schoenberg, both born Jewish. In 1912 Debussy had remarked to his publisher of the opera Ariane et Barbe-bleue by the (also Jewish) composer Paul Dukas, "You're right, [it] is a masterpiece - but it's not a masterpiece of French music."

Despite his lack of formal schooling, Debussy read widely and found inspiration in literature. Lesure writes, "The development of free verse in poetry and the disappearance of the subject or model in painting influenced him to think about issues of musical form." Debussy was influenced by the Symbolist poets. These writers, who included Verlaine, Mallarmé, Maeterlinck and Rimbaud, reacted against the realism, naturalism, objectivity and formal conservatism that prevailed in the 1870s. They favoured poetry using suggestion rather than direct statement; the literary scholar Chris Baldrick writes that they evoked "subjective moods through the use of private symbols, while avoiding the description of external reality or the expression of opinion". Debussy was much in sympathy with the Symbolists' desire to bring poetry closer to music, became friendly with several leading exponents, and set many Symbolist works throughout his career.

Debussy's literary inspirations were mostly French, but he did not overlook foreign writers. As well as Maeterlinck for Pelléas et Mélisande, he drew on Shakespeare and Dickens for two of his Préludes for piano - La Danse de Puck (Book 1, 1910) and Hommage à S. Pickwick Esq. P.P.M.P.C. (Book 2, 1913). He set Dante Gabriel Rossetti's The Blessed Damozel in his early cantata, La Damoiselle élue (1888). He wrote incidental music for and planned an opera based on As You Like It, but abandoned that once he turned his attention to setting Maeterlinck's play. In 1890 he began work on an orchestral piece inspired by Edgar Allan Poe's The Fall of the House of Usher and later sketched the libretto for an opera, La chute de la maison Usher. Another project inspired by Poe - an operatic version of The Devil in the Belfry did not progress beyond sketches. French writers whose words he set include Paul Bourget, Alfred de Musset, Théodore de Banville, Leconte de Lisle, Théophile Gautier, Paul Verlaine, François Villon, and Mallarmé - the last of whom also provided Debussy with the inspiration for one of his most popular orchestral pieces, Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune.

Debussy is widely regarded as one of the most influential composers of the 20th century. Roger Nichols writes that "if one omits Schoenberg [...] a list of 20th-century composers influenced by Debussy is practically a list of 20th-century composers ."

Bartók first encountered Debussy's music in 1907 and later said that "Debussy's great service to music was to reawaken among all musicians an awareness of harmony and its possibilities". Not only Debussy's use of whole-tone scales, but also his style of word-setting in Pelléas et Mélisande, were the subject of study by Leoš Janáček while he was writing his 1921 opera Káťa Kabanová. Stravinsky was more ambivalent about Debussy's music (he thought Pelléas "a terrible bore ... in spite of many wonderful pages") but the two composers knew each other and Stravinsky's Symphonies of Wind Instruments (1920) was written as a memorial for Debussy.

In the aftermath of the First World War, the young French composers of Les Six reacted against what they saw as the poetic, mystical quality of Debussy's music in favour of something more hard-edged. Their sympathiser and self-appointed spokesman Jean Cocteau wrote in 1918: "Enough of nuages, waves, aquariums, ondines and nocturnal perfumes," pointedly alluding to the titles of pieces by Debussy. Later generations of French composers had a much more positive relationship with his music. Messiaen was given a score of Pelléas et Mélisande as a boy and said that it was "a revelation, love at first sight" and "probably the most decisive influence I have been subject to". Boulez also discovered Debussy's music at a young age and said that it gave him his first sense of what modernity in music could mean.

Among contemporary composers George Benjamin has described Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune as "the definition of perfection"; he has conducted Pelléas et Mélisande and the critic Rupert Christiansen detects the influence of the work in Benjamin's opera Written on Skin (2012). Others have made orchestrations of some of the piano and vocal works, including John Adams's version of four of the Baudelaire songs ( Le Livre de Baudelaire, 1994), Robin Holloway's of En blanc et noir (2002), and Colin Matthews's of both books of Préludes (2001-2006).

The pianist Stephen Hough believes that Debussy's influence also extends to jazz and suggests that Reflets dans l'eau can be heard in the harmonies of Bill Evans.

In 1904, Debussy played the piano accompaniment for Mary Garden in recordings for the Compagnie française du Gramophone of four of his songs: three mélodies from the Verlaine cycle Ariettes oubliées - "Il pleure dans mon coeur", "L'ombre des arbres" and "Green" - and "Mes longs cheveux", from Act III of Pelléas et Mélisande. He made a set of piano rolls for the Welte-Mignon company in 1913. They contain fourteen of his pieces: "D'un cahier d'esquisses", "La plus que lente", "La soirée dans Grenade", all six movements of Children's Corner, and five of the Preludes: "Danseuses de Delphes", "Le vent dans la plaine", "La cathédrale engloutie", "La danse de Puck" and "Minstrels". The 1904 and 1913 sets have been transferred to compact disc.

Contemporaries of Debussy who made recordings of his music included the pianists Ricardo Viñes (in "Poissons d'or" from Images and "La soirée dans Grenade" from Estampes); Alfred Cortot (numerous solo pieces as well as the Violin Sonata with Jacques Thibaud and the Chansons de Bilitis with Maggie Teyte); and Marguerite Long ("Jardins sous la pluie" and "Arabesques"). Singers in Debussy's mélodies or excerpts from Pelléas et Mélisande included Jane Bathori, Claire Croiza, Charles Panzéra and Ninon Vallin; and among the conductors in the major orchestral works were Ernest Ansermet, Désiré-Émile Inghelbrecht, Pierre Monteux and Arturo Toscanini, and in the Petite Suite, Henri Büsser, who had prepared the orchestration for Debussy. Many of these early recordings have been reissued on CD.

In more recent times Debussy's output has been extensively recorded. In 2018, to mark the centenary of the composer's death, Warner Classics, with contributions from other companies, issued a 33-CD set that is claimed to include all the music Debussy wrote.

Notes, references and sources

1. ^ Debussy was addressed by various permutations of his names during the course of his life. His name was officially registered at the on the day of his birth as "Achille Claude". Many authorities hyphenate "Achille-Claude". As a little boy he was addressed as "Claude"; his baptismal certificate (he was not baptised until July 1864) is in the name of "Claude-Achille"; as a youth he was known as "Achille"; at the beginning of his career he sought to make his name more impressive by calling himself "Claude-Achille" (and sometimes rendering his surname as "de Bussy"). He signed himself as "Claude-Achille" between December 1889 and 4 June 1892, after which he permanently adopted the shorter "Claude".

2. ^ Debussy's birthplace is now a museum dedicated to him. In addition to displays depicting his life and work, the building contains a small auditorium in which an annual season of concerts is given.

3. Biographers of Debussy, including Edward Lockspeiser, Stephen Walsh and Eric Frederick Jensen, comment that although Antoinette Mauté de Fleurville was a woman of some affectations, with the assumed manner of a grande dame, she was a fine teacher. She claimed to have studied with ^ Chopin, and although many of Debussy's biographers have been sceptical about this, her artistic prowess was vouched for not only by Debussy, but by her son-in-law, Paul Verlaine.

4. In September 1880 von Meck sent the manuscript of Debussy's ^ Danse bohémienne for Tchaikovsky's perusal; a month later Tchaikovsky wrote back, mildly complimenting the work but remarking on its slightness and brevity. Debussy did not publish it, and the manuscript remained in the von Meck family and was not published until 1932.

5. The director of the Conservatoire, ^ Ambroise Thomas, was a deeply conservative musician, as were most of his faculty. It was not until Gabriel Fauré became director in 1905 that modern music such as Debussy's or even Wagner's was accepted within the Conservatoire.

6. Debussy's regard for Rimsky-Korsakov's music was not reciprocated. After hearing ^ Estampes a decade later, Rimsky wrote in his diary, "Poor and skimpy to the nth degree; there is no technique; even less imagination. The impudent decadent - he ignores all music that has gone before him, and ... thinks he has discovered America."

7. Other members were the composers ^ Florent Schmitt, Maurice Delage and Paul Ladmirault, the poets Léon-Paul Fargue and Tristan Klingsor, the painter Paul Sordes and the critic Michel Calvocoressi.

8. ^ Saint-Saëns, Franck, Massenet, Fauré and Ravel were all known as teachers, and Fauré, Messager and Dukas were regular music critics for Parisian journals.

9. Mary Garden was Messager's mistress at the time, but as far as is known she was chosen for wholly musical and dramatic reasons. She is described in the ^ Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians as "a supreme singing-actress, with uncommonly vivid powers of characterization ... and a rare subtlety of colour and phrasing."

10. A fictionalised and melodramatic dramatisation of the affair, ^ La femme nue, played in Paris in 1908. A myth grew up that Lilly Debussy shot herself in the Place de la Concorde, rather than at home. That version of events is not corroborated by Debussy scholars such as Marcel Dietschy, Roger Nichols, Robert Orledge and Nigel Simeone; and no mention of the Place de la Concorde appeared in even the most sensational press coverage at the time. Another inaccurate report of the case, in in early January 1905, stated that Lilly had made a second attempt at suicide.

11. ^ Lalo objected to what he felt was the artificiality of the piece: "a reproduction of nature; a wonderfully refined, ingenious and carefully composed reproduction, but a reproduction none the less". Another Parisian critic, Louis Schneider, wrote, "The audience seemed rather disappointed: they expected the ocean, something big, something colossal, but they were served instead with some agitated water in a saucer."

12. ^ He described the symphonies of Schumann and Mendelssohn as "respectful repetition"

13. In a letter of 1908 he wrote: "I am trying to do 'something different' - an effect of reality ... what the imbeciles call 'impressionism', a term which is as poorly used as possible, particularly by the critics, since they do not hesitate to apply it to [J.M.W.] ^ Turner, the finest creator of mysterious effects in all the world of art."

14. ^ Respectively, Reflections in the Water, Sounds and Perfumes Swirl in the Evening Air, and Mists.

15. ^ Roy Howat writes that Debussy, like Fauré "often juxtaposes the same basic material in different modes or with a strategically shifted bass" which, Howat suggests, is "arguably his most literal approach to true Impressionist technique, the equivalent of Monet's fixed object (be it cathedral or haystack) illuminated from different angles".

16. Debussy examined some existing editions, and chose to base his on that of ^ Ignaz Friedman. He wrote to Durand: "In Friedmann's [sic] preface (Breitkopf Edition, which is quite superior to the Peters), Chopin's influence on Wagner is indicated for the first time".

17. He remarked to a colleague that if Wagner, Mozart and Beethoven could come to his door and ask him to play ^ Pelléas to them, he would gladly do so, but if it were Bach, he would be too in awe to dare.

18. In addition to ^ Bill Evans, other jazz musicians influenced by Debussy include Herbie Hancock, and McCoy Tyner, according to an article in Jazz Education in Research and Practice.

1. Lalo, Pierre. "Music: La Mer - Suite of three symphonic pictures: its virtues and its faults", Le Temps, 16 October 1905, quoted in Jensen, p. 206

2. "War and Illness", Centre de documentation Claude Debussy, Bibliothèque nationale de France, retrieved 18 May 2018

3. Pasler, Jann. "Debussy, Jeux: Playing with Time and Form", 19th-Century Music, Summer 1982, pp. 60-75 (subscription required)

4. Goubault, Christian. ^ "Jeux. Poème dansé by Claude Debussy", Revue de Musicologie, No 1, 1990, pp. 133-134 (in French) (subscription required)

5. DeVoto, Mark. ^ "The Art of French Piano Music: Debussy, Ravel, Fauré, Chabrier", Notes, June 2010, p. 790 (subscription required) Archived 14 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine

6. Phillips, C. Henry. ^ "The Symbolists and Debussy", Music & Letters, July 1932, pp. 298-311 (subscription required)

7. ^ Kennedy, Michael, and Joyce Bourne Kennedy. "Debussy, Achille‐Claude", The Oxford Dictionary of Music, ed. Tim Rutherford-Johnson, Oxford University Press, 2012, retrieved 17 May 2018 (subscription required)

8. ^ "George Benjamin-Conductor, Composer and Knight", Dutch National Opera, retrieved 2 June 2018

9. ^ "Debussy orchestrations point towards 2018 centenary" Archived 19 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Boosey & Hawkes, 2016, retrieved 2 June 2018; and "Works" Archived 5 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Colin Matthews, retrieved 2 June 2018

10. ^ Pamies, Sergio (2021). "Deconstructing Modal Jazz Piano Techniques: The Relation between Debussy's Piano Works and the Innovations of Post-Bop Pianists". Jazz Education in Research and Practice. 2 (1): 76-105. doi:10.2979/jazzeducrese.2.1.06. ISSN 2639-7668.

Debussy, Claude (1962) [1927]. Monsieur Croche the Dilettante Hater. New York: Dover. OCLC 613848806.

Garden, Mary; Biancolli, Louis Leopold (1951). . New York: Simon & Schuster. OCLC 1001487250.

Lesure, François; Howat, Roy (2001). "Debussy, (Achille-)Claude". Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0.

Lesure, François; Cain, Julien (1962). Claude Debussy, 1862-1918: Exposition organisée pour commémorer le centenaire de sa naissance (in French). Bordeaux: Ville de Bordeaux. OCLC 557859304.

Mellers, Wilfrid (1988). Romanticism and the Twentieth Century. London: Barrie & Jenkins. ISBN 978-0-7126-2050-5.

Moreux, Serge (1953). . Translated by Fraser, G. S.; Mauny, Erik de. London: The Harvill Press. ISBN 978-0-8443-0105-1.

Nectoux, Jean-Michel (1991). Gabriel Fauré: A Musical Life. Roger Nichols (trans). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52-123524-2.

Nichols, Roger (1980). "Debussy, (Achille-)Claude". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-23111-1.

Orledge, Robert (2003). "Debussy the Man". In Trezise, Simon (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Debussy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65478-4.

Reti, Rudolph (1958). Tonality-Atonality-Pantonality: A Study of Some Trends in Twentieth Century Music. London: Rockliffe. OCLC 470370109.

Sackville-West, Edward; Shawe-Taylor, Desmond (1955). The Record Guide. London: Collins. OCLC 500373060.

Samuel, Claude (1976). Conversations with Olivier Messiaen. Translated by Aprahamian, Felix. London: Stainer and Bell. ISBN 978-0-85249-308-3.

Simeone, Nigel (2007). "Debussy and Expression". In Trezise, Simon (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Debussy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65243-8.

Thompson, Oscar (1940). . New York: Tudor Publishing. OCLC 636471036.

Trezise, Simon (2003). "Introduction & Debussy's 'rhythmicised time'". In Trezise, Simon (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Debussy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65478-4.

Vallas, Léon (1933). Claude Debussy: His Life and Works. Translated by O'Brien, Maire; O'Brien, Grace. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 458329645.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
(Achille) Claude Debussy ( French: [aʃil klod dəbysi]; 22 August 1862 - 25 March 1918) was a French composer. He is sometimes seen as the first Impressionist composer, although he vigorously rejected the term. He was among the most influential composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Byzantine music ( Greek: Βυζαντινή μουσική) is the music of the Byzantine Empire. Originally it consisted of songs and hymns composed to Greek texts used for courtly ceremonials, during festivals, or as paraliturgical and liturgical music. The ecclesiastical forms of Byzantine music are the best known forms today, because different Orthodox traditions still identify with the heritage of Byzantine music, when their cantors sing monodic chant out of the traditional chant books such as the Sticherarion, which in fact consisted of five books, and the Irmologion.

Byzantine music did not disappear after the fall of Constantinople. Its traditions continued under the Patriarch of Constantinople, who after the Ottoman conquest in 1453 was granted administrative responsibilities over all Eastern Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. During the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, burgeoning splinter nations in the Balkans declared autonomy or autocephaly from the Patriarchate of Constantinople. The new self-declared patriarchates were independent nations defined by their religion.

In this context, Christian religious chant practiced in the Ottoman Empire, in, among other nations, Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece, was based on the historical roots of the art tracing back to the Byzantine Empire, while the music of the Patriarchate created during the Ottoman period was often regarded as "post-Byzantine". This explains why Byzantine music refers to several Orthodox Christian chant traditions of the Mediterranean and of the Caucasus practiced in recent history and even today, and this article cannot be limited to the music culture of the Byzantine past.

The Byzantine chant was added by UNESCO in 2019 to its list of Intangible Cultural Heritage "as a living art that has existed for more than 2000 years, the Byzantine chant is a significant cultural tradition and comprehensive music system forming part of the common musical traditions that developed in the Byzantine Empire".

The tradition of eastern liturgical chant, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed even before the establishment of the new Roman capital, Constantinople, in 330 until its fall in 1453. Byzantine music was influenced by Hellenistic music traditions, classic Greek music as well as religious music traditions of Syriac and Hebrew cultures. The Byzantine system of octoechos, in which melodies were classified into eight modes, is specifically thought to have been exported from Syria, where it was known in the 6th century, before its legendary creation by John of Damascus. It was imitated by musicians of the 7th century to create Arab music as a synthesis of Byzantine and Persian music, and these exchanges were continued through the Ottoman Empire until Istanbul today.

The term Byzantine music is sometimes associated with the medieval sacred chant of Christian Churches following the Constantinopolitan Rite. There is also an identification of "Byzantine music" with "Eastern Christian liturgical chant", which is due to certain monastic reforms, such as the Octoechos reform of the Quinisext Council (692) and the later reforms of the Stoudios Monastery under its abbots Sabas and Theodore. The triodion created during the reform of Theodore was also soon translated into Slavonic, which required also the adaption of melodic models to the prosody of the language. Later, after the Patriarchate and Court had returned to Constantinople in 1261, the former cathedral rite was not continued, but replaced by a mixed rite, which used the Byzantine Round notation to integrate the former notations of the former chant books ( Papadike). This notation had developed within the book sticherarion created by the Stoudios Monastery, but it was used for the books of the cathedral rites written in a period after the fourth crusade, when the cathedral rite was already abandoned at Constantinople. It is being discussed that in the Narthex of the Hagia Sophia an organ was placed for use in secular processions of the Emperor's entourage.

According to the chant manual " Hagiopolites" of 16 church tones ( echoi), the author of this treatise introduces a tonal system of 10 echoi. Nevertheless, both schools have in common a set of 4 octaves (protos, devteros, tritos , and ), each of them had a ( authentic mode) with the finalis on the degree V of the mode, and a ( plagal mode) with the final note on the degree I. According to Latin theory, the resulting eight tones ( octoechos) had been identified with the seven modes (octave species) and tropes ( tropoi which meant the transposition of these modes). The names of the tropes like "Dorian" etc. had been also used in Greek chant manuals, but the names Lydian and Phrygian for the octaves of devteros and tritos had been sometimes exchanged. The Ancient Greek harmonikai was a Hellenist reception of the Pythagorean education programme defined as mathemata ("exercises"). Harmonikai was one of them. Today, chanters of the Christian Orthodox churches identify with the heritage of Byzantine music whose earliest composers are remembered by name since the 5th century. Compositions had been related to them, but they must be reconstructed by notated sources which date centuries later. The melodic neume notation of Byzantine music developed late since the 10th century, with the exception of an earlier ekphonetic notation, interpunction signs used in lectionaries, but modal signatures for the eight echoi can already be found in fragments ( papyri) of monastic hymn books (tropologia) dating back to the 6th century.

Amid the rise of Christian civilization within Hellenism, many concepts of knowledge and education survived during the imperial age, when Christianity became the official religion. The Pythagorean sect and music as part of the four "cyclical exercises" (ἐγκύκλια μαθήματα) that preceded the Latin quadrivium and science today based on mathematics, established mainly among Greeks in southern Italy (at Taranto and Crotone). Greek anachoretes of the early Middle Ages did still follow this education. The Calabrian Cassiodorus founded Vivarium where he translated Greek texts (science, theology and the Bible), and John of Damascus who learnt Greek from a Calabrian monk Kosmas, a slave in the household of his privileged father at Damascus, mentioned mathematics as part of the speculative philosophy.

Διαιρεῖται δὲ ἡ φιλοσοφία εἰς θεωρητικὸν καὶ πρακτικόν, τὸ θεωρητικὸν εἰς θεολογικόν, φυσικόν, μαθηματικόν, τὸ δὲ πρακτικὸν εἰς ἠθικόν, οἰκονομικόν, πολιτικόν.

According to him philosophy was divided into theory (theology, physics, mathematics) and practice (ethics, economy, politics), and the Pythagorean heritage was part of the former, while only the ethic effects of music were relevant in practice. The mathematic science harmonics was usually not mixed with the concrete topics of a chant manual.

Nevertheless, Byzantine music is modal and entirely dependent on the Ancient Greek concept of harmonics. Its tonal system is based on a synthesis with ancient Greek models, but we have no sources left that explain to us how this synthesis was done. Carolingian cantors could mix the science of harmonics with a discussion of church tones, named after the ethnic names of the octave species and their transposition tropes, because they invented their own octoechos on the basis of the Byzantine one. But they made no use of earlier Pythagorean concepts that had been fundamental for Byzantine music, including:

Greek Reception

Latin Reception

the division of the tetrachord by three different intervals

the division by two different intervals (twice a tone and one half tone)

the temporary change of the genus (μεταβολὴ κατὰ γένος)

the official exclusion of the enharmonic and chromatic genus, although its use was rarely commented in a polemic way

the temporary change of the echos (μεταβολὴ κατὰ ἤχον)

a definitive classification according to one church tone

the temporary transposition (μεταβολὴ κατὰ τόνον)

absonia ( Musica and Scolica enchiriadis, Berno of Reichenau, Frutolf of Michelsberg), although it was known since Boethius' wing diagramme

the temporary change of the tone system (μεταβολὴ κατὰ σύστημα)

no alternative tone system, except the explanation of absonia

the use of at least three tone systems (triphonia, tetraphonia, heptaphonia)

the use of the systema teleion (heptaphonia), relevance of Dasia system (tetraphonia) outside polyphony and of the triphonia mentioned in the Cassiodorus quotation ( Aurelian) unclear

the microtonal attraction of mobile degrees (κινούμενοι) by fixed degrees (ἑστώτες) of the mode (echos) and its melos, not of the tone system

the use of dieses (attracted are E, a, and b natural within a half tone), since Boethius until Guido of Arezzo's concept of mi

It is not evident by the sources, when exactly the position of the minor or half tone moved between the devteros and tritos. It seems that the fixed degrees (hestotes) became part of a new concept of the echos as melodic mode (not simply octave species), after the echoi had been called by the ethnic names of the tropes.

The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih (d. 911); in his lexicographical discussion of instruments cited the lyra (lūrā) as the typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun ( organ), shilyani (probably a type of harp or lyre) and the salandj (probably a bagpipe).

The first of these, the early bowed stringed instrument known as the Byzantine lyra, would come to be called the lira da braccio, in Venice, where it is considered by many to have been the predecessor of the contemporary violin, which later flourished there. The bowed "lyra" is still played in former Byzantine regions, where it is known as the Politiki lyra (lit. "lyra of the City" i.e. Constantinople) in Greece, the Calabrian lira in Southern Italy, and the Lijerica in Dalmatia.

The second instrument, the Hydraulis, originated in the Hellenistic world and was used in the Hippodrome in Constantinople during races. A pipe organ with "great leaden pipes" was sent by the emperor Constantine V to Pepin the Short King of the Franks in 757. Pepin's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, beginning its establishment in Western church music. Despite this, the Byzantines never used pipe organs and kept the flute-sounding Hydraulis until the Fourth Crusade.

The final Byzantine instrument, the aulos, was a double-reeded woodwind like the modern oboe or Armenian duduk. Other forms include the plagiaulos (πλαγίαυλος, from πλάγιος, plagios "sideways"), which resembled the flute, and the askaulos (ἀσκαυλός from ἀσκός askos " wine-skin"), a bagpipe. These bagpipes, also known as (from ancient Greek: To angeion (Τὸ ἀγγεῖον) "the container"), had been played even in Roman times. Dio Chrysostom wrote in the 1st century of a contemporary sovereign (possibly Nero) who could play a pipe ( tibia, Roman reedpipes similar to Greek aulos) with his mouth as well as by tucking a bladder beneath his armpit. The bagpipes continued to be played throughout the empire's former realms down to the present. (See Balkan Gaida, Greek Tsampouna, Pontic Tulum, Cretan Askomandoura, Armenian Parkapzuk, Zurna and Romanian Cimpoi.)

Other commonly used instruments used in Byzantine Music include the Kanonaki, Oud, Laouto, Santouri, Toubeleki, Tambouras, Defi Tambourine, Çifteli (which was known as Tamburica in Byzantine times), Lyre, Kithara, Psaltery, Saz, Floghera, Pithkiavli, Kavali, Seistron, Epigonion (the ancestor of the Santouri), Varviton (the ancestor of the Oud and a variation of the Kithara), Crotala, Bowed Tambouras (similar to Byzantine Lyra), Šargija, Monochord, Sambuca, Rhoptron, Koudounia, perhaps the Lavta and other instruments used before the 4th Crusade that are no longer played today. These instruments are unknown at this time.

In 2021, archaeologists discovered a flute with six holes dated back to the 4th and 5th centuries AD, in the Zerzevan Castle.

Secular music existed and accompanied every aspect of life in the empire, including dramatic productions, pantomime, ballets, banquets, political and pagan festivals, Olympic games, and all ceremonies of the imperial court. It was, however, regarded with contempt, and was frequently denounced as profane and lascivious by some Church Fathers.

Another genre that lies between liturgical chant and court ceremonial are the so-called polychronia (πολυχρονία) and acclamations (ἀκτολογία). The acclamations were sung to announce the entrance of the Emperor during representative receptions at the court, into the hippodrome or into the cathedral. They can be different from the polychronia, ritual prayers or ektenies for present political rulers and are usually answered by a choir with formulas such as "Lord protect" (κύριε σῶσον) or "Lord have mercy on us/them" (κύριε ἐλέησον). The documented polychronia in books of the cathedral rite allow a geographical and a chronological classification of the manuscript and they are still used during ektenies of the divine liturgies of national Orthodox ceremonies today. The hippodrome was used for a traditional feast called Lupercalia (15 February), and on this occasion the following acclamation was celebrated:

The main source about court ceremonies is an incomplete compilation in a 10th-century manuscript that organised parts of a treatise Περὶ τῆς Βασιλείου Τάξεως ("On imperial ceremonies") ascribed to Emperor Constantine VII, but in fact compiled by different authors who contributed with additional ceremonies of their period. In its incomplete form chapter 1-37 of book I describe processions and ceremonies on religious festivals (many lesser ones, but especially great feasts such as the Elevation of the Cross, Christmas, Theophany, Palm Sunday, Good Friday, Easter and Ascension Day and feasts of saints including St Demetrius, St Basil etc. often extended over many days), while chapter 38-83 describe secular ceremonies or rites of passage such as coronations, weddings, births, funerals, or the celebration of war triumphs. For the celebration of Theophany the protocol begins to mention several stichera and their echoi (ch. 3) and who had to sing them:

Δοχὴ πρώτη, τῶν Βενέτων, φωνὴ ἢχ. πλαγ. δ`. " Σήμερον ὁ συντρίψας ἐν ὕδασι τὰς κεφαλὰς τῶν δρακόντων τὴν κεφαλὴν ὑποκλίνει τῷ προδρόμῳ φιλανθρώπως. " Δοχἠ β᾽, τῶν Πρασίνων, φωνὴ πλαγ. δ'· " Χριστὸς ἁγνίζει λουτρῷ ἁγίῳ τὴν ἐξ ἐθνῶν αὐτοῦ Ἐκκλησίαν. " Δοχὴ γ᾽, τῶν Βενέτων, φωνἠ ἤχ. πλαγ. α'· " Πυρὶ θεότητος ἐν Ἰορδάνῃ φλόγα σβεννύει τῆς ἁμαρτίας. "

These protocols gave rules for imperial progresses to and from certain churches at Constantinople and the imperial palace, with fixed stations and rules for ritual actions and acclamations from specified participants (the text of acclamations and processional troparia or kontakia, but also heirmoi are mentioned), among them also ministers, senate members, leaders of the "Blues" (Venetoi) and the "Greens" (Prasinoi)-chariot teams during the hippodrome's horse races. They had an important role during court ceremonies. The following chapters (84-95) are taken from a 6th-century manual by Peter the Patrician. They rather describe administrative ceremonies such as the appointment of certain functionaries (ch. 84,85), investitures of certain offices (86), the reception of ambassadors and the proclamation of the Western Emperor (87,88), the reception of Persian ambassadors (89,90), Anagorevseis of certain Emperors (91-96), the appointment of the senate's proedros (97). The "palace order" did not only prescribe the way of movements (symbolic or real) including on foot, mounted, by boat, but also the costumes of the celebrants and who has to perform certain acclamations. The emperor often plays the role of Christ and the imperial palace is chosen for religious rituals, so that the ceremonial book brings the sacred and the profane together. Book II seems to be less normative and was obviously not compiled from older sources like book I, which often mentioned outdated imperial offices and ceremonies, it rather describes particular ceremonies as they had been celebrated during particular imperial receptions during the Macedonian renaissance.

Two concepts must be understood to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship and they were related to a new form of urban monasticism, which even formed the representative cathedral rites of the imperial ages, which had to baptise many catechumens.

The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the angelic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the prayer of the angelic choirs. It was partly based on the Hebrew fundament of Christian worship, but in the particular reception of St. Basil of Caesarea's divine liturgy. John Chrysostom, since 397 Archbishop of Constantinople, abridged the long formula of Basil's divine liturgy for the local cathedral rite.

The notion of angelic chant is certainly older than the Apocalypse account ( Revelation 4:8-11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the Old Testament is brought out clearly by Isaiah (6:1-4) and Ezekiel (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in Exodus 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of Israel was derived from heaven. The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early Fathers, such as Clement of Rome, Justin Martyr, Ignatius of Antioch, Athenagoras of Athens, John Chrysostom and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of Nicolas Kavasilas and Symeon of Thessaloniki.

The second, less permanent, concept was that of koinonia or "communion". This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and "oneness" that united the clergy and the faithful in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names. With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the congregation as a whole. St. Ignatius wrote to the Church in Ephesus in the following way:

You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through Jesus Christ to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.

A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses and psalms. The terms choros, koinonia and ekklesia were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In Psalms 149 and 150, the Septuagint translated the Hebrew word machol (dance) by the Greek word choros Greek: . As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song in heaven and on earth both.

Concerning the practice of psalm recitation, the recitation by a congregation of educated chanters is already testified by the soloistic recitation of abridged psalms by the end of the 4th century. Later it was called prokeimenon. Hence, there was an early practice of simple psalmody, which was used for the recitation of canticles and the psalter, and usually Byzantine psalters have the 15 canticles in an appendix, but the simple psalmody itself was not notated before the 13th century, in dialogue or treatises preceding the book sticheraria. Later books, like the akolouthiai and some psaltika, also contain the elaborated psalmody, when a protopsaltes recited just one or two psalm verses. Between the recited psalms and canticles troparia were recited according to the same more or less elaborated psalmody. This context relates antiphonal chant genres including antiphona (kind of introits), trisagion and its substitutes, prokeimenon, allelouiarion, the later cherubikon and its substitutes, the koinonikon cycles as they were created during the 9th century. In most of the cases they were simply troparia and their repetitions or segments were given by the antiphonon, whether it was sung or not, its three sections of the psalmodic recitation were separated by the troparion.

The fashion in all cathedral rites of the Mediterranean was a new emphasis on the psalter. In older ceremonies before Christianity became the religion of empires, the recitation of the biblical odes (mainly taken from the Old Testament) was much more important. They did not disappear in certain cathedral rites such as the Milanese and the Constantinopolitan rite.

Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the Council of Laodicea, whose fifteenth Canon permitted only the canonical , "chanters:", to sing at the services. The word choros came to refer to the special priestly function in the liturgy - just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the sanctuary-and choros eventually became the equivalent of the word kleros (the pulpits of two or even five choirs).

The nine canticles or odes according to the psalter were:

and in Constantinople they were combined in pairs against this canonical order:

Ps. 17 with troparia Ἀλληλούϊα and Μνήσθητί μου, κύριε.

(1) with troparion Tῷ κυρίῳ αἴσωμεν, ἐνδόξως γὰρ δεδόξασται.

(2) with troparion Δόξα σοι, ὁ θεός. (Deut. 32:1-14) Φύλαξόν με, κύριε. (Deut. 32:15-21) Δίκαιος εἶ, κύριε, (Deut. 32:22-38) Δόξα σοι, δόξα σοι. (Deut. 32:39-43) Εἰσάκουσόν μου, κύριε. (3)

(4) & (6) with troparion Οἰκτείρησόν με, κύριε.

(3) & (9a) with troparion Ἐλέησόν με, κύριε.

(5) & Mannaseh (apokr. 2 Chr 33) with troparion Ἰλάσθητί μοι, κύριε.

(7) which has a refrain in itself.

The common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is troparion. As a refrain interpolated between psalm verses it had the same function as the antiphon in Western plainchant. The simplest troparion was probably "allelouia", and similar to troparia like the trisagion or the cherubikon or the koinonika a lot of troparia became a chant genre of their own.

A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the 4th century, is the Easter Vespers hymn, Phos Hilaron ("O Resplendent Light"). Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the monk Auxentios (first half of the 5th century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service. Another, O Monogenes Yios ("Only Begotten Son"), ascribed to the emperor Justinian I (527-565), followed the doxology of the second antiphonon at the beginning of the Divine Liturgy.

The development of large scale hymnographic forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical sermon, reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. Romanos the Melodist (6th century). This dramatic homily which could treat various subjects, theological and hagiographical ones as well as imperial propaganda, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas (oikoi "houses") and was sung in a rather simple style with emphasise on the understanding of the recent texts. The earliest notated versions in Slavic kondakar's (12th century) and Greek kontakaria-psaltika (13th century), however, are in a more elaborate style (also rubrified idiomela), and were probably sung since the ninth century, when kontakia were reduced to the prooimion (introductory verse) and first oikos (stanza). Romanos' own recitation of all the numerous oikoi must have been much simpler, but the most interesting question of the genre are the different functions that kontakia once had. Romanos' original melodies were not delivered by notated sources dating back to the 6th century, the earliest notated source is the Tipografsky Ustav written about 1100. Its gestic notation was different from Middle Byzantine notation used in Italian and Athonite Kontakaria of the 13th century, where the gestic signs (cheironomiai) became integrated as "great signs". During the period of psaltic art (14th and 15th centuries), the interest of kalophonic elaboration was focussed on one particular kontakion which was still celebrated: the Akathist hymn. An exception was John Kladas who contributed also with kalophonic settings of other kontakia of the repertoire.

Some of them had a clear liturgical assignation, others not, so that they can only be understood from the background of the later book of ceremonies. Some of Romanos creations can be even regarded as political propaganda in connection with the new and very fast reconstruction of the famous Hagia Sophia by Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. A quarter of Constantinople had been burnt down during a civil war. Justinian had ordered a massacre at the hippodrome, because his imperial antagonists who were affiliated to the former dynasty, had been organised as a chariot team. Thus, he had place for the creation of a huge park with a new cathedral in it, which was larger than any church built before as Hagia Sophia. He needed a kind of mass propaganda to justify the imperial violence against the public. In the kontakion "On earthquakes and conflagration" (H. 54), Romanos interpreted the Nika riot as a divine punishment, which followed in 532 earlier ones including earthquakes (526-529) and a famine (530):

The city was buried beneath these horrors and cried in great sorrow.

Ὑπὸ μὲν τούτων τῶν δεινῶν κατείχετο ἡ πόλις καὶ θρῆνον εἶχε μέγα·

Those who feared God stretched their hands out to him,

Θεὸν οἱ δεδιότες χεῖρας ἐξέτεινον αὐτῷ

begging for compassion and an end to the terror.

ἐλεημοσύνην ἐξαιτοῦντες παρ᾽ αὐτοῦ καὶ τῶν κακῶν κατάπαυσιν·

Reasonably, the emperor-and his empress-were in these ranks,

σὺν τούτοις δὲ εἰκότως ἐπηύχετο καὶ ὁ βασιλεύων

their eyes lifted in hope toward the Creator:

ἀναβλέψας πρὸς τὸν πλάστην -σὺν τούτῳ δὲ σύνευνος ἡ τούτου-

"Grant me victory", he said, "just as you made David

Δός μοι, βοῶν, σωτήρ, ὡς καὶ τῷ Δαυίδ σου

victorious over Goliath. You are my hope.

τοῦ νικῆσαι Γολιάθ· σοὶ γὰρ ἐλπίζω·

Rescue, in your mercy, your loyal people

σῶσον τὸν πιστὸν λαόν σου ὡς ἐλεήμων,

and grant them eternal life."

οἶσπερ καὶ δώσῃς ζωὴν τὴν αἰώνιον.(H. 54.18)

According to Johannes Koder the kontakion was celebrated the first time during Lenten period in 537, about ten months before the official inauguration of the new built Hagia Sophia on 27 December.

During the second half of the sixth century, there was a change in Byzantine sacred architecture, because the altar used for the preparation of the eucharist had been removed from the bema. It was placed in a separated room called " prothesis" (πρόθεσις). The separation of the prothesis where the bread was consecrated during a separated service called proskomide, required a procession of the gifts at the beginning of the second eucharist part of the divine liturgy. The troparion "Οἱ τὰ χερουβεὶμ", which was sung during the procession, was often ascribed to Emperor Justin II, but the changes in sacred architecture were definitely traced back to his time by archaeologists. Concerning the Hagia Sophia, which was constructed earlier, the procession was obviously within the church. It seems that the cherubikon was a prototype of the Western chant genre offertory.

With this change came also the dramaturgy of the three doors in a choir screen before the bema (sanctuary). They were closed and opened during the ceremony. Outside Constantinople these choir or icon screens of marble were later replaced by iconostaseis. Antonin, a Russian monk and pilgrim of Novgorod, described the procession of choirs during Orthros and the divine liturgy, when he visited Constantinople in December 1200:

When they sing Lauds at Hagia Sophia, they sing first in the narthex before the royal doors; then they enter to sing in the middle of the church; then the gates of Paradise are opened and they sing a third time before the altar. On Sundays and feastdays the Patriarch assists at Lauds and at the Liturgy; at this time he blesses the singers from gallery, and ceasing to sing, they proclaim the polychronia; then they begin to sing again as harmoniously and as sweetly as the angels, and they sing in this fashion until the Liturgy. After Lauds they put off their vestments and go out to receive the blessing of the Patriarch; then the preliminary lessons are read in the ambo; when these are over the Liturgy begins, and at the end of the service the chief priest recites the so-called prayer of the ambo within the sanctuary while the second priest recites in the church, beyond the ambo; when they have finished the prayer, both bless the people. Vespers are said in the same fashion, beginning at an early hour.

By the end of the seventh century with the reform of 692, the kontakion, Romanos' genre was overshadowed by a certain monastic type of homiletic hymn, the canon and its prominent role it played within the cathedral rite of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. Essentially, the canon, as it is known since 8th century, is a hymnodic complex composed of nine odes that were originally related, at least in content, to the nine Biblical canticles and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation (see the section about the biblical odes). Out of the custom of canticle recitation, monastic reformers at Constantinople, Jerusalem and Mount Sinai developed a new homiletic genre whose verses in the complex ode meter were composed over a melodic model: the heirmos.

During the 7th century kanons at the Patriarchate of Jerusalem still consisted of the two or three odes throughout the year cycle, and often combined different echoi. The form common today of nine or eight odes was introduced by composers within the school of Andrew of Crete at Mar Saba. The nine odes of the kanon were dissimilar by their metrum. Consequently, an entire heirmos comprises nine independent melodies (eight, because the second ode was often omitted outside Lenten period), which are united musically by the same echos and its melos, and sometimes even textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion-especially in acrosticha composed over a given heirmos, but dedicated to a particular day of the menaion. Until the 11th century, the common book of hymns was the tropologion and it had no other musical notation than a modal signature and combined different hymn genres like troparion, sticheron, and canon.

The earliest tropologion was already composed by Severus of Antioch, Paul of Edessa and Ioannes Psaltes at the Patriarchate of Antioch between 512 and 518. Their tropologion has only survived in Syriac translation and revised by Jacob of Edessa. The tropologion was continued by Sophronius, Patriarch of Jerusalem, but especially by Andrew of Crete's contemporary Germanus I, Patriarch of Constantinople who represented as a gifted hymnographer not only an own school, but he became also very eager to realise the purpose of this reform since 705, although its authority was questioned by iconoclast antagonists and only established in 787. After the octoechos reform of the Quinisext Council in 692, monks at Mar Saba continued the hymn project under Andrew's instruction, especially by his most gifted followers John of Damascus and Cosmas of Jerusalem. These various layers of the Hagiopolitan tropologion since the 5th century have mainly survived in a Georgian type of tropologion called "Iadgari" whose oldest copies can be dated back to the 9th century.

Today the second ode is usually omitted (while the great kanon attributed to John of Damascus includes it), but medieval heirmologia rather testify the custom, that the extremely strict spirit of Moses' last prayer was especially recited during Lenten tide, when the number of odes was limited to three odes ( triodion), especially patriarch Germanus I contributed with many own compositions of the second ode. According to Alexandra Nikiforova only two of 64 canons composed by Germanus I are present in the current print editions, but manuscripts have transmitted his hymnographic heritage.

During the 9th-century reforms of the Stoudios Monastery, the reformers favoured Hagiopolitan composers and customs in their new notated chant books heirmologion and sticherarion, but they also added substantial parts to the tropologion and re-organised the cycle of movable and immovable feasts (especially Lent, the triodion, and its scriptural lessons). The trend is testified by a 9th-century tropologion of the Saint Catherine's Monastery which is dominated by contributions of Jerusalem. Festal stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Hesperinos and the psalmody of the Orthros (the Ainoi) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the Sundays and weekdays of Lent, and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with Easter. Their melodies were originally preserved in the tropologion. During the 10th century two new notated chant books were created at the Stoudios Monastery, which were supposed to replace the tropologion:

1. the sticherarion, consisting of the idiomela in the menaion (the immoveable cycle between September and August), the triodion and the pentekostarion (the moveable cycle around the holy week), and the short version of (hymns of the Sunday cycle starting with Saturday evening) which sometimes contained a limited number of model troparia (prosomoia). A rather bulky volume called "great octoechos" or "parakletike" with the weekly cycle appeared first in the middle of the tenth century as a book of its own.

2. the heirmologion, which was composed in eight parts for the eight echoi, and further on either according to the canons in liturgical order (KaO) or according to the nine odes of the canon as a subdivision into 9 parts (OdO).

These books were not only provided with musical notation, with respect to the former tropologia they were also considerably more elaborated and varied as a collection of various local traditions. In practice it meant that only a small part of the repertory was really chosen to be sung during the divine services. Nevertheless, the form tropologion was used until the 12th century, and many later books which combined octoechos, sticherarion and heirmologion, rather derive from it (especially the usually unnotated Slavonic osmoglasnik which was often divided in two parts called "pettoglasnik", one for the kyrioi, another for the plagioi echoi).

The old custom can be studied on the basis of the 9th-century tropologion ΜΓ 56+5 from Sinai which was still organised according to the old tropologion beginning with the Christmas and Epiphany cycle (not with 1 September) and without any separation of the movable cycle. The new Studite or post-Studite custom established by the reformers was that each ode consists of an initial troparion, the heirmos, followed by three, four or more troparia from the menaion, which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos (akrostics), thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well. The combination of Constantinopolitan and Palestine customs must be also understood on the base of the political history.

Especially the first generation around Theodore Studites and Joseph the Confessor, and the second around Joseph the Hymnographer suffered from the first and the second crisis of iconoclasm. The community around Theodore could revive monastic life at the abandoned Stoudios Monastery, but he had to leave Constantinople frequently in order to escape political persecution. During this period, the Patriarchates of Jerusalem and Alexandria (especially Sinai) remained centres of the hymnographic reform. Concerning the Old Byzantine notation, Constantinople and the area between Jerusalem and Sinai can be clearly distinguished. The earliest notation used for the books sticherarion and was theta notation, but it was soon replaced by palimpsests with more detailed forms between Coislin (Palestine) and Chartres notation (Constantinople). Although it was correct that the Studites in Constantinople established a new mixed rite, its customs remained different from those of the other Patriarchates which were located outside the Empire.

On the other hand, Constantinople as well as other parts of the Empire like Italy encouraged also privileged women to found female monastic communities and certain hegumeniai also contributed to the hymnographic reform. The basic repertoire of the newly created cycles the immovable menaion, the movable triodion and pentekostarion and the week cycle of parakletike and Orthros cycle of the eleven stichera heothina and their lessons are the result of a redaction of the tropologion which started with the generation of Theodore the Studite and ended during the Macedonian Renaissance under the emperors Leo VI (the stichera heothina are traditionally ascribed to him) and Constantine VII (the exaposteilaria anastasima are ascribed to him).

Another project of the Studites' reform was the organisation of the New Testament (Epistle, Gospel) reading cycles, especially its hymns during the period of the triodion (between the pre-Lenten Meatfare Sunday called "Apokreo" and the Holy Week). Older lectionaries had been often completed by the addition of ekphonetic notation and of reading marks which indicate the readers where to start (ἀρχή) and to finish (τέλος) on a certain day. The Studites also created a typikon-a monastic one which regulated the cœnobitic life of the Stoudios Monastery and granted its autonomy in resistance against iconoclast Emperors, but they had also an ambitious liturgical programme. They imported Hagiopolitan customs (of Jerusalem) like the Great Vesper, especially for the movable cycle between Lent and All Saints (triodion and pentekostarion), including a Sunday of Orthodoxy which celebrated the triumph over iconoclasm on the first Sunday of Lent.

Unlike the current Orthodox custom Old Testament readings were particular important during Orthros and Hesperinos in Constantinople since the 5th century, while there was no one during the divine liturgy. The Great Vespers according to Studite and post-Studite custom (reserved for just a few feasts like the Sunday of Orthodoxy) were quite ambitious. The evening psalm 140 (kekragarion) was based on simple psalmody, but followed by florid coda of a soloist (monophonaris). A melismatic prokeimenon was sung by him from the ambo, it was followed by three antiphons (Ps 114-116) sung by the choirs, the third used the trisagion or the usual anti-trisagion as a refrain, and an Old Testament reading concluded the prokeimenon.

The earliest chant manual pretends right at the beginning that John of Damascus was its author. Its first edition was based on a more or less complete version in a 14th-century manuscript, but the treatise was probably created centuries earlier as part of the reform redaction of the tropologia by the end of the 8th century, after Irene's Council of Nikaia had confirmed the octoechos reform of 692 in 787. It fits well to the later focus on Palestine authors in the new chant book heirmologion.

Concerning the octoechos, the Hagiopolitan system is characterised as a system of eight diatonic echoi with two additional phthorai ( nenano and nana) which were used by John of Damascus and Cosmas, but not by Joseph the Confessor who obviously preferred the diatonic mele of plagios devteros and plagios tetartos.

It also mentions an alternative system of the Asma (the cathedral rite was called ἀκολουθία ᾀσματική) that consisted of 4 kyrioi echoi, 4 plagioi, 4 mesoi, and 4 phthorai. It seems that until the time, when the Hagiopolites was written, the octoechos reform did not work out for the cathedral rite, because singers at the court and at the Patriarchate still used a tonal system of 16 echoi, which was obviously part of the particular notation of their books: the asmatikon and the kontakarion or psaltikon.

But neither any 9th-century Constantinopolitan chant book nor an introducing treatise that explains the fore-mentioned system of the Asma, have survived. Only a 14th-century manuscript of Kastoria testifies cheironomic signs used in these books, which are transcribed in longer melodic phrases by the notation of the contemporary sticherarion, the middle Byzantine Round notation.

The former genre and glory of Romanos' kontakion was not abandoned by the reformers, even contemporary poets in a monastic context continued to compose new liturgical kontakia (mainly for the menaion), it likely preserved a modality different from Hagiopolitan oktoechos hymnography of the sticherarion and the heirmologion.

But only a limited number of melodies or kontakion mele had survived. Some of them were rarely used to compose new kontakia, other kontakia which became the model for eight prosomoia called "kontakia anastasima" according to the oktoechos, had been frequently used. The kontakion ὁ ὑψωθεῖς ἐν τῷ σταυρῷ for the feast of cross exaltation (14 September) was not the one chosen for the prosomoion of the kontakion anastasimon in the same echos, it was actually the kontakion ἐπεφάνης σήμερον for Theophany (6 January). But nevertheless, it represented the second important melos of the echos tetartos which was frequently chosen to compose new kontakia, either for the prooimion (introduction) or for the oikoi (the stanzas of the kontakion called "houses"). Usually these models were not rubrified as "avtomela", but as idiomela which means that the modal structure of a kontakion was more complex, similar to a sticheron idiomelon changing through different echoi.

This new monastic type of kontakarion can be found in the collection of Saint Catherine's Monastery on the peninsula of Sinai (ET-MSsc Ms. Gr. 925-927) and its kontakia had only a reduced number of oikoi. The earliest kontakarion ( ET-MSsc Ms. Gr. 925) dating to the 10th century might serve as an example. The manuscript was rubrified Κονδακάριον σῦν Θεῷ by the scribe, the rest is not easy to decipher since the first page was exposed to all kinds of abrasion, but it is obvious that this book is a collection of short kontakia organised according to the new menaion cycle like a sticherarion, beginning with 1 September and the feast of Symeon the Stylite. It has no notation, instead the date is indicated and the genre κονδάκιον is followed by the dedicated Saint and the incipit of the model kontakion (not even with an indication of its echos by a modal signature in this case).

Folio 2 verso shows a kontakion ἐν ἱερεῦσιν εὐσεβῶς διαπρέψας which was composed over the prooimion used for the kontakion for cross exaltation ὁ ὑψωθεῖς ἐν τῷ σταυρῷ. The prooimion is followed by three stanzas called oikoi, but they all share with the prooimion the same refrain called "ephymnion" (ἐφύμνιον) ταὶς σαῖς πρεσβεῖαις which concludes each oikos. But the model for these oikoi was not taken from the same kontakion, but from the other kontakion for Theophany whose first oikos had the incipit τῇ γαλιλαίᾳ τῶν ἐθνῶν.

The Slavic reception is crucial for the understanding, how the kontakion has changed under the influence of the Stoudites. During the 9th and 10th centuries new Empires established in the North which were dominated by Slavic populations - Great Moravia and the Kievan Rus' (a federation of East Slavic tribes ruled by Varangians between the Black Sea and Scandinavia). The Byzantines had plans to participate actively in the Christianization of those new Slavic powers, but those intentions failed. The well established and recently Christianized (864) Bulgarian Empire created two new literary centres at Preslav and Ohrid. These empires requested a state religion, legal codexes, the translation of canonic scriptures, but also the translation of an overregional liturgy as it was created by the Stoudios Monastery, Mar Saba and Saint Catherine's Monastery. The Slavic reception confirmed this new trend, but also showed a detailed interest for the cathedral rite of the Hagia Sophia and the pre-Stoudite organisation of the tropologion. Thus, these manuscripts are not only the earliest literary evidence of Slavonic languages which offer a transcription of the local variants of Slavonic languages, but also the earliest sources of the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite with musical notation, although transcribed into a notation of its own, just based on one tone system and on the contemporary layer of 11th-century notation, the roughly diastematic Old Byzantine notation.

Unfortunately, no Slavonic tropologion written in Glagolitic script by Cyril and Methodius has survived. This lack of evidence does not prove that it had not existed, since certain conflicts with Benedictines and other Slavonic missionaries in Great Moravia and Pannonia were obviously about an Orthodox rite translated into Old Church Slavonic and practised already by Methodius and Clement of Ohrid. Only few early Glagolitic sources have been left. The Kiev Missal proves a West Roman influence in the Old Slavonic liturgy for certain territories of Croatia. A later 11th-century New Testament lectionary known as the Codex Assemanius was created by the Ohrid Literary School. A euchologion ( ET-MSsc Ms. Slav. 37) was in part compiled for Great Moravia by Cyril, Clement, Naum and Constantine of Preslav. It was probably copied at Preslav about the same time. The aprakos lectionary proves that the Stoudites typikon was obeyed concerning the organisation of reading cycles. It explains, why Svetlana Kujumdžieva assumed that the "church order" mentioned in Methodius' vita meant the mixed Constantinopolitan Sabbaite rite established by the Stoudites. But a later finding by the same author pointed to another direction. In a recent publication she chose "Iliya's book" ( RUS-Mda Fond 381, Ms. 131) as the earliest example of an Old Church Slavonic tropologion (around 1100), it has compositions by Cyril of Jerusalem and agrees about 50% with the earliest tropologion of Sinai ( ET-MSsc Ms. NE/MΓ 56+5) and it is likewise organised as a mеnaion (beginning with September like the Stoudites), but it still includes the movable cycle. Hence, its organisation is still close to the tropologion and it has compositions not only ascribed to Cosmas and John, but also Stephen the Sabaite, Theophanes the Branded, the Georgian scribe and hymnographer Basil at Mar Saba and Joseph the Hymnographer. Further on, musical notation has been added on some pages which reveal an exchange between Slavic literary schools and scribes of Sinai or Mar Saba:

theta ("θ" for "thema" which indicates a melodic figure over certain syllables of the text) or fita notation was used to indicate the melodic structure of an idiomelon/samoglasen in glas 2 "Na yeerdanĭstěi rěcě" (Theophany, f.109r). It was also used on other pages (kanon for hypapante, ff.118v-199r & 123r),

two forms of znamennaya notation, an earlier one has dots on the right sight of certain signs (the kanon "Obrazę drevle Moisi" in glas 8 for Cross elevation on 14 September, ff.8r-9r), and a more developed form which was obviously needed for a new translation of the text ("another" avtomelon/samopodoben, ино, glas 6 "Odesnuǫ sŭpasa" for Saint Christina of Tyre, 24 July, f.143r).

Kujumdžieva pointed later at a Southern Slavic origin (also based on linguistic arguments since 2015), although feasts of local saints, celebrated on the same day as Christina Boris and Gleb, had been added. If its reception of a pre-Stoudite tropologion was of Southern Slavic origin, there is evidence that this manuscript was copied and adapted for a use in Northern Slavic territories. The adaption to the menaion of the Rus rather proves that notation was only used in a few parts, where a new translation of a certain text required a new melodic composition which was no longer included within the existing system of melodies established by the Stoudites and their followers. But there is a coincidence between the early fragment from the Berlin-collection, where the ἀλλὸ rubric is followed by a modal signature and some early neumes, while the elaborated zamennaya is used for a new sticheron (ино) dedicated to Saint Christina.

Recent systematic editions of the 12th-century notated mineya (like RUS-Mim Ms. Sin. 162 with just about 300 folios for the month December) which included not just samoglasni (idiomela) even podobni (prosomoia) and akrosticha with notation (while the kondaks were left without notation), have revealed that the philosophy of the literary schools in Ohrid and Preslav did only require in exceptional cases the use of notation. The reason is that their translation of Greek hymnography were not very literal, but often quite far from the content of the original texts, the main concern of this school was the recomposition or troping of the given system of melodies (with their models known as avtomela and heirmoi) which was left intact. The Novgorod project of re-translation during the 12th century tried to come closer to the meaning of the texts and the notation was needed to control the changes within the system of melodies.

Concerning the Slavic rite celebrated in various parts of the Kievan Rus', there was not only an interest for the organisation of monastic chant and the tropologion and the oktoich or osmoglasnik which included chant of the , podobni ( prosomoia) and their models ( samopodobni), but also the samoglasni ( idiomela) like in case of Iliya's book.

Since the 12th century, there are also Slavic stichirars which did not only include the samoglasni, but also the podobni provided with znamennaya notation. A comparison of the very first samoglasen наста въходъ лѣтоу ("Enter the entrance of the annual cycle") in glas 1 (ἐπέστη ἡ εἴσοδος τoῦ ἐνιαυτοῦ echos protos, SAV 1) of the mineya shows, that the znamennaya version is much closer to fita (theta) notation, since the letter "θ =" corresponds to other signs in Coislin and a synthetic way to write a kratema group in Middle Byzantine notation. It was obviously an elaboration of the simpler version written in Coislin:

The Middle Byzantine version allows to recognise the exact steps (intervals) between the neumes. They are here described according to the Papadic practice of solfège called "parallage" (παραλλαγή) which is based on echemata: for ascending steps always kyrioi echoi are indicated, for descending steps always echemata of the plagioi echoi. If the phonic steps of the neumes were recognised according to this method, the resulting solfège was called "metrophonia". The step between the first neumes at the beginning passed through the protos pentachord between kyrios (a as transcription for α') and plagios phthongos (D as transcription of πλα'): a-Da-a-G-a-G-FGa-a-EF-G-a-acbabcba. The Coislin version seems to end (ἐνιαυτοῦ) thus: EF-G-a-Gba (the klasma indicates that the following kolon continues immediately in the music). In znamennaya notation the combination dyo apostrophoi (dve zapĕtiye) and oxeia (strela) at the beginning (нас та) is called "strela gromnaya" and obviously derived from the combination "apeso exo" in Coislin notation. According to the customs of Old Byzantine notation, "apeso exo" was not yet written with "spirits" called "chamile" (down) or "hypsile" (up) which did later specify as pnevmata the interval of a fifth (four steps). As usual the Old Church Slavonic translation of the text deals with less syllables than the Greek verse. The neumes only show the basic structure which was memorised as metrophonia by the use of parallage, not the melos of the performance. The melos depended on various methods to sing an idiomelon, either together with a choir or to ask a soloist to create a rather individual version (changes between soloist and choir were at least common for the period of the 14th century, when the Middle Byzantine sticherarion in this example was created). But the comparison clearly reveals the potential (δύναμις) of the rather complex genre idiomelon.

The background of Antonin's interest in celebrations at the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople, as they had been documented by his description of the ceremony around Christmas and Theophany in 1200, were diplomatic exchanges between Novgorod and Constantinople.

In the Primary Chronicle (Повѣсть времѧньныхъ лѣтъ "tale of passed years") it is reported, how a legacy of the Rus' was received in Constantinople and how they did talk about their experience in presence of Vladimir the Great in 987, before the Grand Prince Vladimir decided about the Christianization of the Kievan Rus' ( Laurentian Codex written at Nizhny Novgorod in 1377):

On the morrow, the Byzantine emperor sent a message to the patriarch to inform him that a Russian delegation had arrived to examine the Greek faith, and directed him to prepare the church Hagia Sophia and the clergy, and to array himself in his sacerdotal robes, so that the Russians might behold the glory of the God of the Greeks. When the patriarch received these commands, he bade the clergy assemble, and they performed the customary rites. They burned incense, and the choirs sang hymns. The emperor accompanied the Russians to the church, and placed them in a wide space, calling their attention to the beauty of the edifice, the chanting, and the offices of the archpriest and the ministry of the deacons, while he explained to them the worship of his God. The Russians were astonished, and in their wonder praised the Greek ceremonial. Then the Emperors Basil and Constantine invited the envoys to their presence, and said, "Go hence to your native country," and thus dismissed them with valuable presents and great honor. Thus they returned to their own country, and the prince called together his vassals and the elders. Vladimir then announced the return of the envoys who had been sent out, and suggested that their report be heard. He thus commanded them to speak out before his vassals. The envoys reported: "When we journeyed among the Bulgars, we beheld how they worship in their temple, called a mosque, while they stand ungirt. The Bulgarian bows, sits down, looks hither and thither like one possessed, and there is no happiness among them, but instead only sorrow and a dreadful stench. Their religion is not good. Then we went among the Germans, and saw them performing many ceremonies in their temples; but we beheld no glory there. Then we went on to Greece, and the Greeks led us to the edifices where they worship their God, and we knew not whether we were in heaven or on earth. For on earth there is no such splendor or such beauty, and we are at a loss how to describe it. We know only that God dwells there among men, and their service is fairer than the ceremonies of other nations. For we cannot forget that beauty. Every man, after tasting something sweet, is afterward unwilling to accept that which is bitter, and therefore we cannot dwell longer here.

There was obviously also an interest in the representative aspect of those ceremonies at the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople. Today, it is still documented by seven Slavic kondakar's:

1. Tipografsky Ustav: Moscow, State Tretyakov Gallery, Ms. K-5349 (about 1100)

2. Two fragments of a kondakar' (one kondak with notation): Moscow, Russian State Library (RGB), Fond 205 Ms. 107 (12th century)

3. Troitsky-Lavrsky Kondakar': Moscow, Russian State Library (RGB), Fond 304 Ms. 23 (about 1200)

4. Blagoveščensky Kondakar': Saint Petersburg, National Library of Russia (RNB), Ms. Q.п.I.32 (about 1200)

5. Uspensky Kondakar': Moscow, State Historical Museum (GIM), Ms. Usp. 9-п (1207, probably for the Uspensky Sobor)

6. Sinodal'ny Kondakar': Moscow, State Historical Museum (GIM), Ms. Sin. 777 (early 13th century)

7. South-Slavic kondakar' without notation: Moscow, State Historical Museum (GIM), part of the Book of Prologue at the Chludov collection (14th century)

Six of them had been written in scriptoria of Kievan Rus' during the 12th and the 13th centuries, while there is one later kondakar' without notation which was written in the Balkans during the 14th century. The aesthetic of the calligraphy and the notation has so developed over a span of 100 years that it must be regarded as a local tradition, but also one which provided us with the earliest evidence of the cheironomic signs which had only survived in one later Greek manuscript.

In 1147, the chronicler Eude de Deuil described during a visit of the Frankish King Louis VII the cheironomia, but also the presence of eunuchs during the cathedral rite. With respect to the custom of the Missa greca (for the patron of the Royal Abbey of Saint Denis), he reported that the Byzantine emperor sent his clerics to celebrate the divine liturgy for the Frankish visitors:

Novit hoc imperator; colunt etenim Graeci hoc festum, et clericorum suorum electam multitudinem, dato unicuique cereo magno, variis coloribus et auro depicto regi transmisit, et solemnitatis gloriam ampliavit. Illi quidem a nostris clericis verborum et organi genere dissidebant, sed suavi modulatione placebant. Voces enim mistae, robustior cum gracili, eunucha videlicet cum virili (erant enim eunuchi multi illorum), Francorum animos demulcebant. Gestu etiam corporis decenti et modesto, plausu manuum, et inflexione articulorum, jucunditatem visibus offerebant.
Since the emperor realised, that the Greeks celebrate this feast, he sent to the king a selected group of his clergy, each of whom he had equipped with a large taper [votive candle] decorated elaborately with gold and a great variety of colours; and he increased the glory of the ceremony. Those differed from our clerics concerning the words and the order of service, but they pleased us with sweet modulations. You should know that the mixed voices are more stable but with grace, the eunuchs appear with virility (for many of them were eunuchs), and softened the hearts of the Franks. Through a decent and modest gesture of the body, clapping of hands and flexions of the fingers they offered us a vision of gentleness.

The Kievan Rus' obviously cared about this tradition, but especially about the practice of cheironomia and its particular notation: the so-called "kondakarian notation". A comparison with Easter koinonikon proves two things: the Slavic kondakar' did not correspond to the "pure" form of the Greek kontakarion which was the book of the soloist who had also to recite the larger parts of the kontakia or kondaks. It was rather a mixed form which included also the choir book (asmatikon), since there is no evidence that such an asmatikon had ever been used by clerics of the Rus', while the kondakarian notation integrated the cheironomic signs with simple signs, a Byzantine convention which had only survived in one manuscript ( GR-KA Ms. 8), and combined it with Old Slavic znamennaya notation, as it had been developed in the sticheraria and heirmologia of the 12th century and the so-called Tipografsky Ustav.

Although the common knowledge of znamennaya notation is as limited as the one of other Old Byzantine variants such as Coislin and Chartres notation, a comparison with the asmatikon Kastoria 8 is a kind of bridge between the former concept of cheironomiai as the only authentic notation of the cathedral rite and the hand signs used by the choir leaders and the later concept of great signs integrated and transcribed into Middle Byzantine notation, but it is a pure form of the choir book, so that such comparison is only possible for an asmatic chant genre such as the koinonikon.

See for instance the comparison of the Easter koinonikon between the Slavic Blagoveščensky kondakar' which was written about 1200 in the Northern town Novgorod of the Rus', its name derived from its preservation at the collection of the Blagoveščensky monastery at Nizhny Novgorod.

The comparison should not suggest that both versions are identical, but the earlier source documents an earlier reception of the same tradition (since there is a difference about 120 years between both sources it is impossible to judge the differences). The rubric "Glas 4" is most likely an error of the notator and meant "Glas 5", but it is also possible, that the Slavic tone system was already in such an early period organised in triphonia. Thus, it could also mean that анеане, undoubtly the plagios protos enechema ἀνεανὲ, was supposed to be on a very high pitch (about an octave higher), in that case the tetartos phthongos has not the octave species of tetartos (a tetrachord up and a pentachord down), but the one of plagios protos. The comparison also shows very much likeness between the use of asmatic syllables such as "оу" written as one character such as "ꙋ". Tatiana Shvets in her description of the notational style also mentions the kola (frequent interpunction within the text line) and medial intonations can appear within a word which was sometimes due to the different numbers of syllables within the translated Slavonic text. A comparison of the neumes also show many similarities to Old Byzantine (Coislin, Chartres) signs such as ison (stopica), apostrophos (zapĕtaya), oxeia (strela), vareia (palka), dyo kentemata (točki), diple (statĕya), klasma (čaška), the krusma (κροῦσμα) was actually an abbreviation for a sequence of signs (palka, čaška with statĕya, and točki) and omega "ω" meant a parakalesma, a great sign related to a descending step (see the echema for plagios protos: it is combined with a dyo apostrophoi called "zapĕtaya").

Another very modern part of the Blagoveščensky kondakar' was a Polyeleos composition (a post-Stoudites custom, since they imported the Great Vesper from Jerusalem) about the psalm 135 which was divided into eight sections, each one in another glas:

The refrain алелɤгιа · алелɤгιа · ананҍанҍс · ꙗко въ вҍкы милость ѥго · алелɤгιа ("Alleluia, alleluia. medial intonation For His love endureth forever. Alleluia.") was only written after a medial intonation for the conclusion of the first section. "Ananeanes" was the medial intonation of echos protos (glas 1). This part was obviously composed without modulating to the glas of the following section. The refrain was likely sung by the right choir after the intonation of its leader: the domestikos, the preceding psalm text probably by a soloist (monophonaris) from the ambo. Interesting is that only the choir sections are entirely provided with cheironomiai. Slavic cantors had been obviously trained in Constantinople to learn the hand signs which corresponded to the great signs in the first row of Kondakarian notation, while the monophonaris parts had them only at the end, so that they were probably indicated by the domestikos or lampadarios in order to get the attention of the choir singers, before singing the medial intonations.

We do not know, whether the whole psalm was sung or each section at another day (during the Easter week, for instance, when the glas changed daily), but the following section do not have a written out refrain as a conclusion, so that the first refrain of each section was likely repeated as conclusion, often with more than one medial intonation which indicated, that there was an alternation between the two choirs. For instance within the section of glas 3 (the modal signature was obviously forgotten by the notator), where the text of the refrain is almost treated like a "nenanismaton": "але-нь-н-на-нъ-ъ-на-а-нъ-ı-ъ-лɤ-гı-а". The following medial intonations "ипе" (εἴπε "Say!") and "пал" (παλὶν "Again!") obviously did imitate medial intonations of the asmatikon without a true understanding of their meaning, because a παλὶν did usually indicate that something will be repeated from the very beginning. Here one choir did obviously continue another one, often interrupting it within a word.

1207, when the Uspensky kondakar' was written, the traditional cathedral rite had no longer survived in Constantinople, because the court and the patriarchate had gone into exile to Nikaia in 1204, after Western crusaders had made it impossible to continue the local tradition. The Greek books of the asmatikon (choir book) and the other one for the monophonaris (the psaltikon which often included the kontakarion) were written outside Constantinople, on the island of Patmos, at Saint Catherine's monastery, on the Holy Mount Athos and in Italy, in a new notation which developed some decades later within the books sticherarion and heirmologion: Middle Byzantine round notation. Thus, also the book kontakarion-psaltikon dedicated to the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite must be regarded as part of its reception history outside Constantinople like the Slavic kondakar'.

The reason, why the psaltikon was called "kontakarion", was that most parts of a kontakion (except of the refrain) were sung by a soloist from the ambo, and that the collection of the kontakarion had a prominent and dominant place within the book. The classical repertoire, especially the kontakion cycle of the movable feasts mainly attributed to Romanos, included usually about 60 notated kontakia which were obviously reduced to the prooimion and the first oikos and this truncated form is commonly regarded as a reason, why the notated form presented a melismatic elaboration of the kontakion as it was commonly celebrated during the cathedral rite at the Hagia Sophia. As such within the notated kontakarion-psaltikon the cycle of kontakia was combined with a prokeimenon and alleluiarion cycle as a proper chant of the divine liturgy, at least for more important feasts of the movable and immovable cycle. Since the Greek kontakarion has only survived with Middle Byzantine notation which developed outside Constantinople after the decline of the cathedral rite, the notators of these books must have integrated the cheironomiai or great signs still present in the Slavic kondakar's within the musical notation of the new book sticherarion.

The typical composition of a kontakarion-psaltikon (τὸ ψαλτικὸν, τὸ κοντακάριον) was:

prokeimena

alleluiaria

eight hypakoai anastasimai

kontakarion with the movable cycle integrated in the menaion after hypapante

eight kontakia anastasima

appendix: refrains of the alleluiaria in octoechos order, rarely alleluia endings in psalmody, or usually later added kontakia

The choral sections had been collected in a second book for the choir which was called asmatikon (τὸ ᾀσματικὸν). It contained the refrains (dochai) of the prokeimena, troparia, sometimes the ephymnia of the kontakia and the hypakoai, but also ordinary chant of the divine liturgy like the eisodikon, the trisagion, the choir sections of the cherubikon asmatikon, the weekly and annual cycle of koinonika. There were also combined forms as a kind of asmatikon-psaltikon.

In Southern Italy, there were also mixed forms of psaltikon-asmatikon which preceded the Constantinopolitan book "akolouthiai":

annual cycle of proper chant in menaion order with integrated movable cycle (kontakion with first oikos, allelouiaria, prokeimenon, and koinonikon)

all refrains of the asmatikon (allelouiarion, psalmodic allelouiaria for polyeleoi, dochai of prokeimena, trisagion, koinonika etc.) in oktoechos order

appendix with additions

Nevertheless, the Greek monastic as well as the Slavic reception within the Kievan Rus' show many coincidences within the repertoire, so that even kontakia created in the North for local customs could be easily recognised by a comparison of Slavonic kondakar's with Greek psaltika-kontakaria. Constantin Floros' edition of the melismatic chant proved that the total repertoire of 750 kontakia (about two thirds composed since the 10th century) was based on a very limited number of classical melodies which served as model for numerous new compositions: he counted 42 prooimia with 14 prototypes which were used as a model for other kontakia, but not rubrified as avtomela, but as idiomela (28 of them remained more or less unique), and 13 oikoi which were separately used for the recitation of oikoi. The most frequently used models also generated a prosomoion-cycle of eight kontakia anastasima. The repertoire of these melodies (not so much their elaborated form) was obviously older and was transcribed by echemata in Middle Byzantine notation which were partly completely different from those used in the sticherarion. While the Hagiopolites mentioned 16 echoi of the cathedral rite (four kyrioi, four plagioi, four mesoi and four phthorai), the kontakia-idiomela alone represent at least 14 echoi (four kyrioi in devteros and tritos represented as mesos forms, four plagioi, three additional mesoi and three phthorai).

The integrative role of Middle Byzantine notation becomes visible that a lot of echemata were used which were not known from the sticherarion. Also the role of the two phthorai known as the chromatic νενανῶ and the enharmonic νανὰ was completely different from the one within the Hagiopolitan Octoechos, phthora nana clearly dominated (even in devteros echoi), while phthora nenano was rarely used. Nothing is known about the exact division of the tetrachord, because no treatise concerned with the tradition the cathedral rite of Constantinople has survived, but the Coislin sign of (ξηρὸν κλάσμα) appeared on different pitch classes ( phthongoi) than within the stichera idiomela of the sticherarion.

The Slavic kondakar's did only use very few oikoi pointing at certain models, but the text of the first oikos was only written in the earliest manuscript known as Tipografsky Ustav, but never provided with notation. If there was an oral tradition, it probably did not survive until the 13th century, because the oikoi are simply missing in the kondakar's of that period.

One example for an kondak-prosomoion whose music can be only reconstructed by a comparison with model of the kontakion as it has been notated into Middle Byzantine round notation, is Аще и убьѥна быста which was composed for the feast for Boris and Gleb (24 July) over the kondak-idiomelon Аще и въ гробъ for Easter in echos plagios tetartos:

The two Middle Byzantine versions in the kontakarion-psaltikon of Paris and the one of Sinai are not identical. The first kolon ends on different : either on plagios tetartos (C, if the melos starts there) or one step lower on the phthongos echos varys, the plagios tritos called "grave echos" (a kind of B flat). It is definitely exaggerated to pretend that one has "deciphered" Kondakarian notation, which is hardly true for any manuscript of this period. But even considering the difference of about at least 80 years which lie between the Old Byzantine version of Slavic scribes in Novgorod (second row of the kondakar's) and the Middle Byzantine notation used by the monastic scribes of the later Greek manuscripts, it seems obvious that all three manuscripts in comparison did mean one and the same cultural heritage associated with the cathedral rite of the Hagia Sophia: the melismatic elaboration of the truncated kontakion. Both Slavonic kondaks follow strictly the melismatic structure in the music and the frequent segmentation by kola (which does not exist in the Middle Byzantine version), interrupting the conclusion of the first text unit by an own kolon using with the asmatic syllable "ɤ".

Concerning the two martyre princes of the Kievan Rus' Boris and Gleb, there are two kondak-prosomoia dedicated to them in the Blagoveščensky Kondakar' on the folios 52r-53v: the second is the prosomoion over the kondak-idiomelon for Easter in glas 8, the first the prosomoion Въси дьньсь made over the kondak-idiomelon for Christmas Дева дньсь (Ἡ παρθένος σήμερον) in glas 3. Unlike the Christmas kontakion in glas 3, the Easter kontakion was not chosen as model for the kontakion anastasimon of glas 8 ( plagios tetartos). It had two other important rivals: the kontakion-idiomelon Ὡς ἀπαρχάς τῆς φύσεως (ꙗко начатъкы родоу) for All Saints, although an enaphonon ( protos phthongos) which begins on the lower fourth ( plagios devteros), and the prooimion Τῇ ὑπερμάχῳ στρατιγῷ (Възбраньноумоу воѥводѣ побѣдьнаꙗ) of the Akathistos hymn in echos plagios tetartos (which only appears in Greek kontakaria-psaltika).

Even among the notated sources there was a distinction between the short and the long psaltikon style which was based on the musical setting of the kontakia, established by Christian Thodberg and by Jørgen Raasted. The latter chose Romanos' Christmas kontakion Ἡ παρθένος σήμερον to demonstrate the difference and his conclusion was that the known Slavic kondakar's did rather belong to the long psaltikon style.

There was a discussion promoted by Christian Troelsgård that Middle Byzantine notation should not be distinguished from Late Byzantine notation. The argument was that the establishment of a mixed rite after the return of the court and the patriarchate from the exile in Nikaia in 1261, had nothing really innovative with respect the sign repertoire of Middle Byzantine notation. The innovation was probably already done outside Constantinople, in those monastic scriptoria whose scribes cared about the lost cathedral rite and did integrate different forms of Old Byzantine notation (those of the sticherarion and heirmologion like theta notation, Coislin and Chartres type as well as those of the Byzantine asmatikon and kontakarion which were based on cheironomies). The argument was mainly based on the astonishing continuity that a new a type of treatise revealed by its continuous presence from the 13th to the 19th centuries: the Papadike. In a critical edition of this huge corpus, Troelsgård together with Maria Alexandru discovered many different functions that this treatise type could have. It was originally an introduction for a revised type of sticherarion, but it also introduced many other books like mathemataria (literally "a book of exercises" like a sticherarion kalophonikon or a book with heirmoi kalophonikoi, stichera kalophonika, anagrammatismoi and kratemata), akolouthiai (from "taxis ton akolouthion" which meant "order of services", a book which combined the choir book "asmatikon", the book of the soloist "kontakarion", and with the rubrics the instructions of the typikon) and the Ottoman anthologies of the Papadike which tried to continue the tradition of the notated book akolouthiai (usually introduced by a Papadike, a kekragarion/anastasimatarion, an anthology for Orthros, and an anthology for the divine liturgies).

With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional repertoire: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies (palaia "old"), or original music in highly ornamental style (called "kalophonic"). This was the work of the so-called Maïstores, "masters", of whom the most celebrated was St. John Koukouzeles (14th century) as a famous innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the traditional repertoire continued in the centuries following the fall of Constantinople.

One part of this process was the redaction and limitation of the present repertoire given by the notated chant books of the sticherarion (menaion, triodion, pentekostarion, and oktoechos) and the heirmologion during the 14th century. Philologists called this repertoire the "standard abridged version" and counted alone 750 stichera for the menaion-part, and 3300 odes of the heirmologion.

Chronological research of the books sticherarion and heirmologion did not only reveal an evolution of notation systems which were just invented for these chant books, they can be also studied with respect to the repertoire of heirmoi and of stichera idiomela. The earliest evolution of sticherarion and heirmologion notation was the explanation of the theta (Slav. fita), oxeia or diple which were simply set under a syllable, where a melisma was expected. These explanations were either written with Coislin (scriptoria of monasteries under administration of the Patriarchates Jerusalem and Alexandria) or with Chartres notation (scriptoria in Constantinople or on Mount Athos). Both notations went through different stages. Since the evolution of the Coislin system also aimed a reduction of signs in order to define the interval value by less signs in order to avoid a confusion with an earlier habit to use them, it was favoured in comparison with the more complex and stenographic Chartres notation by later scribes during the late 12th century. The standard round notation (also known as Middle Byzantine notation) combined signs of both Old Byzantine notation systems during the 13th century. Concerning the repertoire of unique compositions (stichera idiomela) and models of canon poetry (heirmoi), scribes increased their number between the 12th and 13th century. The Middle Byzantine redaction of the 14th century reduced this number within a standard repertoire and tried to unify the many variants, sometimes offering only a second variant notated in red ink. Since the 12th century also prosomoia (texts composed over well-known avtomela) had been increasingly written down with notation, so that a former local oral tradition to apply psalmody to the evening (Ps 140) and the Laud psalm (Ps 148) became finally visible in these books.

The characteristic of these books is that their collection were over-regional. The probably oldest fully notated chant book is the heirmologion of the Great Lavra on Mount Athos ( GR-AOml Ms. β 32) which has been written about the turn to the 11th century. With 312 folios it has much more canons than later redactions notated in Middle Byzantine notation. It was notated in archaic Chartres notation and was organised in canon order. Each canon within an echos section was numbered through and has detailed ascriptions concerning the feast and the author who was believed to have composed poetry and music of the heirmos:

In exceptional cases, some of these canons were marked as prosomoia and written out with notation. In comparison, later heirmologia just notated the heirmoi with the text they were remembered (referred by an incipit), while the akrosticha composed over the model of the heirmos had been written in the text book menaion. Already the famous heirmologion of Paris, Ms. 220 of the fonds Coislin which gave the name to "Coislin notation" and written about 100 years later, seems to collect almost half the number of heirmoi. But within many heirmoi there are one or even two alternative versions (ἄλλος "another one") inserted directly after certain odes, not just with different neumes, but also with different texts. It seems that several former heirmoi of the same author or written for the same occasion had been summarised under one heirmos and some of the odes of the canon could be replaced by others. But the heirmoi for one and the same feast offered the option to singers to choose between different schools (the Sabaite represented by Andrew, Cosmas and John "the monk" and his nephew Stephen, the Constantinopolitan represented by Patriarch Germanos, and the one of Jerusalem by George of Nicomedia and Elias), different echoi, and even different heirmoi of the same author.

Apart from this canonisation which can be observed in the process of redaction between the 12th and 14th centuries, one should also note that the table above compares two different redactions between the 11th and 12th centuries: the one of Constantinople and Athos (Chartres notation) and another one at the scriptoria of Jerusalem (especially the Patriarchate and the Monastery of Saint Sabbas) and Sinai within the Patriarchate of Alexandria written in Coislin notation. Within the medium of Middle Byzantine notation which combined signs stemming from both Old Byzantine notation systems, there was a later process of unification during the 14th century, which combined both redactions, a process which was preceded by the dominance of Coislin notation by the end of the 12th century, when the more complex Chartres notation came out of use, even at Constantinopolitan scriptoria.

To a certain degree there may be found remnants of Byzantine or early (Greek-speaking, Orthodox Christian) near eastern music in the music of the Ottoman Court. Examples such as that of the composer and theorist Prince Cantemir of Romania learning music from the Greek musician Angelos, indicate the continuing participation of Greek speaking people in court culture. The influences of ancient Greek basin and the Greek Christian chants in the Byzantine music as origin, are confirmed. Music of Turkey was influenced by Byzantine music, too (mainly in the years 1640-1712). Ottoman music is a synthesis, carrying the culture of Greek and Armenian Christian chant. It emerged as the result of a sharing process between the many civilizations that met together in the Orient, considering the breadth and length of duration of these empires and the great number of ethnicities and major or minor cultures that they encompassed or came in touch with at each stage of their development.

Chrysanthos of Madytos (c. 1770-1846), Gregory the Protopsaltes (c. 1778 - c. 1821), and Chourmouzios the Archivist were responsible for a reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine Musical Symbols that, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly. The work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church. Unfortunately, their work has since been misinterpreted often, and much of the oral tradition has been lost.

The Ison (music) is a drone note, or a slow-moving lower vocal part, used in Byzantine chant and some related musical traditions to accompany the melody. It is assumed that the ison was first introduced in Byzantine practice in the 16th century.

The practice of Terirem is vocal improvisation with nonsense syllables. It can contain syllables like "te ri rem" or "te ne na", sometimes enriched with some theological words. It is a custom for a choir, or an orthodox psalmist to start the chanting by finding the musical tone by singing at the very beginning a "ne-ne".

Simon Karas (1905-1999) began an effort to assemble as much material as possible in order to restore the apparently lost tradition. His work was continued by his students Lycourgos Angelopoulos and Ioannis Arvanitis who both had a quite independent and different approach to the tradition.

Lycourgos Angelopoulos died on 18 May 2014, but during his life-time he always perceived himself more as a student than a teacher, despite of the great number of his students and followers and the great success he enjoyed as a teacher. He published some essays where he explained the role that his teacher Simon Karas had for his work. He studied the introduction of the New Method under the aspect which were the Middle Byzantine neumes that had been abandoned by Chrysanthos, when he introduced the New Method. In particular, he discussed the role of Petros Ephesios, the editor of the first print editions who still used the qualitative sign of "oxeia" which had been soon abandoned. In collaboration with Georgios Konstantinou who wrote a new manual and introduction for his school, Lycourgos Angelopoulos re-introduced certain aphonic signs and re-interpreted them as ornamental signs according to the definitive rhythmic interpretation of the New Method which had transcribed the melos into notation. Thus, he had to provide for the whole repertoire of the living tradition an own handwritten edition which had been printed for all his students. For the proper understanding, the new universal notation according to Chrysanthos could be used to transcribe any kind of Ottoman music, not only the church music composed according to the oktoechos melopœia, but also makam music and rural traditions of the Mediterranean. Thus, the whole ornamental aspect of monophonic music depended now on an oral tradition, but it was no longer represented by the aphonic or great signs which had to be understood from the traditional context rooting back to the Byzantine psaltic art. Therefore, the other fundament of Angelopoulos' school was the participating fieldwork of traditional protopsaltes, those of the archon protopsaltes of the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople (and many of them had been forced into exile since the Cyprus crisis of 1964), and Athonite singers, especially those recordings he made of Father Dionysios Firfiris.

Two major styles of interpretation have evolved, the Hagioritic, which is simpler and is mainly followed in monasteries, and the Patriarchal, as exemplified by the style taught at the Great Church of Constantinople, which is more elaborate and is practised in parish churches. Nowadays the Orthodox churches maintain chanting schools in which new cantors are trained. Each diocese employs a protopsaltes ("first cantor"), who directs the diocesan cathedral choir and supervises musical education and performance. The protopsaltes of the Patriarchates are given the title Archon Protopsaltes ("Lord First Cantor"), a title also conferred as an honorific to distinguished cantors and scholars of Byzantine music.

While Angelopoulos' school basically stuck to the transcriptions of Chourmouzios the Archivist who did transcribe as one of the great teachers also the Byzantine repertoire according to the New Method during the beginning of the 19th century, another student of Karas Ioannis Arvanitis developed an autonomous approach which allowed him to study the older sources written in Middle Byzantine notation.

Ioannis Arvanitis published his ideas in several essays and in a doctoral thesis. He founded several ensembles like Aghiopolitis which performed the tradition of the Byzantine cathedral rite based on his own study of medieval kontakaria and asmatika in Italy, or got involved in collaborations with other ensembles whose singers were instructed by him, such as Cappella Romana directed by Alexander Lingas, Ensemble Romeiko directed by Yorgos Bilalis or Vesna Sara Peno who studied with Ioannis Arvanitis, before the she founded an own Ensemble dedicated Saint Kassia and to the Old Church Slavonic repertoire according to the Serbian tradition of the Athonite Hilandar Monastery.

For more on the theory of Byzantine music and its cultural relatives in Greek-speaking peoples see:

For collections of Byzantine hymnography see:

For contemporary works featuring Byzantine chant see:

1. ^ Neubauer, Eckhard (1994). "Die acht "Wege" der arabischen Musiklehre und der Oktoechos - Ibn Misğah, al-Kindī und der syrisch-byzantinische oktōēchos". Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften. 9: 373-414.

2. ^ Valiavitcharska, Vessela, ed. (2013), "Rhythm and meter in Byzantine eyes: Hellenistic traditions and Byzantine theory", Rhetoric and Rhythm in Byzantium: The Sound of Persuasion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 23-55, ISBN 978-1-139-58402-9

3. ^ Troelsgård, Christian (2007). "A New Source for the Early Octoechos? Papyrus Vindobonensis G 19.934 and its musical implications". Proceedings of the 1st International Conference of the ASBMH (PDF). pp. 668-679. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2013.

4. ^ Ptolemy's harmonics are the concluding main reference in didactic writings of Georgius Pachymeres and Manuel Bryennios, except the Aristoxenian fragments, and later authors including Nichomachus, Cleonides, Theon of Smyrna, and Aristides Quintilianus (2nd-4th century). All Byzantine authors teach harmonics as a mathematic science without any concern over contemporary composition. Wolfram, Gerda (2001). "Fragen der Kontinuität zwischen antiker und byzantinischer Musiktheorie" (PDF). Cantus Planus: Papers read at the ninth meeting. Budapest: Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia. pp. 575-584. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-10-22.

5. ^ "Discourses by Dio Chrysostom (Or. 71.9)". The Seventy-first Discourse: On the Philosopher (Volume V). Loeb Classical Library. p. 173.

6. Canon 62 of the Quinisext Synod (692) banned certain "pagan" feast of the hippodrome including ^ Vota and Broumalia. Nevertheless, both feasts were still described in Constantine VII Books of ceremonies (I:72 & II:18).

7. These formulas are documented in various regions of the Mediterranean such as the ^ Gallican and Visigothic preces, the terkyrie of the Ambrosian rite, but also in coronation rites that were even performed at Montecassino Abbey, when Pope Nicholas II accepted the Normans as allies.

8. A reprint of Johann Jakob Reiske's first edition can be found in ^ PG (CXII, cc. 73-1416). For an English translation of this edition see:

9. For a discussion of the ceremonial book's composition, but also on details of certain ceremonies, see: ^ Bury, John Bagnell (1907). "The Ceremonial Book of Constantine Porphyrogennetos". The English Historical Review. 22: 209-227, 426-448. doi:10.1093/ehr/xxii.lxxxvi.209.

10. See also the reconstruction of ^ "Constantinople about 1200". Byzantium 1200. 2009. a three-dimensional model of the quarter, and the presentation of a reconstruction by Jan Kostenec. Featherstone, Jeffrey Michael (2006). "The Great Palace as Reflected in the 'De Cerimoniis'". In Franz Alto Bauer (ed.). Visualisierungen von Herrschaft. Frühmittelalterliche Residenzen - Gestalt und Zeremoniell (Internationales Kolloquium 3.-4. Juni 2004 in Istanbul). Byzas. Vol. 5. Istanbul: Yayınları. pp. 47-60. ISBN 978-9758071265.

11. The hippodrome was as important for court ceremonies as the Hagia Sophia for imperial religious ceremonies and rites of passage. It was not only used during horse races, but also for receptions and its banquets and the yearly celebration of Constantinople's inauguration on 11 May. The "Golden Hippodrome" was an own ceremony to inaugurate a new season and to fix the calendar of the ceremonial located in the hippodrome. Occasionally also votive horse races were given, for example on 22 July for the feast of Saint Elias. ^ Woodrow, Zoe Antonia (2001). Imperial Ideology in Middle Byzantine Court Culture: The Evidence of Constantine Porphyrogenitus's 'De ceremoniis' (Doctoral). Durham University.

12. The exact ritual context of the kontakion is a controversial issue, since it also changed considerably during history. Its earliest place was probably a cathedral vigil (night service) celebrated at the Blachernae chapel near the North-Western wall for the instruction of the laity: ^ Lingas, Alexander (1995). "The Liturgical Place of the Kontakion in Constantinople". In Akentiev, Constantin C. (ed.). Liturgy, Architecture and Art of the Byzantine World: Papers of the XVIII International Byzantine Congress (Moscow, 8-15 August 1991) and Other Essays Dedicated to the Memory of Fr. John Meyendorff. Byzantino Rossica. Vol. 1. St. Petersburg. pp. 50-57.

13. See the edition of the notated and usually elaborated models in the habilitation of Constantin Floros (University of Hamburg, 1961) whose publication was realised very late (^ 2015), and Neil Moran's English translation (2009) of relevant parts of Floros' "Universale Neumenkunde" (1970). In his comparative study of kontakarion manuscripts, Christian Thodberg made a typological distinction between the short and the long kontakarion. Thodberg, Christian (1966). Der byzantinische Alleluiarionzyklus: Studien im kurzen Psaltikonstil. Monumenta musicae Byzantinae - Subsidia. Vol. 8. Holger Hamann (trans.). Kopenhagen: E. Munksgaard.

14. See the marble screen of Veliko Tarnovo, which is close to the reconstruction based on a marble fragment of the 6th century. ^ Tschilingirov, Assen (1978). Die Kunst des christlichen Mittelalters in Bulgarien. Berlin: Union. p. 18.

15. Neil Moran offers a discussion of different hypotheses concerning the exact way of the procession. He also regards a central ^ ambo, positioned slightly eastwards before the choir screen, as the regular place of the chanters since the 5th century. Since Justinian two choirs have had to be limited to 12 singers each. Moran, Neil (1979). "The Musical 'Gestaltung' of the Great Entrance Ceremony in the 12th century in accordance with the Rite of Hagia Sophia". Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik. 28: 167-193.

16. The old term of the pre-Carolingian Gallican rite was "sonus". Since Abbot Hilduin at the ^ Abbey Saint Denis, a diplomate at the Court of Louis the Pious, the cherubikon was re-introduced within the so-called Missa greca in honour of the patron who became identified with the Greek father Pseudo-Dionysius. The chant books of the abbey also provide the cherubikon as the offertory chant for the Pentecost Mass.

17. Neil Moran (^ 1979) interpreted the four antiphona that interrupted the cherubikon in the Italobyzantine psaltikon Cod. mess. 161 (I-ME, Fondo SS. Salvatore, Ms. gr. 161 ff.71-74), as of Constantinopolitan origin. According to him the dramaturgy of the doors were not those of the choir screen, but of an elliptic ambo under the dome of the Hagia Sophia.

18. ^ Frøyshov, Stig Simeon R. (2007). "The Early Development of the Liturgical Eight-Mode System in Jerusalem". Saint Vladimir's Theological Quarterly. 51: 139-178.

19. The expression "triodion" referred to the custom of the Lent season to sing just three odes as a complete kanon, the second, eighth and ninth ode in Constantinople and the second, third and fourth within the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. They were usually followed by Old Testament readings and thus, they did replace the usual prokeimenon. ^ Theodore and Joseph also used existing idiomela to compose the texts of new stichera for the triodion cycle. Wolfram, Gerda (2003). Der Beitrag des Theodoros Studites zur byzantinischen Hymnographie. Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik. Vol. 53. pp. 117-125. doi:10.1553/joeb53s117. ISBN 978-3-7001-3172-4.

20. The tropologion was discovered by the later Archimandrite Sophronius in the tower of the North wall in 1975. It comprises a cycle of 73 services. Many compositions are anonymous, except of the Sabbaite school which is just mentioned by the names Andrew, John and Cosmas, the earliest layer of twelve troparia are ascribed to ^ Cyril of Jerusalem (4th century):

21. ^ Lingas, Alexander (2013). "From Earth to Heaven: The Changing Musical Soundscape of Byzantine Liturgy". In Claire Nesbitt; Mark Jackson (eds.). Experiencing Byzantium: Papers from the 44th Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Newcastle and Durham, April 2011. Farnham: Ashgate. pp. 311-358. ISBN 9781317137832.

22. ^ Simić, Kosta (2011). "Kassia's hymnography in the light of patristic sources and earlier hymnographical works". Zbornik Radova Vizantoloskog Instituta. 48 (48): 7-37. doi:10.2298/ZRVI1148007S. Falkenhausen, Vera von (2008). "II monachesimo femminile italo-greco". In Cosimo Damiano Fonseca (ed.). Il monachesimo femminile tra Puglia e Basilicata : Atti del Convegno di studi promosso dall'Abbazia benedettina barese di Santa Scolastica (Bari, 3-5 dicembre 2005). Per la storia della Chiesa di Bari. Vol. 25. Bari: Edipuglia. pp. 23-44. ISBN 978-88-7228-517-6.

23. Sandra Martani described the Byzantine Gospel lectionary ^ ET-MSsc Ms. Gr. 213 (revised and notated in 967) within its context in church history:

24. Unfortunately, the liturgical part has not survived in the late copies of his typikon, but it is assumed that its specific form was a synthesis of the monastic and the cathedral typikon: ^ John Thomas; Angela Constantinides Hero, eds. (2000). "Theodore Studites: Testament of Theodore the Studite for the Monastery of St. John Stoudios in Constantinople" (PDF). Byzantine Monastic Foundation Documents: A Complete Translation of the Surviving Founder's Typika and Testaments. Dumbarton Oaks Studies. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. pp. 67-83. ISBN 978-0-88402-232-9.

25. About Taft's theory about three readings (prophetic, apostolic, Gospel) of the eucharist, see: ^ Engberg, Sysse Gudrun (2016). "The Needle and the Haystack - Searching for Evidence of the Eucharistic Old Testament Lection in the Constantinopolitan rite". Bollettino della Badia Greca di Grottaferrata. Terza serie. 3: 47-60.

26. See table 17.1 in Lingas (^ 2013). Engberg, Sysse Gudrun (1987). "The Greek Old Testament Lectionary as a Liturgical Book" (PDF). Cahiers de l'Institut du Moyen-Âge grec et latin. 54: 39-48.

27. It is an observation made by Yulia Artamanova that the refrain of both models for ^ tetartos-echos kontakia (cross elevation and Theophany) had the identical neumes in Slavic kondakar's, so that the common melodic model of the refrain (ex. 1) also allowed the combination of the two kontakia concerning the prooimion and the oikos:

28. A detailed analysis of the later vita of Saint Methodius by Svetlana Kujumdžieva is probably based on a little bit more than just on a later imagination of his liturgical innovations. ^ Kujumdžieva, Svetlana (2002). "Viewing the Earliest Old Slavic Corpus Cantilenarum". Palaeobulgarica / Старобългаристика (2): 83-101. ISSN 0204-4021.

29. An overview of the dispute how the early sources can be explained (pp. 239-244): ^ Velimirović, Miloš (1972). "The Present Status of Research in Slavic Chant". Acta Musicologica. 44 (2): 235-265. doi:10.2307/932170. ISSN 0001-6241. JSTOR 932170.

30. ^ Artamonova, Yulia (2012). "On the Archaic Form of Znamennaya Notation (Neumes in the so-called "Iliya's Book")". Българско музикознание (3-4): 23-34. ISSN 0204-823X.

31. ^ Christians, Dagmar, ed. (2001). Die Notation von Stichera und Kanones im Gottesdienstmenäum für den Monat Dezember nach der Hs. GIM Sin. 162: Verzeichnis der Musterstrophen und ihrer Neumenstruktur. Patristica Slavica. Vol. 9. Wiesbaden: Westdt. Verl. ISBN 978-3-531-05129-1. The edition verified an earlier hypothesis that there has been already an earlier Slavic reception which left the system of melodies established under the Stoudites intact. It was already mentioned by Constantin Floros in his discussion of earlier debates in 1980, see also the English re-publication realised and translated by Neil Moran (2009).

32. ^ See the quotation in the section about the introduction of the cherubikon.

33. English translation quoted according to the translation of the ^ Laurentian text (passage on ff.37r-37v between no. 15 and 55) by Samuel Cross and Olgerd Sherbowitz-Wetzor (1953, 110-111): Kimball, Alan (ed.). "Excerpts from "Tales of Times Gone By" [Povest' vremennykh let]". SAC. Oregon: University of Oregon.

34. ^ Thodberg, Christian (1966). Der byzantinische Alleluiarionzyklus: Studien im kurzen Psaltikonstil. Monumenta musicae Byzantinae - Subsidia. Vol. 8. Holger Hamann (trans.). Copenhagen: E. Munksgaard.

35. See both psaltika-kontakaria of Sinai (^ ET-MSsc Ms. Gr. 1280 and 1314), and those of Paris and Rome (F-Pn fonds grec, Ms. 397, V-CVbav Vat. gr. 345). Sin. gr. 1314, written during the 14th century, is a precise copy of Sin. gr. 1280 with a later notation style and many mistakes, but it was completed by a long appendix with the complete Akathistos hymnus (24 alphabetic oikoi) in melismatic style, the missing set of 8 kontakia-prosomoia anastasima with 8 oikoi-prosomoia, the stichera heothina, although they did belong to the oktoechos section of the sticherarion, etc.

36. Precisely four manuscripts of this type (^ I-ME Mess. gr. 120 and 129, I-GR Cod. crypt. Γ.γ.V, V-CVbav Vat. gr. 1606) have survived.

37. See Floros (^ 2015, i:137) who emphasised that the 14 models did in fact not represent independent models, but variants of the same echos-melody adapted to the text of the kontakion. According to Gerlach (171-174, table 1-2), there were 16 models for the prooimion and 13 for the oikoi: Gerlach, Oliver (2020). "The Sources of the Kontakion as Evidence of a Contradictory History of Reception". In Maria Pischlöger (ed.). Zehnte internationale wissenschaftliche Tagung Theorie und Geschichte der Monodie 12.-14. September 2018, Wien. Brno: Tribun EU. pp. 145-188. ISBN 978-80-263-1566-7. Artamonova (2013, 4-5) found 22 prooimia as models for the Slavic repertoire of kontakia given by the kondakar's. For the whole repertoire of kontakia, see Krueger, Derek; Arentzen, Thomas (2016). "Romanos in Manuscript: Some Observations on the Patmos Kontakarion" (PDF). In Bojana Krsmanović; Ljubomir Milanović (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd International Congress of Byzantine Studies, Belgrade, 22-27 August 2016: Round Tables. Vol. Round tables. Belgrade. pp. 648-654. ISBN 978-86-80656-10-6.

38. ^ Raasted, Jørgen (1989). "Zur Melodie des Kontakions Ἡ παρθένος σήμερον" (PDF). Cahiers de l'Institut du Moyen-Âge grec et latin. 59: 233-246. On the other hand, Constantin Floros observed in his habilitation of 1961 (2015, i:150-159), while he compared the same Christmas kontakion with eight notated kontakia-prosomoia, that the composers of the prosomoia did not obey always the rule to follow the model-kontakion by isosyllaby and homotonia, while notated manuscripts did reveal that certain sections changed to another echos and sometimes elaborated the music. As consequence, the long psaltikon style was also more flexible concerning the adaptation to the texts of kontakia-prosomoia.

39. Edition in preparation. As part one might quote ^ Alexandru, Maria; Christian Troelsgård (2013). "The Development of a Didactic Tradition - The Elements of the Papadike". Tradition and Innovation in Late- and Postbyzantine Liturgical Chant II: Proceedings of the Congress held at Hernen Castle, the Netherlands, 30 October - 3 November 2008. Leuven, Paris, Walpole: Bredius Foundation, Peeters. pp. 1-57. ISBN 978-90-429-2748-3.

40. ^ Raasted, Jørgen (1969). "Observations on the Manuscript Tradition of Byzantine Music, I: A List of Heirmos Call-Numbers, based on Eustratiades's Edition of the Heirmologion" (PDF). Cahiers de l'Institut du Moyen-Âge grec et latin. 1: 3-12.

41. There are different definitions of these stages. Oliver Strunk (^ Specimina notationum antiquiorum. In: MMB-Série principale, 7. 1966) made a difference between archaic, relatively and fully developed forms. Constantin Floros (1970, i:311-326) defined six stages for Coislin and four ones for Chartres notation according to criteria like unneumed syllables, frequency of interval signs (pnevmata), stylistic features, gradual changes of older signs.

42. ^ The first eight are missing in the current manuscript.

43. ^ "Center for Research and Promotion of National Greek Music - Archives of Simon and Aggeliki Karas". Archived from the original on 2003-11-30.

Raasted, Jørgen, ed. (1983). The Hagiopolites: A Byzantine Treatise on Musical Theory (PDF). Cahiers de l'Institut du Moyen-Âge grec et latin. Vol. 45. Copenhagen: Paludan.

John Thomas; Angela Constantinides Hero, eds. (2000). Byzantine Monastic Foundation Documents: A Complete Translation of the Surviving Founder's Typika and Testaments. Dumbarton Oaks Studies. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 978-0-88402-232-9.

Myers, Gregory, ed. (1994). The Lavrsky-Troitsky Kondakar'. Monumenta Slavico-Byzantina Mediaevalia Europensia. Vol. 4. Sofia: Ivan Dujcev Centre for Slavo-Byzantine Studies (Heron Press). ISBN 978-954-580-006-1.

Dostál, Antonín; Rothe, Hans; Trapp, Erich, eds. (1976-2004). Der altrussische Kondakar' auf der Grundlage des Blagoveščenskij Nižegorodskij Kondakar'. Bausteine zur Geschichte der Literatur bei den Slawen, Editionen. Vol. 3:2-7. Giessen [Köln, Weimar, Vienna]: Wilhelm Schmitz [Böhlau since 1990]. ISSN 0170-3552.

Levy, Kenneth; Troelsgård, Christian (2001). "Byzantine chant". New Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Vol. 1. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.04494.

Velimirović, Miloš; Lozovaya, Irene; Myers, Gregory; De Carlo, Leonora (2001). "Russian and Slavonic church music". New Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Vol. 1. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.43458.

Wellesz, Egon (1980). A history of Byzantine music and hymnography (2nd, revised and enlarged ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-816111-0.

Hannick, Christian (1995). "Byzantinische Musik". In Laurenz Lütteken (ed.). MGG Online (in German). Kassel, Stuttgart, New York.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Byzantine music ( Greek: Βυζαντινή μουσική) is the music of the Byzantine Empire. Originally it consisted of songs and hymns composed to Greek texts used for courtly ceremonials, during festivals, or as paraliturgical and liturgical music.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The word Aeolian, like the names for the other ancient Greek tonoi and harmoniai, is an ethnic designation: in this case, for the inhabitants of Aeolis (Αἰολίς)-the Aeolian Islands and adjacent coastal district of Asia Minor.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In music theory, the term mode or modus is used in a number of distinct senses, depending on context. Its most common use may be described as a type of musical scale coupled with a set of characteristic melodic and harmonic behaviors.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Modernism is a philosophical, religious, and arts movement that arose from broad transformations in Western society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The movement reflected a desire for the creation of new forms of art, philosophy, and social organization which reflected the newly emerg…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Saint Justinian ( Welsh: Stinan, Jestin, Iestin) was a 6th-century hermit who lived on Ramsey Island, near St. David's, in the Welsh county of Pembrokeshire.

Tradition states that he was a Breton nobleman who settled on the island of Ramsey as a hermit. Justinian would stand in the cold sea praying for hours, believing the extreme discipline helped him focus on God. He was visited by Saint David who was so impressed with his holiness that he made him his confessor and abbot of the monastery on the mainland. However, Justinian became disillusioned with the poor attitude of the monks at St Davids and took himself away the short distance to remote Ramsey Island to establish a more holy spiritual community. His more loyal monks followed him. Legend has it that he was eventually murdered by some disgruntled servants or monks fed up with his strict regime, it is said by beheading him.

Apparently he picked up his head and crossed Ramsey Sound walking on the water carrying his head in his arms and his body was buried in the small ruined chapel which still stands on the mainland at St Justinian's, immediately opposite his island home; his bones were later moved to St Davids Cathedral. During the reformation, Bishop William Barlow was strongly opposed to the veneration of relics, pilgrimages, and other Catholic practices. In an attempt to suppress the cult of St David, at St David's Cathedral, in 1538 he stripped St David's shrine of its jewels and confiscated the relics of St David and St Justinian in order to counteract "superstition".

Justinian is listed on very ancient Welsh calendars of saints and martyrs.

Archaeological studies indicate an early medieval ecclesiastical site on the Ramsey Island. There may have been a chapel "dedicated to St Justinian and thought to have possibly been located at the southerly end of the island."

St Justinian in St Davids and the Cathedral Close is named for him. St Justinian's Well (a 19th-century stone enclosure over an ancient spring) is located here. The bay on which St Justinian is located is called Porthstinian.

St Just in Roseland is also named for him, and the Anglican church at Llanstinan, near Fishguard, is dedicated to him. The small church at Freystrop, near Haverfordwest, is also dedicated to him.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Saint Justinian ( Welsh: Stinan, Jestin, Iestin) was a 6th-century hermit who lived on Ramsey Island, near St. David's, in the Welsh county of Pembrokeshire. Tradition states that he was a Breton nobleman who settled on the island of Ramsey as a hermit.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Toggle the table of contents

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

December 5 is the 339th day of the year (340th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar; 26 days remain until the end of the year.

Pre-1600

Pre-1600

852 - Zhu Wen, Chinese emperor (d. 912)

1377 - Jianwen Emperor of China (d. 1402)

1389 - Zbigniew Oleśnicki, Polish cardinal and statesman (d. 1455)

1443 - Pope Julius II (d. 1513)

1470 - Willibald Pirckheimer, German lawyer and author (d. 1530)

1495 - Nicolas Cleynaerts, Flemish philologist and lexicographer (d. 1542)

1537 - Ashikaga Yoshiaki, Japanese shōgun (d. 1597)

1539 - Fausto Sozzini, Italian theologian and author (d. 1604)

1547 - Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (d. 1625)

1556 - Anne Cecil, Countess of Oxford, English countess (d. 1588)

1596 - Henry Lawes, English composer (d. 1662)

1666 - Francesco Scarlatti, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1741)

1687 - Francesco Geminiani, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1762)

1697 - Giuseppe de Majo, Italian organist and composer (d. 1771)

1784 - George Shepherd, English illustrator and painter (d. 1862)

1803 - Fyodor Tyutchev, Russian poet and diplomat (d. 1873)

1820 - Afanasy Fet, Russian poet and author (d. 1892)

1830 - Christina Rossetti, English poet and author (d. 1894)

1839 - George Armstrong Custer, American general (d. 1876)

1841 - Marcus Daly, Irish-American businessman (d. 1900)

1849 - Eduard Seler, German anthropologist, ethnohistorian, linguist, and academic (d. 1922)

1855 - Clinton Hart Merriam, American zoologist, ornithologist, entomologist, and ethnographer (d. 1942)

1861 - Konstantin Korovin, Russian-French painter and set designer (d. 1939)

1862 - John Henry Leech, English entomologist (d. 1900)

1866 - John Beresford, Irish polo player (d. 1944)

1866 - Traian Demetrescu, Romanian poet and author (d. 1896)

1867 - Antti Aarne, Finnish author and academic (d. 1925)

1867 - Józef Piłsudski, Polish field marshal and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Poland (d. 1935)

1868 - Arnold Sommerfeld, German physicist and academic (d. 1951)

1869 - Ellis Parker Butler, American author and poet (d. 1937)

1870 - Vítězslav Novák, Czech composer and educator (d. 1949)

1872 - Harry Nelson Pillsbury, American chess player (d. 1906)

1875 - Arthur Currie, Canadian general (d. 1933)

1881 - René Cresté, French actor and director (d. 1922)

1886 - Rose Wilder Lane, American journalist and author (d. 1968)

1886 - Pieter Oud, Dutch historian, academic, and politician, Minister of Finance of the Netherlands (d. 1968)

1886 - Nikolai Uglanov, Soviet politician (d. 1937)

1890 - David Bomberg, English painter, illustrator, and academic (d. 1957)

1890 - Fritz Lang, Austrian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1976)

1891 - Paul Kogerman, Estonian chemist and academic (d. 1951)

1895 - Elbert Frank Cox, American mathematician and academic (d. 1969)

1896 - Ann Nolan Clark, American historian, author, and educator (d. 1995)

1896 - Carl Ferdinand Cori, Czech-American biochemist and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984)

1897 - Nunnally Johnson, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1977)

1897 - Gershom Scholem, German-Israeli philosopher and historian (d. 1982)

1898 - Josh Malihabadi, Indian-Pakistani poet and translator (d. 1982)

1898 - Grace Moore, American soprano and actress (d. 1947)

1900 - Jimmy Dimmock, English footballer (d. 1972)

1901 - Milton H. Erickson, American psychiatrist and author (d. 1980)

1901 - Werner Heisenberg, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976)

1902 - Emeric Pressburger, Hungarian-English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1988)

1902 - Strom Thurmond, American educator, general, and politician, 103rd Governor of South Carolina (d. 2003)

1903 - Johannes Heesters, Dutch-German actor and singer (d. 2011)

1903 - C. F. Powell, English-Italian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1969)

1905 - Gus Mancuso, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 1984)

1905 - Otto Preminger, Austrian-American actor, director, and producer (d. 1986)

1905 - Francisco Javier Arana, Guatemalan Army colonel and briefly Guatemalan head of state (d.1949)

1907 - Giuseppe Occhialini, Italian-French physicist and academic (d. 1993)

1910 - Abraham Polonsky, American director and screenwriter (d. 1999)

1911 - Władysław Szpilman, Polish pianist and composer (d. 2000)

1912 - Sonny Boy Williamson II, American singer-songwriter and harmonica player (d. 1965)

1912 - Kate Simon, American travel writer (d. 1990)

1913 - Esther Borja, Cuban soprano and actress (d. 2013)

1914 - Hans Hellmut Kirst, German lieutenant and author (d. 1989)

1916 - Walt McPherson, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013)

1917 - Ken Downing, English racing driver (d. 2004)

1919 - Alun Gwynne Jones, Baron Chalfont, English historian and politician (d. 2020)

1921 - Alvy Moore, American actor and producer (d. 1997)

1922 - Casey Ribicoff, American philanthropist (d. 2011)

1922 - Don Robertson, American songwriter and pianist (d. 2015)

1924 - Robert Sobukwe, South African banker and politician (d. 1978)

1927 - Bhumibol Adulyadej, Thai king (d. 2016)

1927 - W.D. Amaradeva, Sri Lankan musician and composer (d. 2016)

1929 - Madis Kõiv, Estonian physicist, philosopher, and author (d. 2014)

1930 - Yi-Fu Tuan, Chinese-American geographer (d. 2022)

1931 - Ladislav Novák, Czech footballer and manager (d. 2011)

1932 - Alf Dubs, Baron Dubs, British politician

1932 - Sheldon Glashow, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate

1932 - Jim Hurtubise, American race car driver (d. 1989)

1932 - Little Richard, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor (d. 2020)

1932 - Nadira, Indian actress (d. 2006)

1933 - Gennadiy Agapov, Russian race walker (d. 1999)

1933 - Harry Holgate, Australian politician, 36th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1997)

1934 - Joan Didion, American novelist and screenwriter (d. 2021)

1935 - Calvin Trillin, American novelist, humorist, and journalist

1935 - Yury Vlasov, Ukrainian-Russian weightlifter and politician (d. 2021)

1936 - James Lee Burke, American journalist, author, and academic

1938 - J. J. Cale, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013)

1940 - Tony Crafter, Australian cricket umpire

1940 - Boris Ignatyev, Russian footballer and manager

1940 - Peter Pohl, Swedish author, director, and screenwriter

1940 - Frank Wilson, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2012)

1942 - Bryan Murray, Canadian ice hockey coach (d. 2017)

1943 - Eva Joly, Norwegian-French judge and politician

1943 - Andrew Yeom Soo-jung, South Korean cardinal

1944 - Jeroen Krabbé, Dutch actor, director, and producer

1945 - Serge Chapleau, Canadian cartoonist

1945 - Moshe Katsav, Iranian-Israeli educator and politician, 8th President of Israel

1946 - José Carreras, Spanish tenor and actor

1946 - Andy Kim, Canadian pop singer-songwriter

1946 - Sarel van der Merwe, South African racing driver

1947 - Rudy Fernandez, Filipino triathlete

1947 - Bruce Golding, Jamaican lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Jamaica

1947 - Tony Gregory, Irish activist and politician (d. 2009)

1947 - Jim Messina, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer

1947 - Jim Plunkett, American football player and radio host

1947 - Kim Simmonds, Welsh blues-rock singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer

1947 - Don Touhig, Welsh journalist and politician

1948 - Denise Drysdale, Australian television host and actress

1949 - John Altman, English composer and conductor

1949 - David Manning, English civil servant and diplomat, British Ambassador to the United States

1951 - Link Byfield, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2015)

1951 - Anne-Mie van Kerckhoven, Belgian painter and illustrator

1953 - Gwen Lister, South African-Namibian journalist, publisher, and activist

1954 - Hanif Kureishi, English author and playwright

1954 - Gary Roenicke, American baseball player and scout

1955 - Miyuki Kawanaka, Japanese singer

1955 - Juha Tiainen, Finnish hammer thrower (d. 2003)

1956 - Klaus Allofs, German footballer and manager

1956 - Adam Thorpe, French-English author, poet, and playwright

1956 - Krystian Zimerman, Polish virtuoso pianist

1957 - Raquel Argandoña, Chilean model, actress, and politician

1958 - Dynamite Kid, English wrestler (d. 2018)

1959 - Lee Chapman, English footballer

1959 - Oleksandr Yaroslavsky, Ukrainian businessman

1960 - Frans Adelaar, Dutch footballer and manager

1960 - Osvaldo Golijov, Argentinian-American composer and educator

1960 - Jack Russell, American singer-songwriter and producer

1960 - Matthew Taylor, English businessman and politician

1961 - Ralf Dujmovits, German mountaineer

1961 - Laura Flanders, British journalist

1962 - José Cura, Argentinian tenor, conductor, and director

1962 - Pablo Morales, American swimmer and coach

1962 - Nivek Ogre, Canadian singer-songwriter

1962 - Fred Rutten, Dutch footballer and manager

1963 - Doctor Dré, American television and radio host

1963 - Carrie Hamilton, American actress and playwright (d. 2002)

1963 - Alberto Nisman, Argentinian lawyer (d. 2015)

1964 - Martin Vinnicombe, Australian cyclist

1965 - Manish Malhotra, Indian fashion designer

1965 - John Rzeznik, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer

1965 - Wayne Smith, Jamaican rapper (d. 2014)

1965 - Valeriy Spitsyn, Russian race walker

1967 - Gary Allan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist

1968 - Margaret Cho, American comedian, actress, producer, and screenwriter

1968 - Lisa Marie, American model and actress

1968 - Lydia Millet, American novelist

1968 - Falilat Ogunkoya, Nigerian sprinter

1969 - Eric Etebari, American actor, director, and producer

1969 - Morgan J. Freeman, American director, producer, and screenwriter

1969 - Sajid Javid, British Pakistani banker and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer

1969 - Lewis Pugh, English swimmer and lawyer

1969 - Ramón Ramírez, Mexican footballer

1970 - Kevin Haller, Canadian ice hockey player

1970 - Michel'le, American singer-songwriter

1971 - Ashia Hansen, American-English triple jumper

1971 - Gabriel Hjertstedt, Swedish golfer

1972 - Cliff Floyd, American baseball player and sportscaster

1972 - Mike Mahoney, American baseball player

1973 - Argo Arbeiter, Estonian footballer

1973 - Mikelangelo Loconte, Italian singer-songwriter, producer, and actor

1973 - Luboš Motl, Czech physicist and academic

1974 - Ravish Kumar, Indian journalist and author

1975 - Ronnie O'Sullivan, English snooker player and radio host

1975 - Paula Patton, American actress

1976 - Amy Acker, American actress

1976 - Xavier Garbajosa, French rugby player

1976 - Sachiko Kokubu, Japanese actress and model

1976 - Rachel Komisarz, American swimmer and coach

1977 - Peter van der Vlag, Dutch footballer

1978 - Olli Jokinen, Finnish ice hockey player

1978 - Marcelo Zalayeta, Uruguayan footballer

1979 - Matteo Ferrari, Italian footballer

1979 - Niklas Hagman, Finnish ice hockey player

1979 - Gareth McAuley, Northern Irish footballer

1980 - Ibrahim Maalouf, Lebanese-French trumpet player and composer

1980 - Jessica Paré, Canadian actress

1985 - Shikhar Dhawan, Indian cricketer

1985 - Frankie Muniz, American actor, drummer, and race car driver

1985 - Danny Wicks, Australian rugby league player

1986 - LeGarrette Blount, American football player

1986 - James Hinchcliffe, Canadian Indycar racing driver

1986 - Justin Smoak, American baseball player

1988 - Joanna Rowsell, English cyclist

1990 - Montee Ball, American football player

1991 - Jacopo Sala, Italian footballer

1992 - Ilja Antonov, Estonian footballer

1993 - Ross Barkley, English footballer

1994 - Ondrej Duda, Slovak footballer

1995 - Danny Levi, New Zealand rugby league player

1995 - Anthony Martial, French footballer

1995 - Kaetlyn Osmond, Canadian figure skater

Pre-1600

1624 - Gaspard Bauhin, Swiss botanist and physician (b. 1560)

1654 - Jean François Sarrazin, French author and poet (b. 1611)

1663 - Severo Bonini, Italian organist and composer (b. 1582)

1749 - Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye, Canadian commander and explorer (b. 1685)

1758 - Johann Friedrich Fasch, German violinist and composer (b. 1688)

1770 - James Stirling, Scottish mathematician and surveyor (b. 1692)

1784 - Phillis Wheatley, Senegal-born slave, later American poet (b. 1753)

1791 - Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian composer and musician (b. 1756)

1819 - Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg-Stolberg, German poet and lawyer (b. 1750)

1870 - Alexandre Dumas, French novelist and playwright (b. 1802)

1887 - Eliza R. Snow, American poet and songwriter (b. 1804)

1891 - Pedro II of Brazil (b. 1825)

1931 - Vachel Lindsay, American poet (b. 1879)

1940 - Jan Kubelík, Czech violinist and composer (b. 1880)

1941 - Amrita Sher-Gil, Hungarian-Pakistani painter (b. 1913)

1942 - Jock Delves Broughton, English captain (b. 1883)

1946 - Louis Dewis, Belgian-French painter and educator (b. 1872)

1951 - Shoeless Joe Jackson, American baseball player and manager (b. 1887)

1951 - Abanindranath Tagore, Indian painter, author, and academic (b. 1871)

1953 - William Sterling Parsons, American admiral (b. 1901)

1961 - Emil Fuchs, German-American lawyer and businessman (b. 1878)

1963 - Karl Amadeus Hartmann, German composer and educator (b. 1905)

1963 - Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1892)

1964 - V. Veerasingam, Sri Lankan educator and politician (b. 1892)

1968 - Fred Clark, American actor (b. 1914)

1975 - Constance McLaughlin Green, American historian and author (b. 1897)

1977 - Katherine Milhous, American author and illustrator (b. 1894)

1977 - Aleksandr Vasilevsky, Russian marshal and politician, Minister of Defence for the Soviet Union (b. 1895)

1979 - Jesse Pearson, American actor, singer, and screenwriter (b. 1930)

1983 - Robert Aldrich, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1918)

1984 - Cecil M. Harden, American politician (b. 1894)

1989 - John Pritchard, English conductor and director (b. 1921)

1990 - Alfonso A. Ossorio, Filipino-American painter and sculptor (b. 1916)

1994 - Harry Horner, Czech-American director, producer, and production designer (b. 1910)

1995 - L. B. Cole, American illustrator and publisher (b. 1918)

1995 - Charles Evans, English mountaineer, surgeon, and educator (b. 1918)

1995 - Gwen Harwood, Australian poet and playwright (b. 1920)

1995 - Clair Cameron Patterson, American scientist (b. 1922)

1997 - Eugen Cicero, Romanian-German jazz pianist (b. 1940)

1998 - Albert Gore, Sr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1907)

2001 - Franco Rasetti, Italian-American physicist and academic (b. 1901)

2002 - Roone Arledge, American sportscaster and producer (b. 1931)

2002 - Ne Win, Burmese general and politician, 4th President of Burma (b. 1911)

2005 - Edward L. Masry, American lawyer and politician (b. 1932)

2006 - David Bronstein, Ukrainian-Belarusian chess player and theoretician (b. 1924)

2007 - Andrew Imbrie, American composer and academic (b. 1921)

2007 - George Paraskevaides, Greek-Cypriot businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Joannou & Paraskevaides (b. 1916)

2007 - Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer and academic (b. 1928)

2008 - Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow (b. 1929)

2008 - George Brecht, American chemist and composer (b. 1926)

2008 - Nina Foch, Dutch-American actress (b. 1924)

2008 - Beverly Garland, American actress and businesswoman (b. 1926)

2008 - Anca Parghel, Romanian singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1957)

2009 - William Lederer, American soldier and author (b. 1912)

2010 - Alan Armer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1922)

2010 - Don Meredith, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (b. 1938)

2011 - Peter Gethin, English racing driver (b. 1940)

2011 - Gennady Logofet, Russian footballer and manager (b. 1942)

2012 - Dave Brubeck, American pianist and composer (b. 1920)

2012 - Elisabeth Murdoch, Australian philanthropist (b. 1909)

2012 - Ignatius IV of Antioch, Syrian patriarch (b. 1920)

2013 - William B. Edmondson, American lawyer and diplomat, United States Ambassador to South Africa (b. 1927)

2014 - Ernest C. Brace, American captain and pilot (b. 1931)

2014 - Fabiola, Queen of Belgium (b. 1928)

2014 - Talât Sait Halman, Turkish poet, translator, and historian (b. 1931)

2014 - Silvio Zavala, Mexican historian and author (b. 1909)

2015 - Tibor Rubin, Hungarian-American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1929)

2015 - Chuck Williams, American businessman and author, founded Williams Sonoma (b. 1915)

2016 - Tyruss Himes ("Big Syke"), American rapper (b. 1968)[41][42]

2017 - Michael I of Romania, fifth and last king of Romania (b. 1921)

2017 - August Ames, Canadian American pornographic actress (b. 1994)

1. ^ Bishop, J. Remsen; King, Frederick Alwin; Helm, Nathan Wilbur, eds. (1912). Cicero: Ten Orations and Selected Letters. New York: American Book Co. p. 88. OCLC 4713150.

2. ^ Schaff, Philip (1910). History of the Christian Church. Volume IV: Mediaeval Christianity, from Gregory I to Gregory VII, A.D. 590-1073. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 663. OCLC 4306917.

3. ^ Kallner-Amiran, D. H. (1950). "A Revised Earthquake-Catalogue of Palestine" (PDF). Israel Exploration Journal. Israel Exploration Society. 1 (4): 223-246. JSTOR 27924451. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-07-24.

4. ^ C. Nunziata; M. R. Costanzo (2020). "Ground Shaking Scenario at the Historical Center of Napoli (Southern Italy) for the 1456 and 1688 Earthquakes". Pure and Applied Geophysics. Springer Science+Business Media. 177 (7): 3175-3190. Bibcode:2020PApGe.177.3175N. doi:10.1007/s00024-020-02426-y. S2CID 210975336.

5. ^ Tietoa Raahesta - InfoFinland Archived 2021-07-27 at the Wayback Machine (in Finnish)

6. ^ Jukka Joutsi: Raahe (in Finnish)

7. ^ Alexander, C. (1998). The Endurance: Shackleton's Legendary Antarctic Expedition. New York: Knopf. pp. 12 15. ISBN 9780375404030.

8. ^ Darch, Colin (2020). Nestor Makhno and Rural Anarchism in Ukraine, 1917-1921. London: Pluto Press. p. 90. ISBN 9781786805263. OCLC 1225942343.

9. ^ Humphreys, Julian (December 2012). Attar, Rob (ed.). "Milestones". BBC History magazine. Northampton: BBC. pp. 10-11.

10. ^ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Tupolev Tu-134B-3 4K-65703 Nakhichevan Airport (NAJ)". aviation-safety.net. Aviation Safety Network. Archived from the original on 2008-12-02.

11. ^ "Profiles of 8 who died in Omaha mall massacre". msnbc.com. December 7, 2007.

12. ^ Hawkins, Maurice (6 December 2017). "Redskins celebrate Hall of Famer Art Monk at 60". USA Today.

13. ^ December 5 at World Athletics

14. ^ "First Team | Arik Benado". mhaifafc.com.

15. ^ December 5 at World Athletics

16. ^ Druckmann, Neil. "Neil Druckmann - Bio". Carnegie Mellon University. Archived from the original on October 30, 2003.

17. ^

18. ^ Taylor, Derrick (December 5, 2011). "Keri Hilson Celebrates Her 29th Birthday". Essence. Time Inc. Archived from the original on March 21, 2012.

19. ^ Mark Russell (April 29, 2014). K-Pop Now!: The Korean Music Revolution. Tuttle Publishing. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-4629-1411-1. Archived from the original on May 27, 2016.

20. ^ "Christian Yelich". Major League Baseball.

21. ^ "'American Idol' Top 7 spoilers: Who is singing on May 6, what two songs will each perform?". GOLD DERBY. 6 May 2018.

22. ^ "Rapper Big Syke Dead at 48". Tmz.com. December 6, 2016.

23. ^ "Rapper Big Syke Passed Away at 48". Vibe.com. December 6, 2016.

24. ^ Barnes, Mike (2019-12-06). "Robert Walker Jr., 'Star Trek' Actor and Son of Hollywood Superstars, Dies at 79". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 2021-08-11.

25. ^ "Kirstie Alley died after battle with colon cancer, rep reveals". Fox News.

26. ^ a b

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Toggle the table of contents From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia December 5 is the 339th day of the year (340th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar; 26 days remain until the end of the year. 852 - Zhu Wen, Chinese emperor (d. 912) 1377 - Jianwen Emperor of China (d.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Musique concrète ( French: [myzik kɔ̃kʁɛt]; lit. 'concrete music') is a type of music composition that utilizes recorded sounds as raw material. Sounds are often modified through the application of audio signal processing and tape music techniques, and may be assembled into a form of montage. It can feature sounds derived from recordings of musical instruments, the human voice, and the natural environment as well as those created using synthesizers and computer-based digital signal processing. Compositions in this idiom are not restricted to the normal musical rules of melody, harmony, rhythm, metre, and so on. The technique exploits acousmatic sound, such that sound identities can often be intentionally obscured or appear unconnected to their source cause.

The theoretical basis of musique concrète as a compositional practice was developed by French composer Pierre Schaeffer beginning in the early 1940s. It was largely an attempt to differentiate between music based on the abstract medium of notation and that created using so-called sound objects ( l'objet sonore). By the early 1950s musique concrète was contrasted with "pure" elektronische Musik (based solely on the use of electronically produced sounds rather than recorded sounds) but the distinction has since been blurred such that the term "electronic music" covers both meanings. Schaeffer's work resulted in the establishment of France's Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrète (GRMC), which attracted important figures including Pierre Henry, Luc Ferrari, Pierre Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Edgard Varèse, and Iannis Xenakis. From the late 1960s onward, and particularly in France, the term acousmatic music ( musique acousmatique) was used in reference to fixed media compositions that utilized both musique concrète based techniques and live sound spatialisation. Musique concrète influenced many popular musicians, including the Beatles, Pink Floyd, and Frank Zappa.

In 1928 music critic André Cœuroy wrote in his book Panorama of Contemporary Music that "perhaps the time is not far off when a composer will be able to represent through recording, music specifically composed for the gramophone. In the same period the American composer Henry Cowell, in referring to the projects of Nikolai Lopatnikoff, believed that "there was a wide field open for the composition of music for phonographic discs." This sentiment was echoed further in 1930 by Igor Stravinsky, when he stated in the revue Kultur und Schallplatte that "there will be a greater interest in creating music in a way that will be peculiar to the gramophone record." The following year, 1931, Boris de Schloezer also expressed the opinion that one could write for the gramophone or for the wireless just as one can for the piano or the violin. Shortly after, German art theorist Rudolf Arnheim discussed the effects of microphonic recording in an essay entitled "Radio", published in 1936. In it the idea of a creative role for the recording medium was introduced and Arnheim stated that: "The rediscovery of the musicality of sound in noise and in language, and the reunification of music, noise and language in order to obtain a unity of material: that is one of the chief artistic tasks of radio".

In 1942, French composer and theoretician Pierre Schaeffer began his exploration of radiophony when he joined Jacques Copeau and his pupils in the foundation of the Studio d'Essai de la Radiodiffusion nationale. The studio originally functioned as a center for the Resistance movement in French radio, which in August 1944 was responsible for the first broadcasts in liberated Paris. It was here that Schaeffer began to experiment with creative radiophonic techniques using the sound technologies of the time. In 1948 Schaeffer began to keep a set of journals describing his attempt to create a "symphony of noises." These journals were published in 1952 as A la recherche d'une musique concrète, and according to Brian Kane, author of Sound Unseen: Acousmatic Sound in Theory and Practice, Schaeffer was driven by: "a compositional desire to construct music from concrete objects - no matter how unsatisfactory the initial results - and a theoretical desire to find a vocabulary, solfège, or method upon which to ground such music.

The development of Schaeffer's practice was informed by encounters with voice actors, and microphone usage and radiophonic art played an important part in inspiring and consolidating Schaeffer's conception of sound-based composition. Another important influence on Schaeffer's practice was cinema, and the techniques of recording and montage, which were originally associated with cinematographic practice, came to "serve as the substrate of musique concrète." Marc Battier notes that, prior to Schaeffer, Jean Epstein drew attention to the manner in which sound recording revealed what was hidden in the act of basic acoustic listening. Epstein's reference to this "phenomenon of an epiphanic being", which appears through the transduction of sound, proved influential on Schaeffer's concept of reduced listening. Schaeffer would explicitly cite Jean Epstein with reference to his use of extra-musical sound material. Epstein had already imagined that "through the transposition of natural sounds, it becomes possible to create chords and dissonances, melodies and symphonies of noise, which are a new and specifically cinematographic music".

Perhaps earlier than Schaeffer conducting his preliminary experiments into sound manipulation (assuming these were later than 1944, and not as early as the foundation of the Studio d'Essai in 1942) was the activity of Egyptian composer Halim El-Dabh. As a student in Cairo in the early to mid-1940s he began experimenting with " tape music" using a cumbersome wire recorder. He recorded the sounds of an ancient ceremony and at the Middle East Radio studios processed the material using reverberation, echo, voltage controls, and re-recording. The resulting tape-based composition, entitled The Expression of Zaar, was presented in 1944 at an art gallery event in Cairo. El-Dabh has described his initial activities as an attempt to unlock "the inner sound" of the recordings. While his early compositional work was not widely known outside of Egypt at the time, El-Dabh would eventually gain recognition for his influential work at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in the late 1950s.

Following Schaeffer's work with Studio d'Essai at Radiodiffusion Nationale during the early 1940s he was credited with originating the theory and practice of musique concrète. The Studio d'Essai was renamed Club d'Essai de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française in 1946 and in the same year Schaeffer discussed, in writing, the question surrounding the transformation of time perceived through recording. The essay evidenced knowledge of sound manipulation techniques he would further exploit compositionally. In 1948 Schaeffer formally initiated "research in to noises" at the Club d'Essai and on 5 October 1948 the results of his initial experimentation were premiered at a concert given in Paris. Five works for phonograph - known collectively as Cinq études de bruits (Five Studies of Noises) including Étude violette ( Study in Purple) and Étude aux chemins de fer (Study with Railroads) - were presented.

By 1949 Schaeffer's compositional work was known publicly as musique concrète. Schaeffer stated: "when I proposed the term 'musique concrète,' I intended ... to point out an opposition with the way musical work usually goes. Instead of notating musical ideas on paper with the symbols of solfege and entrusting their realization to well-known instruments, the question was to collect concrete sounds, wherever they came from, and to abstract the musical values they were potentially containing". According to Pierre Henry, "musique concrète was not a study of timbre, it is focused on envelopes, forms. It must be presented by means of non-traditional characteristics, you see ... one might say that the origin of this music is also found in the interest in 'plastifying' music, of rendering it plastic like sculpture...musique concrète, in my opinion ... led to a manner of composing, indeed, a new mental framework of composing". Schaeffer had developed an aesthetic that was centred upon the use of sound as a primary compositional resource. The aesthetic also emphasised the importance of play ( jeu) in the practice of sound based composition. Schaeffer's use of the word jeu, from the verb jouer, carries the same double meaning as the English verb to play: 'to enjoy oneself by interacting with one's surroundings', as well as 'to operate a musical instrument'.

By 1951 the work of Schaeffer, composer- percussionist Pierre Henry, and sound engineer Jacques Poullin had received official recognition and the Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrète, Club d 'Essai de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française was established at RTF in Paris, the ancestor of the ORTF. At RTF the GRMC established the first purpose-built electroacoustic music studio. It quickly attracted many who either were or were later to become notable composers, including Olivier Messiaen, Pierre Boulez, Jean Barraqué, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Edgard Varèse, Iannis Xenakis, Michel Philippot, and Arthur Honegger. Compositional "output from 1951 to 1953 comprised Étude I (1951) and Étude II (1951) by Boulez, Timbres-durées (1952) by Messiaen, Étude aux mille collants (1952) by Stockhausen, Le microphone bien tempéré (1952) and La voile d'Orphée (1953) by Henry, Étude I (1953) by Philippot, Étude (1953) by Barraqué, the mixed pieces Toute la lyre (1951) and Orphée 53 (1953) by Schaeffer/Henry, and the film music Masquerage (1952) by Schaeffer and Astrologie (1953) by Henry. In 1954 Varèse and Honegger visited to work on the tape parts of and La rivière endormie".

In the early and mid 1950s Schaeffer's commitments to RTF included official missions which often required extended absences from the studios. This led him to invest Philippe Arthuys with responsibility for the GRMC in his absence, with Pierre Henry operating as Director of Works. Pierre Henry's composing talent developed greatly during this period at the GRMC and he worked with experimental filmmakers such as Max de Haas, Jean Grémillon, Enrico Fulchignoni, and Jean Rouch, and with choreographers including Dick Sanders and Maurice Béjart. Schaeffer returned to run the group at the end of 1957, and immediately stated his disapproval of the direction the GRMC had taken. A proposal was then made to "renew completely the spirit, the methods and the personnel of the Group, with a view to undertake research and to offer a much needed welcome to young composers".

Following the emergence of differences within the GRMC Pierre Henry, Philippe Arthuys, and several of their colleagues, resigned in April 1958. Schaeffer created a new collective, called Groupe de Recherches Musicales (GRM) and set about recruiting new members including Luc Ferrari, Beatriz Ferreyra, François-Bernard Mâche, Iannis Xenakis, Bernard Parmegiani, and Mireille Chamass-Kyrou. Later arrivals included Ivo Malec, Philippe Carson, Romuald Vandelle, Edgardo Canton and François Bayle.

GRM was one of several theoretical and experimental groups working under the umbrella of the Schaeffer-led Service de la Recherche at ORTF (1960-74). Together with the GRM, three other groups existed: the Groupe de Recherches Image GRI, the Groupe de Recherches Technologiques GRT and the Groupe de Recherches Langage which became the Groupe d'Etudes Critiques. Communication was the one theme that unified the various groups, all of which were devoted to production and creation. In terms of the question "who says what to whom?" Schaeffer added "how?", thereby creating a platform for research into audiovisual communication and mass media, audible phenomena and music in general (including non-Western musics). At the GRM the theoretical teaching remained based on practice and could be summed up in the catch phrase do and listen.

Schaeffer kept up a practice established with the GRMC of delegating the functions (though not the title) of Group Director to colleagues. Since 1961 GRM has had six Group Directors: Michel Philippot (1960-61), Luc Ferrari (1962-63), Bernard Baschet and François Vercken (1964-66). From the beginning of 1966, François Bayle took over the direction for the duration of thirty-one years, to 1997. He was then replaced by Daniel Teruggi.

The group continued to refine Schaeffer's ideas and strengthened the concept of musique acousmatique. Schaeffer had borrowed the term acousmatic from Pythagoras and defined it as: " Acousmatic, adjective: referring to a sound that one hears without seeing the causes behind it". In 1966 Schaeffer published the book Traité des objets musicaux (Treatise on Musical Objects) which represented the culmination of some 20 years of research in the field of musique concrète. In conjunction with this publication, a set of sound recordings was produced, entitled Le solfège de l'objet sonore (Music Theory of the Acoustic Object), to provide examples of concepts dealt with in the treatise.

The development of musique concrète was facilitated by the emergence of new music technology in post-war Europe. Access to microphones, phonographs, and later magnetic tape recorders (created in 1939 and acquired by the Schaeffer's Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrète (Research Group on Concrete Music) in 1952), facilitated by an association with the French national broadcasting organization, at that time the Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française, gave Schaeffer and his colleagues an opportunity to experiment with recording technology and tape manipulation.

In 1948, a typical radio studio consisted of a series of shellac record players, a shellac record recorder, a mixing desk with rotating potentiometers, mechanical reverberation, filters, and microphones. This technology made a number of limited operations available to a composer:

Shellac record players: could read a sound normally and in reverse mode, could change speed at fixed ratios thus permitting octave transposition.

Shellac recorder: would record any result coming out of the mixing desk.

Mixing desk: would permit several sources to be mixed together with an independent control of the gain or volume of the sound. The result of the mixing was sent to the recorder and to the monitoring loudspeakers. Signals could be sent to the filters or the reverberation unit.

Mechanical reverberation: made of a metal plate or a series of springs that created the reverberation effect, indispensable to force sounds to "fuse" together.

Filters: two kinds of filters, 1/3 octave filters and high- and low-pass filters. They allow the elimination or enhancement of selected frequencies.

Microphones: essential tool for capturing sound.

The application of the above technologies in the creation of musique concrète led to the development of a number of sound manipulation techniques including:

Sound transposition: reading a sound at a different speed than the one at which it was recorded.

Sound looping: composers developed a skilled technique in order to create loops at specific locations within a recording.

Sound-sample extraction: a hand-controlled method that required delicate manipulation to get a clean sample of sound. It entailed letting the stylus read a small segment of a record. Used in the Symphonie pour un homme seul.

Filtering: by eliminating most of the central frequencies of a signal, the remains would keep some trace of the original sound but without making it recognisable.

The first tape recorders started arriving at ORTF in 1949; however, their functioning was much less reliable than the shellac players, to the point that the Symphonie pour un homme seul, which was composed in 1950-51, was mainly composed with records, even if the tape recorder was available. In 1950, when the machines finally functioned correctly, the techniques of musique concrète were expanded. A range of new sound manipulation practices were explored using improved media manipulation methods and operations such as speed variation. A completely new possibility of organising sounds appears with tape editing, which permits tape to be spliced and arranged with an extraordinary new precision. The "axe-cut junctions" were replaced with micrometric junctions and a whole new technique of production, less dependency on performance skills, could be developed. Tape editing brought a new technique called "micro-editing", in which very tiny fragments of sound, representing milliseconds of time, were edited together, thus creating completely new sounds or structures.

During the GRMC period from 1951 to 1958, Schaeffer and Poullin developed a number of novel sound creation tools. These included a three-track tape recorder; a machine with ten playback heads to replay tape loops in echo (the morphophone); a keyboard-controlled machine to replay tape loops at twenty-four preset speeds (the keyboard, chromatic, or Tolana phonogène); a slide-controlled machine to replay tape loops at a continuously variable range of speeds (the handle, continuous, or Sareg phonogène); and a device to distribute an encoded track across four loudspeakers, including one hanging from the centre of the ceiling (the potentiomètre d'espace).

Speed variation was a powerful tool for sound design applications. It had been identified that transformations brought about by varying playback speed lead to modification in the character of the sound material:

Variation in the sounds' length, in a manner directly proportional to the ratio of speed variation.

Variation in length is coupled with a variation in pitch, and is also proportional to the ratio of speed variation.

A sound's attack characteristic is altered, whereby it is either dislocated from succeeding events, or the energy of the attack is more sharply focused.

The distribution of spectral energy is altered, thereby influencing how the resulting timbre might be perceived, relative to its original unaltered state.

The phonogène was a machine capable of modifying sound structure significantly and it provided composers with a means to adapt sound to meet specific compositional contexts. The initial phonogènes were manufactured in 1953 by two subcontractors: the chromatic phonogène by a company called Tolana, and the sliding version by the SAREG Company. A third version was developed later at ORTF. An outline of the unique capabilities of the various phonogènes can be seen here:

Chromatic: The chromatic phonogène was controlled through a one-octave keyboard. Multiple capstans of differing diameters vary the tape speed over a single stationary magnetic tape head. A tape loop was put into the machine, and when a key was played, it would act on an individual pinch roller / capstan arrangement and cause the tape to be played at a specific speed. The machine worked with short sounds only.

Sliding: The sliding phonogène (also called continuous-variation phonogène) provided continuous variation of tape speed using a control rod. The range allowed the motor to arrive at almost a stop position, always through a continuous variation. It was basically a normal tape recorder but with the ability to control its speed, so it could modify any length of tape. One of the earliest examples of its use can by heard in Voile d'Orphée by Pierre Henry (1953), where a lengthy glissando is used to symbolise the removal of Orpheus's veil as he enters hell.

Universal: A final version called the universal phonogène was completed in 1963. The device's main ability was that it enabled the dissociation of pitch variation from time variation. This was the starting point for methods that would later become widely available using digital technology, for instance harmonising (transposing sound without modifying duration) and time stretching (modifying duration without pitch modification). This was obtained through a rotating magnetic head called the Springer temporal regulator, an ancestor of the rotating heads used in video machines.

Three-head tape recorder

This original tape recorder was one of the first machines permitting the simultaneous listening of several synchronised sources. Until 1958 musique concrète, radio and the studio machines were monophonic. The three-head tape recorder superposed three magnetic tapes that were dragged by a common motor, each tape having an independent spool. The objective was to keep the three tapes synchronised from a common starting point. Works could then be conceived polyphonically, and thus each head conveyed a part of the information and was listened to through a dedicated loudspeaker. It was an ancestor of the multi-track player (four then eight tracks) that appeared in the 1960s. Timbres Durées by Olivier Messiaen with the technical assistance of Pierre Henry was the first work composed for this tape recorder in 1952. A rapid rhythmic polyphony was distributed over the three channels.

Morphophone

This machine was conceived to build complex forms through repetition, and accumulation of events through delays, filtering and feedback. It consisted of a large rotating disk, 50 cm in diameter, on which was stuck a tape with its magnetic side facing outward. A series of twelve movable magnetic heads (one each recording head and erasing head, and ten playback heads) were positioned around the disk, in contact with the tape. A sound up to four seconds long could be recorded on the looped tape and the ten playback heads would then read the information with different delays, according to their (adjustable) positions around the disk. A separate amplifier and band-pass filter for each head could modify the spectrum of the sound, and additional feedback loops could transmit the information to the recording head. The resulting repetitions of a sound occurred at different time intervals, and could be filtered or modified through feedback. This system was also easily capable of producing artificial reverberation or continuous sounds.

Early sound spatialisation system

At the premiere of Pierre Schaeffer's Symphonie pour un homme seul in 1951, a system that was designed for the spatial control of sound was tested. It was called a "relief desk" ( pupitre de relief, but also referred to as pupitre d'espace or potentiomètre d'espace) and was intended to control the dynamic level of music played from several shellac players. This created a stereophonic effect by controlling the positioning of a monophonic sound source. One of five tracks, provided by a purpose-built tape machine, was controlled by the performer and the other four tracks each supplied a single loudspeaker. This provided a mixture of live and preset sound positions. The placement of loudspeakers in the performance space included two loudspeakers at the front right and left of the audience, one placed at the rear, and in the centre of the space a loudspeaker was placed in a high position above the audience. The sounds could therefore be moved around the audience, rather than just across the front stage. On stage, the control system allowed a performer to position a sound either to the left or right, above or behind the audience, simply by moving a small, hand held transmitter coil towards or away from four somewhat larger receiver coils arranged around the performer in a manner reflecting the loudspeaker positions. A contemporary eyewitness described the potentiomètre d'espace in normal use:

One found one's self sitting in a small studio which was equipped with four loudspeakers-two in front of one-right and left; one behind one and a fourth suspended above. In the front center were four large loops and an "executant" moving a small magnetic unit through the air. The four loops controlled the four speakers, and while all four were giving off sounds all the time, the distance of the unit from the loops determined the volume of sound sent out from each.
The music thus came to one at varying intensity from various parts of the room, and this "spatial projection" gave new sense to the rather abstract sequence of sound originally recorded.

The central concept underlying this method was the notion that music should be controlled during public presentation in order to create a performance situation; an attitude that has stayed with acousmatic music to the present day.

After the longstanding rivalry with the " electronic music" of the Cologne studio had subsided, in 1970 the GRM finally created an electronic studio using tools developed by the physicist Enrico Chiarucci, called the Studio 54, which featured the "Coupigny modular synthesiser" and a Moog synthesiser. The Coupigny synthesiser, named for its designer François Coupigny, director of the Group for Technical Research, and the Studio 54 mixing desk had a major influence on the evolution of GRM and from the point of their introduction on they brought a new quality to the music. The mixing desk and synthesiser were combined in one unit and were created specifically for the creation of musique concrète.

The design of the desk was influenced by trade union rules at French National Radio that required technicians and production staff to have clearly defined duties. The solitary practice of musique concrète composition did not suit a system that involved three operators: one in charge of the machines, a second controlling the mixing desk, and third to provide guidance to the others. Because of this the synthesiser and desk were combined and organised in a manner that allowed it to be used easily by a composer. Independently of the mixing tracks (twenty-four in total), it had a coupled connection patch that permitted the organisation of the machines within the studio. It also had a number of remote controls for operating tape recorders. The system was easily adaptable to any context, particularly that of interfacing with external equipment.

Before the late 1960s the musique concrète produced at GRM had largely been based on the recording and manipulation of sounds, but synthesised sounds had featured in a number of works prior to the introduction of the Coupigny. Pierre Henry had used oscillators to produce sounds as early as 1955. But a synthesiser with envelope control was something Pierre Schaeffer was against, since it favoured the preconception of music and therefore deviated from Schaeffer's principal of 'making through listening' . Because of Schaeffer's concerns the Coupigny synthesiser was conceived as a sound-event generator with parameters controlled globally, without a means to define values as precisely as some other synthesisers of the day.

The development of the machine was constrained by several factors. It needed to be modular and the modules had to be easily interconnected (so that the synthesiser would have more modules than slots and it would have an easy-to-use patch). It also needed to include all the major functions of a modular synthesiser including oscillators, noise-generators, filters, ring-modulators, but an intermodulation facility was viewed as the primary requirement; to enable complex synthesis processes such as frequency modulation, amplitude modulation, and modulation via an external source. No keyboard was attached to the synthesiser and instead a specific and somewhat complex envelope generator was used to shape sound. This synthesiser was well-adapted to the production of continuous and complex sounds using intermodulation techniques such as cross-synthesis and frequency modulation but was less effective in generating precisely defined frequencies and triggering specific sounds.

The Coupigny synthesiser also served as the model for a smaller, portable unit, which has been used down to the present day.

In 1966 composer and technician François Bayle was placed in charge of the Groupe de Recherches Musicales and in 1975, GRM was integrated with the new Institut national de l'audiovisuel (INA - Audiovisual National Institute) with Bayle as its head. In taking the lead on work that began in the early 1950s, with Jacques Poullin's potentiomètre d'espace, a system designed to move monophonic sound sources across four speakers, Bayle and the engineer Jean-Claude Lallemand created an orchestra of loudspeakers ( un orchestre de haut-parleurs) known as the Acousmonium in 1974. An inaugural concert took place on 14 February 1974 at the Espace Pierre Cardin in Paris with a presentation of Bayle's Expérience acoustique.

The Acousmonium is a specialised sound reinforcement system consisting of between 50 and 100 loudspeakers, depending on the character of the concert, of varying shape and size. The system was designed specifically for the concert presentation of musique-concrète-based works but with the added enhancement of sound spatialisation. Loudspeakers are placed both on stage and at positions throughout the performance space and a mixing console is used to manipulate the placement of acousmatic material across the speaker array, using a performative technique known as " sound diffusion". Bayle has commented that the purpose of the Acousmonium is to "substitute a momentary classical disposition of sound making, which diffuses the sound from the circumference towards the centre of the hall, by a group of sound projectors which form an 'orchestration' of the acoustic image".

As of 2010, the Acousmonium was still performing, with 64 speakers, 35 amplifiers, and 2 consoles.

^ Schaeffer (2012), p. xii: "[A] problem for any translator of an academic work in French is that the language is relatively abstract and theoretical compared to English; one might even say that the mode of thinking itself tends to be more schematic, with a readiness to see material for study in terms of highly abstract dualisms and correlations, which on occasion does not sit easily with the perhaps more pragmatic English language. This creates several problems of translation affecting key terms. Perhaps the most obvious of these is the word concret/concrète itself. The word in French, which has nothing of the familiar meaning of "concrete" in English, is used throughout [In Search of a Concrete Music] with all its usual French connotations of "palpable", "nontheoretical", and "experiential", all of which pertain to a greater or lesser extent to the type of music Schaeffer is pioneering. Despite the risk of ambiguity, we decided to translate it with the English word concrete in most contexts, as an expression such as "real-world" does not cover the original's range of meanings, and in particular it would not link with the main subject ..."

Anon. (n.d.). "La révolution de 48 et les années 50". Parcours thématiques. Artsonores: L'aventure électroacoustique.ina.fr (Accessed 6 July 2012).[unreliable source? ]

Anon. (2010). "Un orchestre de Haut-Parleurs". INA-GRM website (accessed 30 June 2014).

Austin, Larry, and Denis Smalley (2000). "Sound Diffusion in Composition and Performance: An Interview with Denis Smalley". Computer Music Journal 24, no. 2 (Summer): 10-21. JSTOR 3681923.

Battier, Marc (2007). "What the GRM Brought to Music: From Musique Concrète to Acousmatic Music". Organised Sound 12, no. 3 (December: Musique Concrète's 60th and GRM's 50th birthday-A Celebration): 189-202.

Bayle, François (1993). Musique acousmatique, propositions ... positions. Paris: INA-GRM Buche/Chastel.

Chion, Michel (1983). Guide des objets sonores, Pierre Schaeffer et la recherche musicale. Paris: Ina-GRM/Buchet-Chastel.

Cœuroy, André (1928). Panorama de la musique contemporaine (revised and expanded ed.). Paris: Kra.

Dack, John (1994). "Pierre Schaeffer and the Significance of Radiophonic Art." Contemporary Music Review 10, no. 2:3-11.

Dack, John (2002). "Technology and the Instrument". In Musik Netz Werke: Konturen der neuen Musikkultur, edited by Lydia Grün and Frank Wiegand, 39-54. Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag. ISBN 3-933127-98-X.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (1998). "Musique concrète". Encyclopedia Britannica.

Emmerson, Simon (2007). Living Electronic Music. Aldershot (Hants.), Burlington (VT): Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-5546-6 (cloth) ISBN 0-7546-5548-2 (pbk).

Gayou, Évelyne. (2007a). "The GRM: Landmarks on a Historic Route". Organised Sound 12, no. 3:203-11.

Gradenwitz, Peter (1953). "Experiments in Sound: Ten-Day Demonstrationin Paris Offers the Latest in 'Musique Concrète'". New York Times (9 August).

Holmes, Thom (2008). Electronic and experimental music: technology, music, and culture (3rd ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-95781-6.

James, Richard S. (1981). Interview with Pierre Henry, cited in "Expansion of Sound Resources in France, 1913-1940, and Its Relationship to Electronic Music". doctoral thesis, University of Michigan, note 91, p. 79.

Lange, A. (2009). "Musique concrète and Early Electronic Music". In The Wire Primers: A Guide To Modern Music, edited by Rob Young, 173-80. London: Verso.

Manning, Peter (1985). Electronic and Computer Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-311918-8.

Palombini, Carlos (1993). "Machine Songs V: Pierre Schaeffer: From Research into Noises to Experimental Music". Computer Music Journal 17, no. 3 (Autumn): 14-19. doi:10.2307/3680939. JSTOR 3680939.

Palombini, Carlos (1999). "Musique Concrète Revisited". Electronic Musicological Review 4 (June):p. {{{1}}}.

Peignot, J. (1960). "De la musique concrète à l'acousmatique". Esprit, No. 280. JSTOR 24255077.

Poullin, Jacques (1957) The Application of Recording Techniques to the Production of New Musical Materials and Forms. Applications to 'Musique Concrete' . National Research Council of Canada Technical Translation TT-646, translated by D. A. Sinclair from the original in L'Onde Électrique 34, no. 324 (1954): 282-91. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada.

Poullin, Jacques (1999). "L'apport des techniques d'enregistrement dans la fabrication de matieres et de formes musicales nouvelles: applications à la musique concrete". Ars Sonora, no. 9. [this appears to be the text of the original 1954 article]

Reydellet, Jean de (1996). "Pierre Schaeffer, 1910-1995: The Founder of 'Musique Concrete'". Computer Music Journal 20, no. 2 (Summer): 10-11. JSTOR 3681324.

Schaeffer, Pierre (1966). Traité des objets musicaux. Paris: Le Seuil.

Schaeffer, Pierre (2012) [1952]. "Translators' Note". In Search of a Concrete Music. Translated by North, Christine; Dack, John. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. pp. ix-xiv. ISBN 978-0-520-26574-5.

Schaeffer, Pierre, and Guy Reibel (1967). Solfege de l'objet sonore, reprint edition 1998, with a preface by Daniel Teruggi, Guy Reibel, and Beatriz Ferreyra. Paris: Coedition Ina-Publications.

Teruggi, Daniel (2007). "Technology and Musique Concrete: The Technical Developments of the Groupe de Recherches Musicales and Their Implication in Musical Composition". Organised Sound 12, no. 3:213-31.

Dack, John (1993). "La Recherche de l'Instrument Perdu". Electroacoustic Music: Journal of the Electroacoustic Music Association of Great Britain 7:[page needed ].

Dwyer, Terence (1971). Composing with Tape Recorders: Musique Concrète for Beginners. London and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-311912-9.

Gayou, Evelyne (2007b). GRM Le Groupe de Recherches Musicales, Cinquante ans d'histoire. Paris: Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-63561-3.

Jaffrennou, Pierre-Alain (1998). "De la scénographie sonore". In Le son et l'espace: 1ères Rencontres musicales pluridisciplinaires, Lyon, 1995, edited by Hugues Genevois and Yann Orlarey, 143-56. Musique et sciences. Lyon: GRAME & Aléas. ISBN 2-908016-96-6.

Kane, Brian (2007). "L'Objet Sonore Maintenant: Pierre Schaeffer, Sound Objects and the Phenomenological Reduction". Organised Sound, 12, no.1:15-24.

Nyman, Michael (1999), Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond, second edition. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65297-1 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-521-65383-1 (pbk).

Palombini, Carlos (1998). "Pierre Schaeffer, 1953: 'Towards an Experimental Music', An Exegesis of Schaeffer's 'Vers une musique expérimentale'". Music & Letters 74, no. 4:542-57.

Schaeffer, Pierre (1952a). A la recherche d'une musique concrète. Paris: Éditions du Seuil.

Schaeffer, Pierre (1952b). "L'objet musical". La Revue Musicale: L'œuvre du XXe siècle, no. 212: 65-76.

Schaeffer, Pierre (1967). La musique concrète. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Vella, Richard (2000). Musical Environments: A Manual for Listening, Improvising and Composing, with additional topics by Andy Arthurs. Sydney: Currency Press. ISBN 978-0-86819-544-5. Reprinted as "Sounds in Space: Sounds in Time: Projects in Listening, Improvising and Composing". London: Boosey & Hawkes, 2003. ISBN 978-0-85162-429-7.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Musique concrète ( French: [myzik kɔ̃kʁɛt]; lit. 'concrete music') is a type of music composition that utilizes recorded sounds as raw material. Sounds are often modified through the application of audio signal processing and tape music techniques, and may be assembled into a form of montage.

# data[].attributes.body
...who wrote a piece called Sirius, is claimed to have said on several occasions that he came from a planet in the Sirius system

To Stockhausen, Sirius stood for "the place where music is the highest of vibrations" and where music had been developed in the most perfect way.

"...the fiery Sirius alters hue
And bickers into red and emerald."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Location of Sirius (circled)

Observation data
Epoch J2000.0 Equinox ICRS

Constellation

Canis Major

Pronunciation

[1]

Sirius A

06 h 45 m 08.917 s [2]

−16° 42′ 58.02″[2]

Apparent magnitude (V)

−1.46[3]

Sirius B

06 h 45 m 09.0 s [4]

−16° 43′ 06″[4]

Apparent magnitude (V)

8.44[5]

Characteristics

Sirius A

Evolutionary stage

Main sequence

Sirius B

Evolutionary stage

White dwarf

Spectral type

DA2[5]

Astrometry

Radial velocity (Rv)
−5.50[8] km/s

Sirius A

Proper motion (μ)
RA: −546.01 mas/ yr[9]
Dec.: −1,223.07 mas/ yr[9]

Parallax (π)
379.21 ± 1.58 mas[9]

Distance
8.60 ± 0.04 ly
(2.64 ± 0.01 pc)

Absolute magnitude (MV)
+1.43[10]

Sirius B

Proper motion (μ)
RA: −461.571 mas/ yr[11]
Dec.: −914.520 mas/ yr[11]

Parallax (π)
374.4896 ± 0.2313 mas[11]

Distance
8.709 ± 0.005 ly
(2.670 ± 0.002 pc)

Absolute magnitude (MV)
+11.18[7]

Orbit[12]

Primary
α Canis Majoris A

Companion
α Canis Majoris B

Period (P)
50.1284 ± 0.0043 yr

7.4957 ± 0.0025″

Eccentricity (e)
0.59142 ± 0.00037

Inclination (i)
136.336 ± 0.040°

45.400 ± 0.071°

Periastron epoch (T)

1,994.5715 ± 0.0058

Argument of periastron (ω)
(secondary)

149.161 ± 0.075°

Details

Sirius A

Mass
2.063±0.023 [12] M☉

Surface gravity (log g)
4.33[14] cgs

Temperature
9,940[14] K

Metallicity [Fe/H]

0.50[15] dex

Rotational velocity (v sin i)
16[16] km/s

Age
242±5 [12] Myr

Sirius B

Luminosity

Surface gravity (log g)
8.57[17] cgs

Temperature
25,000 ± 200[13] K

Age
228+10
−8 [12] Myr

Other designations

Dog Star, Aschere, Canicula, Al Shira, Sothis,[19] Alhabor,[20] Mrgavyadha, Lubdhaka,[21] Tenrōsei,[22] α Canis Majoris (α CMa), 9 Canis Majoris (9 CMa), HD 48915, HR 2491, BD−16°1591, GJ 244, LHS 219, ADS 5423, LTT 2638, HIP 32349[23]

Sirius B: EGGR 49, WD 0642-166, GCTP 1577.00[24]

Database references

A

B

Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky. Its name is derived from the Greek word (Latin script: Seirios), meaning lit. 'glowing' or 'scorching'. The star is designated α Canis Majoris, Latinized to Alpha Canis Majoris, and abbreviated or Alpha CMa. With a visual apparent magnitude of −1.46, Sirius is almost twice as bright as Canopus, the next brightest star. Sirius is a binary star consisting of a main-sequence star of spectral type A0 or A1, termed Sirius A, and a faint white dwarf companion of spectral type DA2, termed Sirius B. The distance between the two varies between 8.2 and 31.5 astronomical units as they orbit every 50 years.

Sirius appears bright because of its intrinsic luminosity and its proximity to the Solar System. At a distance of 2.64 parsecs (8.6 ly), the Sirius system is one of Earth's nearest neighbours. Sirius is gradually moving closer to the Solar System; it is expected to increase in brightness slightly over the next 60,000 years to reach a peak magnitude of −1.68. Coincidentally, at about the same time, Sirius will take its turn as the southern Pole Star, around the year 66,270 CE. In that year, Sirius will come to within 1.6 degrees of the south celestial pole. This is due to axial precession and proper motion of Sirius itself which moves slowly in the SSW direction, so it will be visible from the southern hemisphere only. After that time, its distance will begin to increase, and it will become fainter, but it will continue to be the brightest star in the Earth's night sky for approximately the next 210,000 years, at which point Vega, another A-type star that is intrinsically more luminous than Sirius, becomes the brightest star.

Sirius A is about twice as massive as the Sun () and has an absolute visual magnitude of +1.43. It is 25 times as luminous as the Sun, but has a significantly lower luminosity than other bright stars such as Canopus, Betelgeuse, or Rigel. The system is between 200 and 300 million years old. It was originally composed of two bright bluish stars. The initially more massive of these, Sirius B, consumed its hydrogen fuel and became a red giant before shedding its outer layers and collapsing into its current state as a white dwarf around 120 million years ago.

Sirius is colloquially known as the " Dog Star", reflecting its prominence in its constellation, Canis Major (the Greater Dog). The heliacal rising of Sirius marked the flooding of the Nile in Ancient Egypt and the " dog days" of summer for the ancient Greeks, while to the Polynesians, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, the star marked winter and was an important reference for their navigation around the Pacific Ocean.

The brightest star seen from Earth, Sirius is recorded in some of the earliest astronomical records. Its displacement from the ecliptic causes its heliacal rising to be remarkably regular compared to other stars, with a period of almost exactly 365.25 days holding it constant relative to the solar year. This rising occurs at Cairo on 19 July ( Julian), placing it just before the onset of the annual flooding of the Nile during antiquity. Owing to the flood's own irregularity, the extreme precision of the star's return made it important to the ancient Egyptians, who worshipped it as the goddess Sopdet ( Ancient Egyptian: , "Triangle"; Greek: }, Sō̂this), guarantor of the fertility of their land.

The ancient Greeks observed that the appearance of Sirius as the morning star heralded the hot and dry summer and feared that the star caused plants to wilt, men to weaken, and women to become aroused. Owing to its brightness, Sirius would have been seen to twinkle more in the unsettled weather conditions of early summer. To Greek observers, this signified emanations that caused its malignant influence. Anyone suffering its effects was said to be "star-struck" (, astrobólētos). It was described as "burning" or "flaming" in literature. The season following the star's reappearance came to be known as the "dog days". The inhabitants of the island of Ceos in the Aegean Sea would offer sacrifices to Sirius and Zeus to bring cooling breezes and would await the reappearance of the star in summer. If it rose clear, it would portend good fortune; if it was misty or faint then it foretold (or emanated) pestilence. Coins retrieved from the island from the 3rd century BC feature dogs or stars with emanating rays, highlighting Sirius's importance.

The Romans celebrated the heliacal setting of Sirius around 25 April, sacrificing a dog, along with incense, wine, and a sheep, to the goddess Robigo so that the star's emanations would not cause wheat rust on wheat crops that year.

Bright stars were important to the ancient Polynesians for navigation of the Pacific Ocean. They also served as latitude markers; the declination of Sirius matches the latitude of the archipelago of Fiji at 17°S and thus passes directly over the islands each sidereal day. Sirius served as the body of a "Great Bird" constellation called Manu, with Canopus as the southern wingtip and Procyon the northern wingtip, which divided the Polynesian night sky into two hemispheres. Just as the appearance of Sirius in the morning sky marked summer in Greece, it marked the onset of winter for the Māori, whose name Takurua described both the star and the season. Its culmination at the winter solstice was marked by celebration in Hawaii, where it was known as Ka'ulua, "Queen of Heaven". Many other Polynesian names have been recorded, including Tau-ua in the Marquesas Islands, Rehua in New Zealand, and Ta'urua-fau-papa "Festivity of original high chiefs" and Ta'urua-e-hiti-i-te-tara-te-feiai "Festivity who rises with prayers and religious ceremonies" in Tahiti.

In 1717, Edmond Halley discovered the proper motion of the hitherto presumed fixed stars after comparing contemporary astrometric measurements with those from the second century AD given in Ptolemy's . The bright stars Aldebaran, Arcturus and Sirius were noted to have moved significantly; Sirius had progressed about 30 arcminutes (about the diameter of the Moon) to the southwest.

In 1868, Sirius became the first star to have its velocity measured, the beginning of the study of celestial radial velocities. Sir William Huggins examined the spectrum of the star and observed a red shift. He concluded that Sirius was receding from the Solar System at about 40 km/s. Compared to the modern value of −5.5 km/s, this was an overestimate and had the wrong sign; the minus sign (−) means that it is approaching the Sun.

In his 1698 book, Cosmotheoros, Christiaan Huygens estimated the distance to Sirius at 27,664 times the distance from the Earth to the Sun (about 0.437 light-year, translating to a parallax of roughly 7.5 arcseconds). There were several unsuccessful attempts to measure the parallax of Sirius: by Jacques Cassini (6 seconds); by some astronomers (including Nevil Maskelyne) using Lacaille's observations made at the Cape of Good Hope (4 seconds); by Piazzi (the same amount); using Lacaille's observations made at Paris, more numerous and certain than those made at the Cape (no sensible parallax); by Bessel (no sensible parallax).

Scottish astronomer Thomas Henderson used his observations made in 1832-1833 and South African astronomer Thomas Maclear's observations made in 1836-1837, to determine that the value of the parallax was 0.23 arcsecond, and error of the parallax was estimated not to exceed a quarter of a second, or as Henderson wrote in 1839, "On the whole we may conclude that the parallax of Sirius is not greater than half a second in space; and that it is probably much less." Astronomers adopted a value of 0.25 arcsecond for much of the 19th century. It is now known to have a parallax of nearly 0.4 arcseconds.

The Hipparcos parallax for Sirius is only accurate to about ±0.04 light years, giving a distance of 8.6 light years. Sirius B is generally assumed to be at the same distance. Sirius B has a Gaia Data Release 3 parallax with a much smaller statistical margin of error, giving a distance of 8.709±0.005 light years, but it is flagged as having a very large value for astrometric excess noise, which indicates that the parallax value may be unreliable.

Hubble Space Telescope image of Sirius A and Sirius B. The white dwarf can be seen to the lower left. The diffraction spikes and concentric rings are instrumental effects.

In a letter dated 10 August 1844, the German astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel deduced from changes in the proper motion of Sirius that it had an unseen companion. On 31 January 1862, American telescope-maker and astronomer Alvan Graham Clark first observed the faint companion, which is now called Sirius B, or affectionately "the Pup". This happened during testing of an 18.5-inch (470 mm) aperture great refractor telescope for Dearborn Observatory, which was one of the largest refracting telescope lenses in existence at the time, and the largest telescope in the United States. Sirius B's sighting was confirmed on 8 March with smaller telescopes.

The visible star is now sometimes known as Sirius A. Since 1894, some apparent orbital irregularities in the Sirius system have been observed, suggesting a third very small companion star, but this has never been confirmed. The best fit to the data indicates a six-year orbit around Sirius A and a mass of 0.06 M☉. This star would be five to ten magnitudes fainter than the white dwarf Sirius B, which would make it difficult to observe. Observations published in 2008 were unable to detect either a third star or a planet. An apparent "third star" observed in the 1920s is now believed to be a background object.

In 1915, Walter Sydney Adams, using a 60-inch (1.5 m) reflector at Mount Wilson Observatory, observed the spectrum of Sirius B and determined that it was a faint whitish star. This led astronomers to conclude that it was a white dwarf-the second to be discovered. The diameter of Sirius A was first measured by Robert Hanbury Brown and Richard Q. Twiss in 1959 at Jodrell Bank using their stellar intensity interferometer. In 2005, using the Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers determined that Sirius B has nearly the diameter of the Earth, 12,000 kilometres (7,500 mi), with a mass 102% of the Sun's.

Twinkling of Sirius (apparent magnitude = −1.5) in the evening shortly before upper culmination on the southern meridian at a height of 20 degrees above the horizon. During 29 seconds Sirius moves on an arc of 7.5 minutes from the left to the right.

Around the year 150 AD, Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria, an ethnic Greek Egyptian astronomer of the Roman period, mapped the stars in Books VII and VIII of his , in which he used Sirius as the location for the globe's central meridian. He described Sirius as reddish, along with five other stars, Betelgeuse, Antares, Aldebaran, Arcturus, and Pollux, all of which are at present observed to be of orange or red hue. The discrepancy was first noted by amateur astronomer Thomas Barker, squire of Lyndon Hall in Rutland, who prepared a paper and spoke at a meeting of the Royal Society in London in 1760. The existence of other stars changing in brightness gave credibility to the idea that some may change in colour too; Sir John Herschel noted this in 1839, possibly influenced by witnessing Eta Carinae two years earlier. Thomas J.J. See resurrected discussion on red Sirius with the publication of several papers in 1892, and a final summary in 1926. He cited not only Ptolemy but also the poet Aratus, the orator Cicero, and general Germanicus all calling the star red, though acknowledging that none of the latter three authors were astronomers, the last two merely translating Aratus's poem Phaenomena. Seneca had described Sirius as being of a deeper red than Mars. Not all ancient observers saw Sirius as red. The 1st-century poet Marcus Manilius described it as "sea-blue", as did the 4th-century Avienius. It was the standard white star in ancient China, and multiple records from the 2nd century BC up to the 7th century AD all describe Sirius as white.

In 1985, German astronomers Wolfhard Schlosser and Werner Bergmann published an account of an 8th-century Lombardic manuscript, which contains De cursu stellarum ratio by St. Gregory of Tours. The Latin text taught readers how to determine the times of nighttime prayers from positions of the stars, and a bright star described as rubeola ("reddish") was claimed to be Sirius. The authors proposed this was further evidence Sirius B had been a red giant at the time. Other scholars replied that it was likely St. Gregory had been referring to Arcturus.

The possibility that stellar evolution of either Sirius A or Sirius B could be responsible for this discrepancy has been rejected by astronomers on the grounds that the timescale of thousands of years is much too short and that there is no sign of the nebulosity in the system that would be expected had such a change taken place. An interaction with a third star, to date undiscovered, has also been proposed as a possibility for a red appearance. Alternative explanations are either that the description as red is a poetic metaphor for ill fortune, or that the dramatic scintillations of the star when rising left the viewer with the impression that it was red. To the naked eye, it often appears to be flashing with red, white, and blue hues when near the horizon.

Sirius (bottom) and the constellation Orion (right). The three brightest stars in this image-Sirius, Betelgeuse (top right) and Procyon (top left)-form the Winter Triangle. The bright star at top center is Alhena, which forms a cross-shaped asterism with the Winter Triangle.

With an apparent magnitude of −1.46, Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky, almost twice as bright as the second-brightest star, Canopus. From Earth, Sirius always appears dimmer than Jupiter and Venus, and at certain times also dimmer than Mercury and Mars. Sirius is visible from almost everywhere on Earth, except latitudes north of 73° N, and it does not rise very high when viewed from some northern cities (reaching only 13° above the horizon from Saint Petersburg). Because of its declination of roughly −17°, Sirius is a circumpolar star from latitudes south of 73° S. From the Southern Hemisphere in early July, Sirius can be seen in both the evening where it sets after the Sun and in the morning where it rises before the Sun. Along with Procyon and Betelgeuse, Sirius forms one of the three vertices of the Winter Triangle to observers in the Northern Hemisphere.

Sirius can be observed in daylight with the naked eye under the right conditions. Ideally, the sky should be very clear, with the observer at a high altitude, the star passing overhead, and the Sun low on the horizon. These observing conditions are more easily met in the Southern Hemisphere, owing to the southerly declination of Sirius.

The orbital motion of the Sirius binary system brings the two stars to a minimum angular separation of 3 arcseconds and a maximum of 11 arcseconds. At the closest approach, it is an observational challenge to distinguish the white dwarf from its more luminous companion, requiring a telescope with at least 300 mm (12 in) aperture and excellent seeing conditions. After a periastron occurred in 1994, the pair moved apart, making them easier to separate with a telescope. Apoastron occurred in 2019, but from the Earth's vantage point, the greatest observational separation will occur in 2023, with an angular separation of 11.333″.

At a distance of 2.6 parsecs (8.6 ly), the Sirius system contains two of the eight nearest stars to the Sun, and it is the fifth closest stellar system to the Sun. This proximity is the main reason for its brightness, as with other near stars such as Alpha Centauri, Procyon and Vega and in contrast to distant, highly luminous supergiants such as Canopus, Rigel or Betelgeuse.(Note that Canopus may be a bright giant) It is still around 25 times more luminous than the Sun. The closest large neighbouring star to Sirius is Procyon, 1.61 parsecs (5.24 ly) away. The spacecraft, launched in 1977 to study the four giant planets in the Solar System, is expected to pass within 4.3 light-years (1.3 pc) of Sirius in approximately 296,000 years.

The orbit of Sirius B around A, as seen from Earth (slanted ellipse). The wide horizontal ellipse shows the true shape of the orbit (with an arbitrary orientation) as it would appear if viewed straight on.

A Chandra X-ray Observatory image of the Sirius star system, where the spike-like pattern is due to the support structure for the transmission grating. The bright source is Sirius B. Credit: NASA/SAO/CXC

Sirius is a binary star system consisting of two white stars orbiting each other with a separation of about 20 AU (roughly the distance between the Sun and Uranus) and a period of 50.1 years. The brighter component, termed Sirius A, is a main-sequence star of spectral type early A, with an estimated surface temperature of 9,940 K. Its companion, Sirius B, is a star that has already evolved off the main sequence and become a white dwarf. Currently 10,000 times less luminous in the visual spectrum, Sirius B was once the more massive of the two. The age of the system has been estimated at around 230 million years. Early in its life, it is thought to have been two bluish-white stars orbiting each other in an elliptical orbit every 9.1 years. The system emits a higher than expected level of infrared radiation, as measured by IRAS space-based observatory. This might be an indication of dust in the system, which is considered somewhat unusual for a binary star. The Chandra X-ray Observatory image shows Sirius B outshining its partner as an X-ray source.

In 2015, Vigan and colleagues used the VLT Survey Telescope to search for evidence of substellar companions, and were able to rule out the presence of giant planets 11 times more massive than Jupiter at 0.5 AU distance from Sirius A, 6-7 times the mass of Jupiter at 1-2 AU distance, and down to around 4 times the mass of Jupiter at 10 AU distance. Similarly, Lucas and colleagues did not detect any companions around Sirius B.

Comparison of Sirius A and the Sun, to scale and relative surface brightness

Sirius A, also known as the Dog Star, has a mass of 2.063 M☉. The radius of this star has been measured by an astronomical interferometer, giving an estimated angular diameter of 5.936±0.016 mas. The projected rotational velocity is a relatively low 16 km/s, which does not produce any significant flattening of its disk. This is at marked variance with the similar-sized Vega, which rotates at a much faster 274 km/s and bulges prominently around its equator. A weak magnetic field has been detected on the surface of Sirius A.

Stellar models suggest that the star formed during the collapsing of a molecular cloud and that, after 10 million years, its internal energy generation was derived entirely from nuclear reactions. The core became convective and used the CNO cycle for energy generation. It is calculated that Sirius A will have completely exhausted the store of hydrogen at its core within a billion (10) years of its formation, and will then evolve away from the main sequence. It will pass through a red giant stage and eventually become a white dwarf.

Sirius A is classed as a type Am star, because the spectrum shows deep metallic absorption lines,[94] indicating an enhancement of its surface layers in elements heavier than helium, such as iron.[81][89] The spectral type has been reported as A0mA1 Va, which indicates that it would be classified as A1 from hydrogen and helium lines, but A0 from the metallic lines that cause it to be grouped with the Am stars.[6] When compared to the Sun, the proportion of iron in the atmosphere of Sirius A relative to hydrogen is given by [15] meaning iron is 316% as abundant as in the Sun's atmosphere. The high surface content of metallic elements is unlikely to be true of the entire star; rather the iron-peak and heavy metals are radiatively levitated towards the surface.[89]

Size comparison of Sirius B and Earth

Sirius B, also known as the Pup Star, is one of the most massive white dwarfs known. With a mass of 1.02 M☉, it is almost double the 0.5-0.6 M☉ average. This mass is packed into a volume roughly equal to the Earth's. The current surface temperature is 25,200 K. Because there is no internal heat source, Sirius B will steadily cool as the remaining heat is radiated into space over the next two billion years or so.

A white dwarf forms after a star has evolved from the main sequence and then passed through a red giant stage. This occurred when Sirius B was less than half its current age, around 120 million years ago. The original star had an estimated 5 M☉ and was a B-type star (most likely B5V for 5 M☉) when it was still on the main sequence, potentially burning around 600-1200 times more luminous than the sun. While it passed through the red giant stage, Sirius B may have enriched the metallicity of its companion, explaining the very high metallicity of Sirius A.

This star is primarily composed of a carbon-oxygen mixture that was generated by helium fusion in the progenitor star. This is overlaid by an envelope of lighter elements, with the materials segregated by mass because of the high surface gravity. The outer atmosphere of Sirius B is now almost pure hydrogen-the element with the lowest mass-and no other elements are seen in its spectrum.

Since 1894, irregularities have been tentatively observed in the orbits of Sirius A and B with an apparent periodicity of 6-6.4 years. A 1995 study concluded that such a companion likely exists, with a mass of roughly 0.05 solar mass-a small red dwarf or large brown dwarf, with an apparent magnitude of more than 15, and less than 3 arcseconds from Sirius A.

More recent (and accurate) astrometric observations by the Hubble Space Telescope ruled out the existence of such a Sirius C entirely. The 1995 study predicted an astrometric movement of roughly 90 mas (0.09 arcsecond), but Hubble was unable to detect any location anomaly to an accuracy of 5 mas (0.005 arcsec). This ruled out any objects orbiting Sirius A with more than 0.033 solar mass (35 Jupiter masses) orbiting in 0.5 years, and 0.014 (15 Jupiter masses) in 2 years. The study was also able to rule out any companions to Sirius B with more than 0.024 solar mass (25 Jupiter masses) orbiting in 0.5 year, and 0.0095 (10 Jupiter masses) orbiting in 1.8 years. Effectively, there are almost certainly no additional bodies in the Sirius system larger than a small brown dwarf or large exoplanet.

Star cluster membership

In 1909, Ejnar Hertzsprung was the first to suggest that Sirius was a member of the Ursa Major Moving Group, based on his observations of the system's movements across the sky. The Ursa Major Group is a set of 220 stars that share a common motion through space. It was once a member of an open cluster, but has since become gravitationally unbound from the cluster. Analyses in 2003 and 2005 found Sirius's membership in the group to be questionable: the Ursa Major Group has an estimated age of 500 ± 100 million years, whereas Sirius, with metallicity similar to the Sun's, has an age that is only half this, making it too young to belong to the group. Sirius may instead be a member of the proposed Sirius Supercluster, along with other scattered stars such as Beta Aurigae, Alpha Coronae Borealis, Beta Crateris, Beta Eridani and Beta Serpentis. This would be one of three large clusters located within 500 light-years (150 pc) of the Sun. The other two are the Hyades and the Pleiades, and each of these clusters consists of hundreds of stars.

In 2017, a massive star cluster was discovered only 10 arcminutes from Sirius, making the two appear to be visually close to one other when viewed from the point of view of the Earth. It was discovered during a statistical analysis of Gaia data. The cluster is over a thousand times further away from us than the star system, but given its size it still appears at magnitude 8.3 .

A Neteru image of Sopdet, Egyptian goddess of Sirius and the fertility of the Nile, pictured with a star upon her head

The proper name "Sirius" comes from the Latin Sīrius, from the Ancient Greek Σείριος ( Seirios, "glowing" or "scorcher"). The Greek word itself may have been imported from elsewhere before the Archaic period, one authority suggesting a link with the Egyptian god Osiris. The name's earliest recorded use dates from the 7th century BC in Hesiod's poetic work Works and Days. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN, which included Sirius for the star α Canis Majoris A. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.

Sirius has over 50 other designations and names attached to it.[71] In Geoffrey Chaucer's essay Treatise on the Astrolabe, it bears the name Alhabor and is depicted by a hound's head. This name is widely used on medieval astrolabes from Western Europe.[20] In Sanskrit it is known as Mrgavyadha "deer hunter", or Lubdhaka "hunter". As Mrgavyadha, the star represents Rudra ( Shiva).[113][114] The star is referred to as Makarajyoti in Malayalam and has religious significance to the pilgrim center Sabarimala.[115] In Scandinavia, the star has been known as Lokabrenna ("burning done by Loki", or "Loki's torch").[116] In the astrology of the Middle Ages, Sirius was a Behenian fixed star,[117] associated with beryl and juniper. Its astrological symbol was listed by Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa.[118]

Many cultures have historically attached special significance to Sirius, particularly in relation to dogs. It is often colloquially called the "Dog Star" as the brightest star of Canis Major, the "Great Dog" constellation. Canis Major was classically depicted as Orion's dog. The Ancient Greeks thought that Sirius's emanations could affect dogs adversely, making them behave abnormally during the "dog days", the hottest days of the summer. The Romans knew these days as dies caniculares, and the star Sirius was called Canicula, "little dog". The excessive panting of dogs in hot weather was thought to place them at risk of desiccation and disease. In extreme cases, a foaming dog might have rabies, which could infect and kill humans they had bitten. Homer, in the , describes the approach of Achilles toward Troy in these words:

Sirius rises late in the dark, liquid sky
On summer nights, star of stars,
Orion's Dog they call it, brightest
Of all, but an evil portent, bringing heat
And fevers to suffering humanity.

In a little-attested Greek myth, the star-god that personified Sirius fell in love with a fertility goddess named Opora, but he was unable to have her. Thus he began to burn hot, making humans suffer, who prayed to the gods. The god of the north wind, Boreas, solved the problem by ordering his sons to deliver Opora to Sirius, while he cooled down the earth with blasts of his own cold wind.

In Iranian mythology, especially in Persian mythology and in Zoroastrianism, the ancient religion of Persia, Sirius appears as and is revered as the rain-maker divinity (Tishtar of New Persian poetry). Beside passages in the sacred texts of the Avesta, the Avestan language Tishtrya followed by the version Tir in Middle and New Persian is also depicted in the Persian epic of Ferdowsi. Because of the concept of the yazatas, powers which are "worthy of worship", Tishtrya is a divinity of rain and fertility and an antagonist of apaosha, the demon of drought. In this struggle, Tishtrya is depicted as a white horse.

In Chinese astronomy Sirius is known as the star of the "celestial wolf" ( Chinese and Japanese: 天狼 Chinese romanization: Tiānláng; Japanese romanization: Tenrō; Korean and romanization: 천랑 /Cheonrang) in the Mansion of Jǐng (井宿). Many nations among the indigenous peoples of North America also associated Sirius with canines; the Seri and Tohono Oʼodham of the southwest note the star as a dog that follows mountain sheep, while the Blackfoot called it "Dog-face". The Cherokee paired Sirius with Antares as a dog-star guardian of either end of the "Path of Souls". The Pawnee of Nebraska had several associations; the Wolf (Skidi) tribe knew it as the "Wolf Star", while other branches knew it as the "Coyote Star". Further north, the Alaskan Inuit of the Bering Strait called it "Moon Dog".

Several cultures also associated the star with a bow and arrows. The ancient Chinese visualized a large bow and arrow across the southern sky, formed by the constellations of Puppis and Canis Major. In this, the arrow tip is pointed at the wolf Sirius. A similar association is depicted at the Temple of Hathor in Dendera, where the goddess Satet has drawn her arrow at Hathor (Sirius). Known as "Tir", the star was portrayed as the arrow itself in later Persian culture.

Sirius is mentioned in , ("The Star"), of the Qur'an, where it is given the name الشِّعْرَى (transliteration: aš-ši'rā or ash-shira; the leader). The verse is: "وأنَّهُ هُوَ رَبُّ الشِّعْرَى ", "That He is the Lord of Sirius (the Mighty Star)." (An-Najm:49) Ibn Kathir said in his commentary "that it is the bright star, named Mirzam Al-Jawza' (Sirius), which a group of Arabs used to worship". The alternate name Aschere, used by Johann Bayer, is derived from this.

Sirius midnight culmination at New Year 2022 local solar time[132]

In theosophy, it is believed the Seven Stars of the Pleiades transmit the spiritual energy of the Seven Rays from the Galactic Logos to the Seven Stars of the Great Bear, then to Sirius. From there is it sent via the Sun to the god of Earth ( Sanat Kumara), and finally through the seven Masters of the Seven Rays to the human race.

The midnight culmination of Sirius in the northern hemisphere coincides with the beginning of the New Year of the Gregorian Calendar during the decades around the year 2000. Over the years, its midnight culmination moves slowly, owing to the combination of the star's proper motion and the precession of the equinoxes. At the time of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in the year 1582, its culmination occurred 17 minutes before midnight into the new year under the assumption of a constant motion. According to Richard Hinckley Allen its midnight culmination was celebrated at the Temple of Demeter at Eleusis.

The Dogon people are an ethnic group in Mali, West Africa, reported by some researchers to have traditional astronomical knowledge about Sirius that would normally be considered impossible without the use of telescopes. According to Marcel Griaule, they knew about the fifty-year orbital period of Sirius and its companion prior to western astronomers.

Doubts have been raised about the validity of Griaule and Dieterlein's work. In 1991, anthropologist Walter van Beek concluded about the Dogon, "Though they do speak about sigu tolo [which is what Griaule claimed the Dogon called Sirius] they disagree completely with each other as to which star is meant; for some it is an invisible star that should rise to announce the sigu [festival], for another it is Venus that, through a different position, appears as sigu tolo. All agree, however, that they learned about the star from Griaule." According to Noah Brosch cultural transfer of relatively modern astronomical information could have taken place in 1893, when a French expedition arrived in Central West Africa to observe the total eclipse on 16 April.

Yoonir, symbol of the universe in Serer religion[141][142]

In the religion of the Serer people of Senegal, the Gambia and Mauritania, Sirius is called Yoonir from the Serer language (and some of the Cangin language speakers, who are all ethnically Serers). The star Sirius is one of the most important and sacred stars in Serer religious cosmology and symbolism. The Serer high priests and priestesses ( Saltigues, the hereditary "rain priests") chart Yoonir in order to forecast rainfall and enable Serer farmers to start planting seeds. In Serer religious cosmology, it is the symbol of the universe.

The position of Sirius on a radar map among all stellar objects or stellar systems within 9 light years (ly) from the map's center, the Sun (Sol). The diamond-shapes are their positions entered according to right ascension in hours angle (indicated at the edge of the map's reference disc), and according to their declination. The second mark shows each's distance from Sol, with the concentric circles indicating the distance in steps of one ly.

Sirius features on the coat of arms of Macquarie University, and is the name of its alumnae journal. Seven ships of the Royal Navy have been called HMS Sirius since the 18th century, with the first being the flagship of the First Fleet to Australia in 1788. The Royal Australian Navy subsequently named a vessel HMAS Sirius in honor of the flagship. American vessels include the as well as a monoplane model-the Lockheed Sirius, the first of which was flown by Charles Lindbergh. The name was also adopted by Mitsubishi Motors as the Mitsubishi Sirius engine in 1980. The name of the North American satellite radio company CD Radio was changed to Sirius Satellite Radio in November 1999, being named after "the brightest star in the night sky". Sirius is one of the 27 stars on the flag of Brazil, where it represents the state of Mato Grosso.

Composer Karlheinz Stockhausen, who wrote a piece called Sirius, is claimed to have said on several occasions that he came from a planet in the Sirius system. To Stockhausen, Sirius stood for "the place where music is the highest of vibrations" and where music had been developed in the most perfect way.

Sirius has been the subject of poetry. Dante and John Milton reference the star, and it is the "powerful western fallen star" of Walt Whitman's " When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd", while Tennyson's poem The Princess describes the star's scintillation:

...the fiery Sirius alters hue
And bickers into red and emerald.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Location of Sirius (circled) Observation data Epoch J2000.0 Equinox ICRS Constellation Canis Major Pronunciation [1] Sirius A 06 h 45 m 08.917 s [2] −16° 42′ 58.02″[2] Apparent magnitude (V) −1.46[3] Sirius B 06 h 45 m 09.0 s [4] −16° 43′ 06″[4] Apparent magnitude (V) 8.44[5] Characteristics Sirius A

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Alpha Centauri is a gravitationally bound system of the closest stars and exoplanets to our Solar System at 4.37 light-years (1.34 parsecs) from the Sun. The name is Latinized from α Centauri, and abbreviated Alpha Cen or α Cen. It is a triple star system consisting of α Centauri A (officially Rigil…