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A fruit is the ripened ovary of a flowering plant that encloses the seed or seeds. After flowers are fertilised, the ovary becomes larger and develops into a fleshy or dry structure that may store and spread the seeds, resulting in the formation of fruits.

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The pericarp is the portion of a fruit which is created by the wall of the ovary which is ripened. The pericarp encompasses the seed of the plant. This is made of an inner endocarp, a middle mesocarp, and an outer exocarp.

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A flowering plant's embryo is the new plant that emerges from the fertilised egg cell. It is enclosed and safeguarded by the endosperm and seed coat and includes the plant's earliest leaves, stem, and root. Eventually seeds are planted and the embryo inside grows into a plant.

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Petals are modified leaves that surround the reproductive organs in a flower. These petals have many purposes such as to protect some parts of the flower and/or attract or repel specific pollinators. They are located on the corolla and often brightly coloured.

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The ovary is the base of the pistol in the carpel. It is a female reproductive organ in a plant. This organ creates eggs (ovules) and produces them to be fertilized by the male reproductive organs.

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In a plant's flower, the Style joins the stigma and ovary. The style is a tiny, stalk-like structure found in the pistil, a plant's female reproductive system. It is essential for fertilization since pollen tubes are produced in this style.

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The stigma is the part of the female reproductive organ of a plant that is sticky and modified for pollen reception. It is the stem of the pistil that leads to the ovary. The pollen attaches to the stigma and goes down the style as a pollen tube.

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The carpel is the female reproductive part in the plant. It includes the stigma, style and ovary. These things work together to eventually produce offspring.

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The filament is a long thin structure that holds up the anther. These two things together create the stamen (male reproductive part of the plant).

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The anther is a part of the stamen (male reproductive part of the plant). It sits on top of the filament and is used for holding and producing pollen. This pollen is then used to fertilize the plant in the ovary.

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The stamen is the male reproductive part of the plant. It includes the anther and the filament and is responsible for pollinating and fertilizing the plant and ovary to reproduce seed and create more plants.

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Sporophyte is the diploid or spore producing phase in a plant's life cycle. It is produced by the fusion of gametes and gives rise to spores through meiosis. These spores then form into haploid gametophytes that are used for reproduction.

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A zygote is the product of two gametes fusing together. A fertilized egg cell from sperm cells produces a zygote. These are diploid cells and are made from haploid cells.

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The pollen tube is a long, slender tube that grows from a pollen grain after it lands on the stigma of a flower. The pollen tube contains two sperm cells that are needed for fertilization. The tube grows down through the style of the flower and into the ovary, where it penetrates the ovary and releases sperm cells. These sperm cells then fertilize the egg cell and the central cell which makes the embryo.

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Self-pollination occurs when pollen grains move from one plant to the pistils of the same plant. This can happen within one flower or multiple flowers of the same plant.

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Cross pollination happens when the pollen from one plant reaches and spreads to the pistols in another plant. This plant therefore "pollinated" another plant, and the genetic material will combine.

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Male reproductive organs of seed-bearing plants create small particles called pollen grains. They are in charge of transferring male gametes (sperm cells) from one flower to another to the female reproductive organs. Typically, pollen grains get to their destination through wind, water, or insects.

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Gametophytes are haploid or gamete producing phases in the life cycle of plants. They are produced by meiosis and form male and female gametes. These gametes can then fuse together to form a diploid zygote. Male gametophytes produce sperm cells and female gametophytes produce egg cells.

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Megaspores are large haploid cells produced by plants during the process of meiosis. They are involved in the production of female gametophytes, which give rise to egg cells that can be fertilized by sperm cells produced by the male gametophyte. The fertilized egg cell can then develop into a new plant.

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Microspores are small, haploid cells produced by plants during the process of meiosis. They are involved in the production of male gametophytes, which give rise to sperm cells that can fertilize the female gametophyte and produce a new plant.

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Endosperm is a tissue that is formed inside the seeds of flowering plants. It provides nutrients to the developing embryo and helps the embryo stay alive.

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A seed is a reproductive structure that plants generate that contains an embryo as well as a supply of nutrients and an outer layer of protection. Usually spread by wind, water, or animals, seeds can sprout and develop into new plants under the right conditions.

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A gymnosperm is a kind of plant that reproduces using a seed that is exposed to the air. Its seed is not enclosed in an ovary like angiosperms. Gymnosperms are also vascular plants.

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Angiosperms are plants that produce and grow flowers with seeds enclosed in an ovary. They are the most diverse and widespread group of plants.

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The stalk is the bottom part of the plant. It is often narrow and sturdy and upholds the rest of the plant. In grafting a scion will be put on top of these stalks to bond them together.

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The scion is the top part of a plant (usually a shoot or twig) that is detached and put on top of a separate stalk ( bottom part of a plant). These two parts are bonded together by grafting.

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Grafting is the action of connecting two plant tissues together so that they can continue growing together. The plant tissues are cut from separate places and then bonded together.  The tissues eventually become one tissue. The tissue on top is called the scion and the tissue on the bottom is called the stock.

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Corms are a specific kind of plant organ designed for storing food. This spherical organ is situated underneath the plant in the soil. This round plant stem is solid tissue in the centre. The plant makes use of this storage area to help it survive in harsh weather conditions such as freezing temperatures or droughts.

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Stolons are horizontal stems that grow along or just below the soil's surface. They are produced by certain plants, and they can sprout new roots and shoots at intervals, allowing the plant to spread and form more sections and branches.

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Asexual reproduction is a kind of reproduction where only one organism is involved in the production of  offspring. This organism has both female and male parts to carry out this reproduction.  All offspring are identical to each other and the parent organism.

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An ecosystem consists of all living and nonliving things in a given area, such as plants, animals, rocks, soil, water, and air. An ecosystem's living species interact with one another and with their surroundings, such as through food webs and nutrient cycles. Ecosystems can be small, like a pond, or large, like a forest.

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A stable community is an ecosystem that stays consistent through many years and generations. Not many things have to adapt or change. Plant and animal populations stay relatively the same throughout a long time period.

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Secondary Succession refers to development that occurs after a community has been impacted by anything that destroys its natural environment. As a result, both plants and organisms must regenerate. The succession cycle begins anew. Soil and nutrients are still available at this phase, but new plants must regrow in this soil.

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Pioneer species are the first species to enter and start growing in an uninhabited land. They start the ecosystem and everything else starts joining and growing from there. If the ecosystem is destroyed by something these pioneer species will also be the first ones to grow back.

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Primary succession occurs when a land is first able to become utilized. No plants have inhabited this land before. Plants start to grow and become bigger and adapt to this new land.

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Succession is the process in which a plant shifts and changes to become better. The new unusually larger plants replace the old unmodified ones. Climate, soil type, seed distribution, and management all have an impact on plant succession.

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Abscisic acid is another plant hormone that impacts growth. There are many areas that abscisic acid impacts the plant such as plant development and growth processes however it is most known for how it causes the plant to adapt to environmental stressors. Such as resistance to droughts.

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Ethylene is another hormone in plants. It affects multiple areas of plant growth but mostly the ripening and flowing of plants. Depending on many factors this hormone will either limit or enhance growth. Ethylene can impact the way a plant grows or responds to stress in various ways.

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Cytokinin is a plant hormone that works to promote and initiate cell division. This hormone initiates cytokinesis in the roots and shoots of the plants. Cytokinins are often seen working in a plant’s primary growth stage and in cell differentiation.

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Gibberellins is another plant hormone. This hormone helps with many things as the plant is developing such as germination, stem elongation, lead and fruit senescence, flower development, and flowering.

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Auxin is a hormone in plants that cause movement and elongation of cells. Auxin moves away from the light when being hit from the side so the darker side of the plant has more auxin making it grow more. This causes a curve  in the plant's stem.

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Thigmotropism is another action that plants take to move towards or away from a stimulus. When the plant touches the stimulus and either goes closer to it (positive thigmotropism) or further away (negative thigmotropism).

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Gravitropism occurs when a plant grows upward away from the force of gravity. This way the plant can get higher from the ground to help with photosynthesis. Gravitropism is known as a negative tropism. This pull of gravity can also cause roots to grow straight down rather than laterally. This is also gravitropism.

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Phototropism occurs when a plant grows toward the sunlight to help its photosynthesis process. Phototropism when the plant grow towards the light is known as a positive tropism. When the roots grow away from the light this is a negative tropism.

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Section 3: Plant Growth Regulators and Community

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Section 3: Plant Growth Regulators and Community

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Tropism is the ability of a plant to move to or away from a certain environmental stimulus.  For example, a plant will move toward the sunlight to get more uv rays. This is a positive tropism. Plants will often also grow away from the force of gravity. This is a negative tropism.

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Root pressure is the pressure that makes fluids go up into the roots from the ground. This pressure is made from osmotic pressure like turgor pressure. The fluids are forced up to the xylem and then brought to the rest of the plant.  The fluids are absorbed in the roots because of negative pressure and empty cavities from water evaporation. When there is less pressure inside the roots than outside the fluids flow into the roots make it equal.

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The vascular cylinder is in the center of the root and it contains the vascular bundle (xylem and phloem). This is found in the center of plants in their roots and stems. The vascular cylinder helps with transportation and ensures water and nutrients are transported throughout the plant.

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The cortex is a tissue that contributes many things to the plant such as protection and transportation. It is a thick layer that lies between the endodermis and epidermis. The cortex tissue contributes to the plant's structure and carries water and nutrients throughout the plant.

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The Casparian strip is found in the endodermal tissues. This strip is found in the roots of many plants. Its job is to ensure dissolved minerals do not go through the cell walls instead the minerals are forced to go through the semipermeable plasma membrane.

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The endodermis lies just under the cortex and is responsible for protecting the vascular tissues inside it. It is composed of many tightly packed cells for strong protection. This tissue works as a barrier to only allow selective nutrition inside and up to the plant.

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The epidermis is the skin cover on plants. It is a thin layer of cells that covers all parts of the plant. It protects the plant and all its delicate parts from outside environments and also prevents water loss.

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The purpose of root hairs, which are isolated tubular root cells, is to promote the plant's surface interaction with the soil. They are cylindric extensions of epidermal cells.  They serve a variety of purposes, including nutrient uptake, microbial interactions, and anchoring the plant. However, the primary role of root hairs is to gather and transport water and nutrients from the roots up through the plant.

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The palisade mesophyll are the cells on the top of the leaf under the epidermis. They are packed with chlorophyll and are close together in a row to create a large surface area for optimal sunlight absorption. These cells perform the majority of photosynthesis.

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Sieve cells are cells found in phloem in vascular bundles. These cells help with the transportation of sugars throughout the plant. Starting at the leaves where photosynthesis occurs these cells use translocation and move sugars through their tubes.

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The xylem of a vascular plant has a specific kind of cell called a tracheid that transports water throughout the plant. These are tracheary elements called conductive cells. In addition to helping the plant's xylem carry water throughout it, tracheid's also help the plant by giving it stability and structure.

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Cohesion occurs when two particles in the same substance have a large force of attraction between them. This causes the substance to stay together and not bond with other particles outside of the substance like seen with adhesion. In plants, this force is used to push nutrients up through the xylem against gravity. Cohesion helps to maintain the integrity of the water column in the Xylem, preventing it from breaking apart due to the force of gravity.

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Adhesion is the tendency of water molecules to stick to other services. In plants, adhesion helps to pull water up from the roots and into the Xylem vessels. That is because water molecules are attracted to the walls of the Xylem. As water moves upward through the Xylem, it forms a thin film on the walls of the vessels due to adhesion. This film helps to create a negative pressure, pulling up more water from the roots. Adhesion also helps other nutrients move through the phloem.

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Turgor pressure is a hypotonic pressure that presses a cell's membrane up against its own cell wall. It is categorized as hydrostatic pressure. Too much air pressure leads to turgor pressure. Turgor pressure in a cell is controlled by vacuoles. A plant's leaves and flowers would wilt if its turgor pressure decreased. The plant's loss of water is the cause of this drop in turgor pressure.

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Companion cells help sieve cells in their duty to transport required nutrients. Companion cells provide energy in the form of amino acids which is required for the translocation process that sieve cells carry out.

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Translocation is the term used to describe the movement of nutrients in the plant from the leaves to the rest of the plant's tissues. Through photosynthesis in the leaves glucose and oxygen is made. The glucose is then moved around the plant through

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Transpiration is the process where water is expelled from the plant through the stomata. The water is evaporated as water vapour through leaves, flowers, the stem and all other places where there are stomata.

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The Phloem is also a part of the vascular bundle. It, unlike xylem, has a two-way flow and works also to transport things around the plant. Phloem carries things like sugars and other organic minerals from the leaves throughout the plant. Phloem cells are alive during maturity.

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Xylem is a part of vascular tissues. It is found in the vascular bundle and is responsible for bringing food, water, and minerals throughout the plant from the roots. Xylem only has a one way flow and its cells die at maturity

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Periderm is a secondary tissue that replaces the primary tissues if they become damaged. It takes the epidermis’ place to protect the inside of the plant.

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Dicots are plants that contain two embryonic leaves/cotyledons. Unlike monocots These have two leaves in the embryo of the seed instead of one.  These are also flowering plants (angiosperms).

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Monocots are another kind of plant like dicots however they have one embryonic leaf in their seeds instead of two. Just like dicots these plants are also flowering plants (angiosperms).

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The cork cambium, like the vascular cambium, works to grow plants. To be more specific, the cork cambium produces cork which helps produce bark and grow the plant laterally. It is located in the middle of the bark and also creates phelloderm, which is used as the inner layer in bark.

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The vascular cambium is one of the main tissues involved in the growth of the roots and stems. It is used for secondary growth, for widening the plant after it is lengthened. It works alongside the cork cambium to build woody tissues and to build up the strength of the roots and stems.

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Woody stems are in plants with hard stems that incorporate wood. Woody stems are composed of both dead and living tissue and typically develop during a plant's secondary growth phase (the lateral tissues). Woody stems are located around the cambium's perimeter. And, because 'bark' refers to all outer layers beyond the cambium, woody stems could also be classified as bark.

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Herbaceous stems are stems made of xylem and phloem (the vascular bundles). These bundles wrap around tissues to create circular shapes with tissues in the center. The tissue that is in the center is called pith. This is made of spongy tissues that contain Parenchyma cells. This stem is very flexible and soft.

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The spongy mesophyll is the lower layer of mesophyll in the leaf. It is underneath the palisade mesophyll. It is made up of cells of different shapes. There are wide air gaps between these cells. A plant's spongy mesophyll is essential because it controls and permits the flow of water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide into and out of the plant. A very thin coating of water covers the cells inside the spongy mesophyll, which is on the plant's leaves. Gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide enter and exit the plant via dissolving into this water layer. Because it permits oxygen to leave the plant during photosynthesis and permits carbon dioxide to enter the plant through the spongy mesophyll cells, this tissue is crucial for photosynthesis.

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The cuticle or waxy cuticle is the outer layer of the plant parts that are exposed to air. It is another source of protection for the plant and it has many uses. The cuticle prevents and controls water evaporation to prevent the plant from dying out as well as protects the plant from any harmful UV rays.

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Compound leaves are made up of two or more leaflets. The leaf blade divides into several leaves, which spread out tissue with minimal surface area. These leaflets are joined by the rachis.

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A simple leaf is one that has a single blade. This allows for one large surface area which helps photosynthesis.

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The petiole is what connects the leaf blade to the stem or leaf base. The blade of the leaf is crucial to the process of photosynthesis. As it twists the leaf towards the sun and light, this small part of the plant helps the plant receive energy. The petiole also serves as a pathway for nutrients and water to reach the leaf.

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The organelles known as chloroplasts are responsible for establishing and carrying out photosynthesis, which is how plants obtain their energy. Photosynthesis begins in chloroplasts because they convert solar energy from light into chemical energy that plants may use. Chlorophyll is present in these organelles. Along with the mitochondria, chloroplasts finish the photosynthesis process, but they also perform a number of metabolic tasks for the plant. These are several metabolic processes like lipid synthesis and fat digestion.

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The blade is the flat thin broad part of the leaf that absorbs sunlight. It is connected to the stems by the petiole. The blade makes up a very large part of the leaves surface area.

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Collenchyma is another kind of ground tissue. These cells are more tightly packed together therefore collenchyma is stronger and thicker. Its main purpose is to keep the plant study and add stricture when growing.

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Sclerenchyma is another kind of ground tissue. Its main purpose is to provide strength and structure to the outside of the plant. Its cell walls are very tightly packed and very stiff. This provides support to where plant areas are finished growing. These tissues often die at maturity.

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Parenchyma is a type of ground tissue that performs most of the basic metabolic functions. Its cell walls are very thin and flexible. It does many things like photosynthesis, storage of water and nutrients, and healing the plant when damaged.

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Dermal tissue is the outer layer of the plant. It is general term for outer cells in the plant. These cells protect the plant from foreign species as well as control water absorption and water evaporation in leaves. Gas exchange also occurs here. Dermal tissues are covered by the waxy cuticle and contain tissues like the epidermis and periderm.

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Ground tissue is another general term for plant tissues. Ground tissues include any parts of the plant that are not considered either vascular or dermal. These tissues mainly form and uphold the plant's body and structure. These tissues include  collenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells and parenchyma cells.

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Vascular tissue is another type of general tissue found in cells. It is primarily found in the roots and vascular bundle and is responsible for the transportation of water, food, and minerals. The vascular tissue is primarily composed of xylem and phloem, which are essential for transporting water and nutrients throughout the plant. The vascular tissue produces xylem and phloem clusters (vascular bundles). These bundles extend from the stem parallel to the ground.

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Lateral tissues allow the plant to grow laterally through widening its stems. It is responsible for the width of a plant. (secondary growth)

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Apical Tissues allow the plant to grow upward and downward through its roots and upward through the stems and shoots. They are responsible for the length of a plant. (primary growth)

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Meristematic Tissue is a type of plant tissue found in the areas where the plant grows. This tissue has special cells that constantly divide until the plant is at its full size and the cells stop dividing. There are two kinds: Lateral and Apical.