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Each day tourists ride cable cars over Singapore's Keppel Harbour to a luxurious holiday isle haunted by death. In the world's third most densely populated country, Sentosa Island is a popular getaway, thanks to its sandy beaches, majestic rainforest, lavish resorts, and theme parks. (And it was a setting in author Kevin Kwan's Crazy Rich Asians.) But lurking behind that idyllic veneer are startling tales of torture, plunder, and deadly epidemics.

Sentosa was known for savage pirates and a brutal prisoner of war camp before the Singapore government converted it into an upmarket vacation destination in the 1970s. Now 10 million people a year visit this island, which is less than a mile from the mainland and connected by rail and cable car.

Singapore could have buried Sentosa's disturbing past beneath its cheerful present. Instead its government recently declared the 19th-century Fort Siloso a national monument and is creating fresh tourism programs that embrace its bleak history.

Pirate haven

Prior to being renamed Sentosa 50 years ago, this 1,200-acre island had an eerie moniker. It was called Pulau Blakang Mati, which means "the island behind which lies death." That name could be linked to sea nomads who once lived on Singapore's Brani Island and may have buried their dead on adjacent Sentosa, explains Kwa Chong Guan, adjunct associate professor of history at the National University of Singapore.

Sentosa's lethal reputation was burnished by pirates and an invisible enemy. In the first half of the 1800s, a mysterious epidemic killed a large percentage of the island's population, which then included bands of buccaneers. Singapore's waters brimmed with seafaring criminals long before it was settled by the British in 1819, says Stefan Eklöf Amirell, author of Pirates of Empire.

He says the Singapore Strait, which runs parallel to the nation's south coast, had always been "excellent for piracy."This was due to its heavy ship traffic and abundant ambush locations on small, forested islands like Sentosa. Even after the Brits arrived, pirate plunder persisted. "Singapore being a hub of free trade, arms trade, and easy recruitment of crews inadvertently encouraged piracy," Amirell says of this early colonial period.

(These pirates stole the biggest booty ever.)

Tourists now walk in the footsteps of buccaneers at Fort Siloso. Before it was erected on the northern headland of Sentosa in 1878, this site was popular with pirates, says Goh Geok Yian, associate professor of history at Singapore's Nanyang Technological University.

To reach the British port at Keppel Harbour, merchant ships had to navigate the narrow strait between that headland and the mainland. "This [location] provided the perfect combination for mounting ambushes against ships," Goh says.

From fort to POW camp to resort

Siloso was among a cluster of British coastal forts built in the late 1800s to defend Singapore from threats such as the Russian navy, Goh explains. Siloso, the only one intact, now enjoys Singapore's highest level of heritage protection as a new national monument.

To access this hilltop fort, visitors follow an elevated walkway through a forest canopy. The jungle rustles with macaques; brahminy kites soar above; and Singapore's skyline unfurls to the east, with serene Siloso Beach to the south.

This natural splendor soon gives way to hulking artillery and grim history. Visitors can inspect the fort's anti-aircraft structures, command towers, machine gun posts, and sprawling network of bunkers, tunnels, and barracks. A small museum uses videos, photos, and maps to tell Siloso's story.

(Once a state secret, these Albanian bunkers are now museums.)

The fort was designed to counter seaborne attacks from the south. But it was from the north that Siloso received its fiercest foe. In 1941, the Japanese invaded Singapore overland from Malaysia, and Siloso's weaponry was shifted accordingly. That had little impact. Singapore fell in 1942 and the Japanese turned this fort into a prisoner of war camp for British and Australian troops.

These dark tales haunt the lantern-lit night tours of Siloso, launched in December. They are also woven into the new Sentosa Heritage Trail, a signposted route past 30 historic sites, including former army offices and hospitals, most of which are explained by interpretive signs. Amid the island's golf courses and thrill rides, the trail charts Sentosa's unlikely evolution from pirate port to combat complex to, finally, holiday haven.

Ronan O'Connell is an Australian journalist and photographer who shuttles between Ireland, Thailand, and Western Australia.

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Singapore's Sentosa Island is a paradise with a brutal past

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Each day tourists ride cable cars over Singapore's Keppel Harbour to a luxurious holiday isle haunted by death. In the world's third most densely populated country, Sentosa Island is a popular getaway, thanks to its sandy beaches, majestic rainforest, lavish resorts, and theme parks. (And it was a setting in author Kevin Kwan's Crazy Rich Asians.

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The Plight of the Coolies

Coolies were male labourer immigrants who were forced to leave China due to famine and unrest in order to seek a better life in foreign lands. This sojourn was usually temporary as many harboured the intention of returning to China with money in their pockets.

Coolies could be distinguished by two types – “free coolies” and “credit coolies”. The former paid for their passage and decided where they went or what they would do upon reaching their destination. Credit coolies, on the other hand, were practically penniless. On arrival at their destination, credit coolies were required to sign binding contracts with their employers.

Coolies had been flooding Singapore’s shores since the arrival of the British. In 1830, Singapore received nearly 7,000 Chinese labourers during the junk season, which was almost the size of the entire Chinese population of the island at the time.

As the coolies were usually unskilled, they were employed as manual labour in almost every sector from construction to plantation work. They were also hired to take on back-breaking jobs such as rickshaw pullers and stevedores. During periods when labour supply was tight, coolies were highly sought after by plantation owners, merchants and port operators. However, during lull times, coolies were summarily regarded as “destitute and worthless”.

The condescending attitude towards the coolies would persist until Singapore’s entrepot economy took off from the 1870s onwards when plantations and mining industries in Malaya began to flourish. With the tap of Indian convict labour turned off in 1873, Chinese coolies provided a source of cheap labour for these British-run enterprises in the Straits Settlements and Malaya. This led to a surge in demand and resulted in a huge inflow of coolies into Singapore from the southern provinces of Fujian, Guangdong and Hainan in China, reaching around 50,000 annually in the 1870s before hitting 200,000 by the turn of the 19th century.

The rising demand, however, did not improve the plight of the coolies. Whether they were travelling as free coolies or under the credit ticket system, the coolies had to endure a harrowing voyage by sea to Singapore. They were piled into small vessels and herded like cattle across the often stormy South China Sea in cramped and unsanitary conditions.

Their suffering continued upon arrival in Singapore. Some credit coolies were held in the hull of the ships until a contractor or broker for the mines or plantations agreed to take on their debt. Others were confined in dark and stuffy coolie-holding stations.

Free coolies fared better than credit coolies, provided they were not duped by secret societies and ended up in their debt. Regardless, both free and credit coolies led a difficult life of hard labour and grinding poverty. The average salary of a coolie was so meagre it was hardly enough to cover his basic expenses. For example, in 1924, a rickshaw puller made about 20 to 24 Straits dollars a month. As the monthly cost of living at the time was roughly 12 to 14 Straits dollars, this meant the coolie only had eight to 10 Straits dollars each month to remit back to China, leaving him with almost nothing.

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1877 - Establishment of the Chinese Protectorate

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An article on William Pickering and secret societies

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Chinese secret societies revisited | New Straits Times

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A visit to the National Museum of Singapore shines a light on Malaya's Chinese secret society past and its impact on Malayan society over the past two centuries, ALAN TEH LEAM SENG writes

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1. According to Source 1, how did Singapore benefit from being under the control of the EIC and the British India Government?

The EIC did give SG a head start. By making SG a free port, it made SG attractive to traders. Immigration and free trade were encouraged. People could trade without restrictions and diverse migrants contributed to the development and growth of SG.

EIC also built essential infrastructure like roads, ports

EIC did town planning to make SG livable for migrants

The Legislative and Executive Councils ensured that there was law and order in SG

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Look at title of the chart, table or graph

Examine the legend (chart/graph) to know what the date represents

Study the dates/time interval

Look for trends or patterns of change

Scan the data to find out whether the numbers are moving upwards or downwards

Note the level of the increase or decrease

Use your historical knowledge to explain the changes

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The photo shows a living quarter of Chinese immigrants in Chinatown.

1. Do you think this space was occupied by one person or a family? Use details from the photo to support your answer.

Infer: A family.

Evidence (details): bed looked big enough for two people. Many items lying around: food, utensils, boxes, sewing machine, clothes. The object in the middle, hung from the ceiling with a spring and cloth? That was a 'cradle' for a baby.

Explain: The occupants were likely a family (couple and child) since there was a cradle. Many items suggest that more than one person lived in this space.

2. What does Source 2 tell you about the living conditions of the Chinese immigrants?

Infer: Poor, cramped, uncomfortable, possibly unsanitary, unhygienic

Evidence (details): small window, poor ventilation, little light, walls look mouldy, bed is small, made of wood, bare, no mattress or pillow. No separate areas- eg. food and utensils, near the bed. Baby sleeps with the adults. Sewing machine for livelihood, near the bed.

Explain: Living conditions not ideal, small space where various activities were carried out. Small windows- poor ventilation which made spread of diseases easier.

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Smith Street, Temple Street, Japanese Street and Banda Street; all adjoining streets in today's Chinatown had one thing in common during the colonial times. Three and four-storey brothels which along with prostitution, also promoted opium smoking, drinking and gambling

When Raffles founded modern Singapore as a British trading settlement in 1819, migrants poured in the island from China, India and Malaya. As the number of migrants increased, which were overwhelming males settling in the areas around Chinatown, brothels became an important outlet for their sexual needs. These migrants or sinkhehs came to Si Lat Po(Singapore's old Chinese name) without their wives and found solace in the arms of Ah Ku or prostitutes.

Slowly, Chinatown was flooded with tea-houses, theatres and opium dens tended by young singsong girls locally known as Pei Pa Chai or Pipa girls. These girls were paid by the hour by rich clients to play mahjong or prepare opium. Many, in due course, were lured into prostitution.

These prostitutes mainly came from China, Japan and Europe. Though, there were no British prostitutes due to a ban imposed by the then British administration of Singapore.

The National Heritage Board (NHB) describes the life of a prostitute in colonial Singapore as "horrendous". "Once in a brothel, the girls were often subjected to beatings, and received little or no medical attention. Riddled with diseases, these pitiful women were often also murder victims. Seeing no other escape from their living hell, a number of these prostitutes took their own lives. While some threw themselves off buildings, others preferred a more subtle method - an opium overdose," informs the NHB in one of the placards placed in Chinatown.

Interestingly, by 1923, there were 423 government-run shops selling opium over-the-counter between 6am to 10pm. But in brothels, opium would be available till 2am.
Chinese brothels

The most infamous street at the turn of the 20thcentury was the Smith Street, which was lined with 25 three and four-storey shop-houses packed with prostitutes. While two were Japanese, most of the other brothels were Chinese, with the most notorious being the no. 65. It's owner, Loh Sai Soh, was stabbed when she attempted to stop a customer from leaving without paying. This street served as a red-light area between 1901 and 1930. Adjoining Smith Street was the Temple Street, which got its name after the Sri Mariamman Temple located at one end of the street, and was also famous for its Chinese brothels.

Japanese brothels
Also known as Yap Pun Kai (or the lane of foreign prostitutes) or Japanese Street, this street hosted the few Japanese brothels in colonial Singapore. Notably, "until the pre-war years, Japanese prostitutes plied their trade along this street in an oddly noble effort to help finance their country's military campaigns," says NHB. Another street notorious for Japanese brothels till 1930 was the Banda Street located at the junction of Sago Street, Sago Lane and Spring Street.

"Sexually transmitted disease became rampant and epidemics swept through Chinatown, leading to the passing of the Contagious Disease Ordinance in 1870, requiring brothels to be registered and prostitutes to be examined medically for disease. In 1887, the Ordinance was repealed, and the registration of brothels was stopped in 1894. Without these controls in place, the number of brothels increased further. This was fuelled by the record increase in the migrant labour at the end of the century. It was also at this time, that the full effects of the repeal came into effect; the pandemic spread of gonorrhea and syphilis in the Chinese community. The importing of prostitutes to Singapore was finally banned in 1927 and brothels made illegal in 1930," informs the Chinese Heritage Centre situated in Chinatown, Singapore.

All information in this story is courtesy National Heritage Board and Chinese Heritage Centre, Chinatown, Singapore.
Credit: Newzzit

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History: The brothels of colonial Singapore - Singapore News

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Smith Street, Temple Street, Japanese Street and Banda Street; all adjoining streets in today's Chinatown had one thing in common during the colonial times. Three and four-storey brothels which along with prostitution, also promoted opium smoking, drinking and gambling When Raffles founded modern Singapore as a British trading settlement in 1819, migrants poured in the ...

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Let our Curators tell you more Ep 2: 36 oaths of the Secret Society

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Using the graph/table shown; respond to these questions:

1. What trends do you observe in the total trade of Singapore from 1824 to 1938?

Trade increased steadily from 1824 to 1923. In 1933, trade declined by nearly 50%. However, after 1933, the volume of trade increased.

2. Explain the trends in Singapore's imports and exports from 1824 to 1938.

From 1823-1923:

increased because early years of founding, SG was a free port that allowed free trade.

Another reason was the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, this saved time and money and encouraged more trading.

The advent of steamships was also around this period of time and would have contributed to the amount of trading in Singapore.

The decline in 1933 was due to the Great Depression that started in USA and affected Europe and Asia. This explains why exports declined because countries were not able to purchase as much goods as before.

3. Is the table or graph a better way to represent the data on Singapore's trade? Why do you think so?

Graph: can see the trend at a glance. Lines tell us if numbers are increasing, decreasing or stagnant. Able to compare the growth of imports and exports easily. Able to obtain figures for each year. Minor inaccuracy- won't be able to get exact figures, estimate from the graph

Table: can see the 'exact' figures. More accurate. However, the table doesn't show the numbers for every year so we are not able to get info for certain years.

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Origins of the police force in Singapore

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Origins of the police force in Singapore

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Formed in May 1820, the SPF is one of the oldest government organisations in Singapore. From humble beginnings of a 12-man team, led by Francis James Bernard, the SPF has grown from strength to strength, in tandem with the nation.

1 Why did crime rates increase in early Singapore?

Increased population

Free immigration policy- anyone could enter SG, some might have criminal background

Secret societies

Weak police force

Poverty

2. Identify THREE common crimes in early Singapore.

Armed robbery

Rioting/fights

Murders

3. Why was it difficult to recruit men to the police force in the past?

Salary too low

Dangerous job

Long working hours

No prestige

4. Describe THREE measures Thomas Dunman carried out to improve the police force.

Increased the salary

Offered better working conditions

Instilled discipline

Drew up patrol boundaries

Uniforms so that police looked smart and commanded respect/fear

Pension scheme (retired policemen received sum of $)

Set up specialised units for different crimes

Which other organisation did the police force work

closely with in the 19th century?

5. Identify THREE common crimes in current Singapore.

Outrage of modesty/voyeurism

Theft

Scams

6. Is the current police force better than the past? Why or why not?

Yes, better.

Larger police force (up to 15 000) that is well-trained, carefully selected, competent men and women

Community engagement- the police force works closely with the community to keep neighbourhoods and public areas safe and secure

Specialised units to handle threats like terrorism, bombs and explosives, cybersecurity issues

Adoption of technology to solve cases, obtain information on criminals/criminal activities

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The official Singapore Police Force website. The Singapore Police Force (SPF) is a uniformed organisation under the purview of the Ministry of Home Affairs. The mission of the SPF is to prevent, deter and detect crime to ensure the safety and security of Singapore.

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1. After reading the article, do you think the British authorities should suppress prostitution in Singapore? Explain your stand.

I have read many responses on this:

Many of you wrote about how inhumane it was to trick/kidnap/smuggle women and girls to SG to be prostitutes: they were humiliated, they suffered, some died of diseases, others committed suicide

Some of you discussed the moral implication of patronising brothels: should men pay for such services?

Others wrote about the spread of sexually transmitted diseases

Some of you argued that prostitution/brothels should not be restricted but can be legalised and registered so that the British authorities knew better about the brothels and could regulate them to reduce abuse

Some of you argued that prostitution reduced crimes against women

Some of you argued that prostitution and brothels were a source of tax for British authorities

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Brothels in colonial Singapore, with its large male migrant population, did a roaring trade. Adeline Foo examines the lives of the unfortunate girls and women who were sold into prostitution.

A late-19th century portrait of a pipa tsai (Cantonese for "little pipa player"). The pipa, or Chinese lute, is a pear-shaped four-stringed musical instrument made of wood. These girls were trained to play the instrument and sing to entertain men in clubs and brothels in Singapore. In some cases, the pipa tsai were forced into prostitution. Courtesy of National Museum of Singapore, National Heritage Board.

"I went a few times because of my youthful follies, to see those girls being sold to the brothels. The auction took place in front of the go-downs at the port. The zegen [pimp] took the girls out of the hold, ordered them to change their clothes and lined them up in front of a warehouse. The brothel-owners bought them on the spot in [the] auction. Good looking girls were priced between one and two thousand yen, and ordinary girls from four to five hundred yen."

This account by Tomijiro Onda, a Japanese barber in Singapore, describes how the trade in young girls operated here in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Ships carrying girls from Japan and China reached Singapore after three weeks to a month, while junks from Hong Kong took slightly more than a week. Once these girls landed, they were sold "as if they were cattle". Between 1900 and 1910, the average price for a Japanese woman was 500 to 600 yen, while a Chinese girl shipped in from South China cost between $150 and $500. This was a large sum considering that the average worker earned a monthly wage of about $10 to $15 in those days.

While much has been said about Singapore's early economic history with its focus on canny entrepreneurs and hardworking coolies, much less has been written about the seedier side of a colonial port city where men vastly outnumbered women. In 1884, there were 60,000 Chinese men but only 6,600 Chinese women, of whom an estimated 2,000 - mainly Cantonese and Teochew - worked as prostitutes. It is believed that as much as 80 percent of the young Chinese girls who came to Singapore in the late 1870s were sold to brothels.

Prostitution at the turn of 20th-century Singapore, as with most other things, was the result of supply rising to meet demand. Most of the prostitutes came from patriarchal societies like China and Japan. There, sexual licence and the purchase of women was a male prerogative. Abject poverty in some regions in turn pushed these women out to find work in places like Southeast Asia.

In addition to girls who were "imported" into Singapore from elsewhere, there were others on the island who were tricked into entering the profession. In 1940, the Nanyang Siang Pau described how one hapless victim was misled:

"'A''s mother met a woman whom she regarded as Second Aunt, who was sympathetic towards her daughter. Second Aunt recommended 'A' to get a job and offered to bring her to Kuala Lumpur. She agreed and left Singapore without telling her mother. Later, they returned to Singapore and 'A' became a prostitute. 'A' chose not to find her mother because she did not wish for her to know that she was a prostitute, it was an ugly thing. She only wished to save up enough money, look for her mother and return to China with her. She thought that once she had become a prostitute, it was not possible... to turn back..."

In some instances, prostitutes raised abandoned or orphaned girls as their own, and some of these girls followed in their adopted mothers' footsteps. Once a girl reached puberty, she would have been taught the necessary skills by an "older sister". During a more explicit period of training, the teenager would receive detailed instructions in the arts of lovemaking and massage. She would also learn how to use aphrodisiacs and other sexual devices, and how to entertain and pleasure men from sex manuals, erotic paintings and pamphlets.

Once the girl, usually between the ages of 13 and 15, completed her apprenticeship, her virginity would be sold to the highest bidder: men would pay several hundred dollars to more than a thousand dollars for the experience of deflowering her.

Chinese coolies unloading goods in a godown, 1900s. Chinese male migrants to Singapore in the 19th century, who worked mainly as coolies, were a lonely lot and sought solace in the arms of prostitutes. Boden-Kloss Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.

The Brothels

The men who frequented brothels in Singapore were a mixed bag that included "sons of towkay, bank clerks, street hawkers, rickshaw pullers, high-ranking officials, restaurant proprietors, colonial soldiers, and denizens of the underworld". These men could have their pick from any of the many brothels that lined certain streets cheek by jowl.

"Each of the districts... had their local clients... Europeans - diplomats, officials and planters - favoured the discreet Japanese women of Malay and Malabar Streets. Foreign tourists, soldiers, and, especially Japanese sailors also sought their sexual favours by visiting the unregistered haunts of Malay and Eurasian women scattered in the side lanes and alleys of the city. Rickshawmen made regular journeys to the brothels in Chin Hin Street, Fraser Street, Sago Street, Smith Street, Tan Quee Lan Street and Upper Hokien Street."

A photo of karayuki-san by G.R. Lambert & Co., 1890s. Courtesy of National Museum of Singapore, National Heritage Board.

Japanese prostitutes, known as karayuki-san, operated within the Japanese enclave along Hylam, Malabar, Malay and Bugis streets where Japanese merchants, shopkeepers, doctors and bankers had set up shop. By 1920, the Japanese community in Singapore was large and thriving enough to host its own newspaper, the Nanyo Shimpo, a Japanese cemetery and a Japanese school.

In the Kreta Ayer/Chinatown area, Chinese brothels catered to a largely different clientele. In addition to brothels that served the average worker, there were high-class ones that were visited by rich patrons who had their favourite prostitutes.

A portrait of a karayuki-san with her hair let down, 1890s. Gretchen Liu Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.

Historian James Warren's in-depth study of life in Singapore brothels pieced together the practices of women in the profession by, among other things, examining information from coroner's records and inquests as well as interviewing people who lived close to where the brothels were. His research unveiled intimate details such as how older women in the brothel prepared virgins for their first sexual experience. Warren also learned of their beauty secrets that included washing one's face with powder ground from raw rice instead of cheap scented soap.

Some of these sex workers managed to escape the trade: a few were able to save enough money to pay their way out of brothels while others were bought by wealthy businessmen and ended up as their mistresses or concubines. The latter were a minority though; for most, prostitution was a lifetime prison sentence until they met with illness or death.

Warren's research uncovered shocking accounts of sex workers dying because of venereal disease, fatal fights resulting from social rivalry, alcoholism and drug abuse. Many prostitutes committed suicide - by overdosing on opium or ingesting poison, or by hanging or slitting their throats and, in one gory account, being burnt alive - because they had no chance of ever leaving the brothel. Death provided release from poverty, debt and ill health.

One account by Chu Ah Tan, a brothel owner, recounted the desperation experienced by a prostitute struggling with pulmonary tuberculosis and venereal disease. For eight years she smoked opium and injected herself with increasing dosages of morphine. She finally died after an overdose of opium.

"Wong Mau Tan was one of the prostitutes in my brothel... she was coughing a lot and said that she had a cough and headache for two months. Yesterday evening, her maidservant found her in bed, spit was coming from her mouth. I removed her to the hospital, she was conscious up to the last."

A G.R. Lambert & Co. photo of coolies on China Street, 1890s. The street was infamous for its numerous gambling houses. Courtesy of Editions Didier Millet.

An Evening's Entertainment

Why did men in Singapore visit prostitutes? For some, it was all part of business entertainment. Influential Chinese and European elites would arrange to meet in brothels to discuss business first before progressing to the evening's entertainment. And it was not just the rich who thought a visit to a prostitute was normal.

Entreprenuer Choong Keow Chye recalled in his oral history account:

"I was a sinkeh earning about $10 a month. These people who won some money, $80 to $100, in gambling invited me to the brothel... Three to five dollars, or eight to ten dollars would pay for a night's stay with a prostitute."

The women could not keep all this money either: they were expected to pay the brothel owner between 40 and 50 percent of their earnings for rent, secret society protection, food, tailored dresses, loan of jewellery and medical fees.

Beyond the immediate satiation of their sexual urges, many of the thousands of men who sought comfort in the arms of prostitutes did not see marriage in their future. They were too poor and earned too little to even entertain the thought of finding a wife, either in Singapore or back in their hometowns. These men toiled as manual labourers, working as rickshaw pullers, coal shovellers, construction workers and coolies, and led a tough life with little or no means of leisure. Apart from work, these men were lonely and many led a meaningless existence without companionship.

The now demolished Chinese Protectorate building on Havelock Road, c. 1910. The office was first set up in 1877 at a shophouse on North Canal Road under William Pickering, the first Protector of Chinese, to look after the affairs of Singapore's migrant Chinese community. In 1888, the Protectorate established the Po Leung Kuk in another location to help women who had been sold or tricked into prostitution. Courtesy of National Museum of Singapore, National Heritage Board.

Prostitution naturally brought with it a host of social ills. The demand for paid sex was a lucrative source of revenue for brothel owners and especially for the secret societies that controlled the brothels, and hence any threat to this business would have serious consequences. Secret societies frequently fought one another over control of the brothels and the women.

Sex workers were also a conduit for sexually transmitted diseases. This was a problem that pervaded all classes of society. Even the wealthy who patronised the more expensive brothels on Smith Street under the misconception that the women there were more discriminating, and thus safer, were not exempt. These men then - either knowingly or unknowingly - passed on sexually transmitted diseases to their wives and concubines.

Despite the many social problems associated with prostitution, the colonial authorities tolerated and legalised the trade in the early years, partly due to the low female-to-male population ratio in Singapore.

Protecting Girls and Women

The government, however, did help young girls and women who were trafficked into prostitution. This task was initially handled by the Chinese Protectorate, which was set up in 1877 under colonial administrator William Pickering. The Protectorate managed the affairs of the migrant Chinese community.

In 1888, the Protectorate set up a separate body, the Po Leung Kuk, or the Office to Protect Virtue, to help women who had been sold or tricked into prostitution. The Po Leung Kuk also functioned as a halfway house for young girls such as the mui tsai that it helped rescue from abuse.

The mui tsai (literally "little sister" in Cantonese) were girls as young as eight years old who came to Singapore, accompanying a relative or a fellow villager. The girls came to seek a better future through marriage or employment as domestic workers. However, many of these girls ended up being tricked into prostitution, or sold to rich families who might abuse them.

As the mui tsai grew into her teens, her situation could worsen: if she was pretty, she would find herself servicing the sexual needs of the male members in the household; if she were to bear children, she would not be allowed to claim or acknowledge them until her mistress passed away. The Po Leung Kuk rescued these girls, gave them a safe place to live and trained them in useful skills that could help them find decent men to marry or a useful job when they left the Po Leung Kuk.

Another group of young girls who were rescued by the Po Leung Kuk was the pipa tsai. These were girls who were trained to play and sing to the accompaniment of the pipa, a short-necked wooden lute. In brothels and clubs where men gathered, these girls entertained their clients by reciting Chinese poetry and bantering with them. The older among the pipa tsai would be made to sit at tables to accompany men. These girls were paid by the hour and sometimes also provided sexual services.

How did these pipa tsai enter such employment? Like the mui tsai, they had been entrusted by their parents in China to the care of distant relatives in Singapore, the so-called "third or sixth paternal aunt" - sum gu or luk gu - some of whom worked in or even owned entertainment establishments themselves. The pipa tsai could also have been picked out when these "aunts" visited destitute women and their young daughters living in shelters such as temples.

Girls who had been forcibly controlled and detained by these aunts could escape their bondage only after they had outlived their popularity or if they were able to find married men who were willing to buy them out of their pipa-playing employment. The more fortunate girls were rescued by the authorities and taken in by the Po Leung Kuk. But this was a temporary arrangement: the future of these girls depended on whether they could learn new skills and find suitable jobs after leaving the Po Leung Kuk.

The Cabaret Scene

When the glitz and glamour of the 1920s Shanghai nightclub scene spilled over to Singapore, it brought with it the promise of a different life, at least for some of the women who struggled to make a new life for themselves after they had left or broken free from sexual slavery and bondage.

The women who chose to step into Singapore's budding cabaret scene could now take control over their lives. Dancing in a cabaret paid relatively well, and was filled with music, alcohol and laughter. They could doll up and use their feminine wiles to manipulate men, unlike the subservient mui tsai, pipa tsai or brothel worker who had to endure servitude, slavery and indignity.

Five dance hostesses at a cabaret in the 1930s. The women are dressed in figure-hugging cheongsams with daring slide slits that showed off their legs. They were an obvious attraction for men with their artfully applied makeup and coiffured hair-dos. Courtesy of Mr and Mrs Lee Kip Lee.

As cabarets and nightclubs burgeoned in Singapore, women who lacked education or skills were able to seek out more enticing employment opportunities, beyond just prostitution. This is not to say that prostitution disappeared; not everyone had the attributes of a cabaret girl. For those who did not, the flesh trade continued to be an option.

Because of the lowly status of women and the stigma around sex work, the lives of prostitutes in late 19th- and early 20th-century Singapore are typically given scant attention. However, they are an important part of Singapore's social history, as historian James Warren has noted: "Much of the history of Singapore between 1870 and 1940 was in part shaped, and in large measure endured, by prostitutes and coolies."

THE OFFICE TO PROTECT VIRTUE

The Po Leung Kuk was set up in Singapore in 1888, about 10 years after it was first established in Hong Kong. The Po Leung Kuk, or the Office to Protect Virtue, was created to offer protection to girls who had been sold or lured into prostitution.

In Singapore, the Po Leung Kuk also provided protection and assistance for the repatriation of women and girls to China. Its other role was to supply marriage partners to a predominantly male population who did not have the means to find a bride from their village.

In addition to housing girls rescued from prostitution, the Po Leung Kuk took in young female servants known as mui tsai if they had been abused. The Po Leung Kuk also functioned as a "halfway house", offering shelter, food and training to rehabilitate girls. Once the residents turned 18, they were eligible for marriage. All applications made to the Po Leung Kuk by men to select brides were carefully screened and approved by the management committee.

The Po Leung Kuk had its beginnings in Lock Hospital in the Kandang Kerbau area, moving subsequently to larger premises on York Hill in Chinatown which could accommodate as many as 300 residents.

Women who were rescued and rehabilitated by the Po Leung Kuk were sought after as wives as they were trained in domestic service, and acquired skills such as dressmaking and hairdressing that could help supplement their husband's income.

Life for the residents of Po Leung Kuk seemed to be a pleasant one, if a visitor's impression in 1936 is any guide:

"The walls of the main schoolroom which is a large cheerful apartment are gaily decorated with pictures drawn and painted by the pupils themselves. The children are educated in accordance with Chinese custom, and the bigger girls are taught the arts of fine sewing and embroidery. With few exceptions, the girls are all under eighteen, and they appeared so happily carefree that I found it difficult to believe they had ever suffered unkind treatment or neglect."

In Singapore, the Po Leung Kuk's management committee was chaired by the Protector of Chinese and a body of 13 influential Chinese businessmen. The activities of the Po Leung Kuk were supported by government funds and private donations.

Mrs Mabel Winter, the first Lady Assistant Protector of Chinese, passed away on 25 January 1934. Image reproduced from The Straits Times, 26 January 1934, p. 13.

On 1 March 1929, Mrs Mabel Winter was appointed the first Lady Assistant Protector of Chinese. She took over the management of Po Leung Kuk's day-to-day operations and was assisted in her duties by a committee of ladies.

Winter's appointment as Lady Assistant Protector of Chinese was significant as it was the first time a woman had been given such an important post, signifying the serious intent of the British, or at least the Chinese Protectorate, to rescue and rehabilitate women and girls from prostitution and slavery.

Mabel Winter was the wife of Mr H.B. Winter, the proprietor of a well-known tailoring establishment on Battery Road. She had been born in Hong Kong where "she learned to speak Chinese so fluently that the Chinese expressed astonishment at her complete mastery of the language".

She married in Colombo in 1915, where her husband had served in the Fifth Gurkhas regiment.Unfortunately, Winter's time at the Po Leung Kuk was cut short when she died from pneumonia on 25 January 1934 and was buried in Bidadari Cemetery. She was only 42.

To remember her contributions, the Mabel Winter Memorial Shield was set up and given out annually to an outstanding candidate in the Po Leung Kuk who excelled in needlework and cooking and displayed exemplary conduct.

From the 1930s, the number of women and girls admitted to the Po Leung Kuk in Singapore fell. One researcher suggests that this was due to the implementation of the 1930 Women and Girls' Protection Ordinance that outlawed brothels and vice activities. Unfortunately, the legislation sent brothels underground and made it harder to track and rescue women who needed help. In 1932, the Mui Tsai Ordinance was introduced to prohibit the acquisition of mui tsai; this would, in time, also reduce the number of girls that needed to be rescued.

During the Japanese Occupation, the Po Leung Kuk's premises were abandoned and its residents dispersed to several welfare centres. When the British Military Administration took over after the war, the new Department of Social Welfare was set up, and the Po Leung Kuk was closed.

Adeline Foo is a scriptwriter and an adjunct lecturer. Her research interests include women, and societal prejudice and discrimination. She is the researcher and creator of Last Madame, a drama series about the 1930s brothel scene in Singapore. The show debuted in September 2019 on MediaCorp Toggle.

Notes

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Brothels in colonial Singapore, with its large male migrant population, did a roaring trade. Adeline Foo examines the lives of the unfortunate girls and women who were sold into prostitution. A late-19th century portrait of a pipa tsai (Cantonese for "little pipa player"). The pipa, or Chinese lute, is a pear-shaped four-stringed musical instrument made of wood.

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The Malacca Strait, between Malaysia, Singapore and Sumatra, has been a favourite haunt of pirates for over a thousand years.

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Singapore's First Secret Society: The Ghee Hin Kongsi

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DRIVEN BY SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES

The centre's executive director Krishnaswamy Natarajan said the increase in such incidents was driven by a socio-economic situation worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic, lower fish catch due to climate change and the prevailing Southwest monsoon.

He added that this has forced some locals living along the strait to turn to sea robbery and petty crimes to make ends meet.

"The Singapore Strait is one of the major international shipping routes which sees almost 1,000 ships a day ... with an increasing volume of maritime trade as pandemic (restrictions) ease," he told CNA's Singapore Tonight on Friday (Jul 21).

"There are far too many opportunities available for the people in the region who are not economically sound, and who are looking to make a livelihood."

While the incidents were "not alarming" as most fell under petty theft, the continued boarding of ships by perpetrators could lead to more serious situations, he said.

"In a threat situation, there can be a collision of ships in the area because they are manoeuvring so close to each other," said Mr Natarajan. "It could be a dangerous situation which could lead to environmental disaster. (In such circumstances,) there could even be a closure of the strait temporarily until the situation improves."

He said countries around the hotspots are making an effort to ensure the safe navigation of ships and put in place environmental protection measures.

However, he also urged governments to do more and step up law enforcement, enhance surveillance, increase patrols and respond promptly to incidents.

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Rise in sea robbery cases around Singapore Strait driven by socio-economic issues, says piracy report

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Perpetrators usually target ships that are ill-prepared, manoeuvre at slow speed and have low freeboard.

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SINGAPORE - An average of 112 rioting and serious hurt cases have been linked to secret societies in Singapore each year for the past five years and cases involving the use of weapons such as parangs and knuckle dusters have declined over the same period.

There was one case involving weapons last year, down from 12 in 2016, Home Affairs and Law Minister K. Shanmugam said in a written parliamentary reply on Tuesday (Feb 2).

Providing these figures, Mr Shanmugam said that the secret society situation in Singapore is under control.

He was responding to Mr Murali Pillai (Bukit Batok) and Mr Melvin Yong (Radin Mas), who asked about recent trends in gang-related activities following the arrests of 151 people allegedly linked to unlawful societies.

The operation that swept up the 151 alleged gang members between Dec 21 and Jan 3 was part of continuous anti-gang suppression and deterrence efforts by the police, said Mr Shanmugam.

The arrests followed a number of rioting cases in December last year, some of which occurred near entertainment outlets in the city and led to serious injuries.

Mr Shanmugam said secret societies now are largely made up of loosely-organised street gangs and mainly comprise younger members who flit between different groups.

While the number of youths dealt with by the police for secret society-related offences has remained stable in the last five years - with an average of 153 per year - youth gangs remain a serious concern.

The police invest significant resources to educate and engage youths to deter them from joining secret societies, Mr Shanmugam said, citing regular anti-gang talks held in secondary schools. The police also work with the Ministry of Social and Family Development, the Ministry of Education and volunteer welfare organisations to rehabilitate at-risk youths before they become entrenched in the gang mindset.

Against the backdrop of Covid-19 restrictions, which has limited such activities, the police are now looking to enhance their anti-gang outreach efforts online, Mr Shanmugam added.

For example, the police and National Crime Prevention Council organised an online football video game tournament last year for more than 100 youths, who also received anti-gang talks and crime prevention advice as part of the competition.

The police had previously said that the number of arrests for gang-related activities has generally declined over the last decade, from about 1,000 per year in 2012 and 2013 to about 700 per year in 2018 and 2019.

Last year's figure was significantly lower due to Covid-19 movement restrictions.

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Secret society situation in Singapore under control: Shanmugam

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SINGAPORE - An average of 112 rioting and serious hurt cases have been linked to secret societies in Singapore each year for the past five years and cases involving the use of weapons such as parangs and knuckle dusters have declined over the same period.

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1. Why did piracy increase around the Straits of Melaka?

With the opening of SG as a free port after 1819- more trade; more ships, valuable cargo/money on ships which were lucrative for pirates to loot and sell.

Abundant ambush locations like mangrove swamps, narrow waterways, jungles for pirate boats to hide and launch attack on unsuspecting trading ships/boats.

The local people like the Orang Laut depended on piracy for their livelihood. Local chiefs or rulers did not stop piracy as they benefitted from the loot or money the pirates brought back.

The Straits of Melaka narrows near SG (only 1.7km wide), was a chokepoint; ships slowed down and it was easy for pirates to attack.

Monsoon winds or 'pirate winds' brought pirate ships to the Straits of Melaka.

2. Why was it challenging for the British authorities to suppress piracy?

Between 1824-1867, SG was administered by the East India Company (trading company) and India Office/Government in India.

Funds were limited. Little tax collected as SG was a free port and British authorities wanted to increase immigrants, trade and businesses.

Police force was small, no patrol boats to deal with pirates.

Secondly, pirates were 'supported' by local rulers/chiefs whose source of income depended on piracy. It was difficult for the British authorities to suppress piracy if local rulers/chiefs in Malaya 'encouraged' this activity.

There was lack of legal process/system in place to punish pirates.

Situation did improve when SG was transferred to the London Colonial Office. More funding, larger police force and patrol boats. The British authorities used steamships that were equipped with guns to strike the pirates. Number of pirate attacks reduced after 1850s.

3. What are the impacts of piracy on early Singapore?

Less trade: more fearful to travel to SG. Loss of properties and lives.

British authorities had to pressurise local rulers/chiefs to stop their people from piracy otherwise action would be taken against the local rulers/chiefs

British authorities had to spend resources on steamships, police etc to deal with piracy.

Situation was dire to the point that traders pressurised the British authorities to reduce piracy.

4. Is piracy a concern for Singapore today? Why or why not?

Not really. In 2023, there were 59 cases reported.

Piracy along the Straits of Melaka has reduced thanks to stronger law enforcement, strong governments (Malaysia and SG). From SG, the MPA (Maritime and Port of Authority of SG) and Singapore Police Coast Guard ensure safe sea around SG.

Piracy isn't a lucrative activity like in the past. It is more difficult to attack ships as they are bigger and well-equipped.

Attacks tend to be on smaller boats that are low and slow.

Even so, pirates these days attack on the stealth, at night. They are less violent, just want the goods or money. They do not kill if can be helped. People became pirates out of economic hardship.

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On Duty: Secret Societies Branch Officer (SPF)

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1. What is 'brotherhood' in secret societies? Why is brotherhood important?

Bonds, camaraderie, trust and loyalty to one another, sworn allegiance. Helping and supporting one another.

Important because: secret societies' activities were clandestine/illegal/violent. Members needed to cooperate, be trustworthy to carry out activities successfully.

Secondly, many secret societies were created based on dialects or Chinese provinces- the sense of kinship, helping 'own' people.

Thirdly, brotherhood ensured the appeal and survival of the secret societies. If members were disloyal, the secret societies could be destroyed.

2. What strengths or traits did William Pickering, the British protector of the Chinese possess?

Proficient in Chinese language/Chinese dialects. Communicating with the Chinese in SG, he was able to obtain information about the challenges Chinese faced, secret societies activities etc. Able to help them

Understood Chinese culture and history. This allowed him to empathise and build rapport/trust with Chinese.

3. What is/are the difference(s) between the secret societies in the past and present?

Size/numbers: Secret societies in the past were larger, had more members up to tens of thousands. More secret societies as compared to current SG. Today's secret societies have small membership.

Organisation: Secret societies in the past had strict hierarchy. Rituals were emphasised to ensure loyalty and obedience. Mostly Chinese members. The current ones tend to be loosely organised and can be multi-ethnic; open to other ethnic groups.

Activities: In the past more violent/illegal activities. Eg. rioting, fights, robberies, running opium and gambling dens, running brothels, control of 'territories' enabled secret societies to collect protection money from businesses. However, secret societies in the past also promoted economic activities because the heads of the societies were businessmen and community leaders. Current secret societies: crimes are 'petty' in nature, fights, drugs-dealing, possibly less violent although fights can result in deaths.

Popularity/demand: In early SG, Chinese males joined secret societies out of need/support/loneliness or to receive protection. Hence, secret societies played an important role in helping new migrants settle in SG. Today's secret societies are less popular, members tend to be youths.

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Why was prostitution not common in other races like the Malays or the Indian? (good question... i think religion and traditions could play a part, prostitution was frowned upon. also for the Malays, many were already living in Sg or Malaya, the men would have married, had wives so less likely to patronise a brothel or the women to become prostitutes. As for Indians, some came with their wives and families, so less likelihood to patronise brothels. the Chinese men came in large numbers and not many women ventured out to Sg. so lack of women for the Chinese men. lastly, prostitution and brothels were promoted and owned by the secret societies...)

If Singapore wasn’t a free port, would it have become a safer but unpopular port? (it might still be a popular port because the location beat other ports. Singapore was right in the middle of the East and West)

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1. If the British took action prior to the complaints of the locals and traders, would piracy have reduced? Why or why not? (provided the British authorities had the means to do so eg. naval ships, patrolling or severe punishment for pirates arrested, then yes, piracy could be reduced. but the East India Company and British India government did not have the budget)

2. If prostitution was suppressed in early Singapore, how would it change the amount of cases happening and why? (yes, it's possible to reduce the cases if the British authorities meted out harsh punishments for brothel owners or men involved in trafficking women)

3. If coolies were treated fairly and paid good wages while living in fair or good working conditions, would it be possible for them to eventually return to China and prevent many cases of death due to diseases? (yes, it is possible for them to return to China. however, many could not save enough to return early- also they could be sending money regularly, leaving little for themselves in SG. by the time they planned to return, WW II broke out. in the meantime many married and had families in SG, so they had formed roots in SG)

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If human trafficking for prostitution was so common in the past, why didn’t they just make prostitution illegal to stop the trafficking? (the authorities could make it illegal but punishments must be harsh enough to deter and stop trafficking... the British authorities had other priorities.... like keeping law and order or promoting trade. prostitution had its victims, but it didn't affect the stability/security or economy of SG, so i think the British authorities didn't stop this)

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1. Would the coolies be able to return to China with fairly good wages if they were being paid more with good living conditions? (yes, if somehow they made a lot of money and wanted to return to China, they could)

2. Would piracy in Singapore have reduced should the British take more action in curbing piracy prior to the complaints from the traders? (yes, if the British authorities had the means like patrol boats or harsh punishments for pirates arrested, yes, it is possible to curb piracy. but the British authorities had a tight budget initially)

3. Why did the Singapore not increase the wages of the police force so that more men would join the police force and reduce the amount of crimes being committed in Singapore in the past? (i think Dunman did try to increase the wages and even offered pension scheme- a sum of $$ given to policemen who had retired. over the years, the police force did increase...)

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1. How did prostitution establishments contribute to the economy and social fabric of early Singapore? (possibly contributed to taxes for the British government which helped British govt gain money to develop SG. As for social fabric- i think prostitution might help to reduce violence/rapes against women who weren't prostitutes. did prostitution break up families? i think at that time not common. If married men patronised the brothels in the past, it wasn't going to lead to divorce or break-up of marriages as wives in the past tolerated such activities even if the wives didn't like them. such activities were considered a way of life...)

2. How did cultural and societal attitudes towards prostitution evolve over time in Singapore? (i would think that some people; women in particular do not agree or approve of prostitution as prostitution is seen as 'degrading' or 'exploiting' women. others see this as eroding moral values etc. Other concerns would be are these women forced or conned into this? are they exploited? are they underaged? the other would be rise of STDs- how widespread STDs are and how they affect the wives, girlfriends of the men. i think in general people view prostitution negatively; sleazy. but they also know that prostitution exists; can't eradicate. as long brothel activities don't affect them directly or close by)

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How could the British have taken control of the piracy situation, and if they had, would they have made a significant enough impact to stop or reduce piracy? (the British did have naval ships to patrol the seas. the British authorities also warned local rulers not to encourage or harbour pirates. Lastly, British authorities tried to get pirates to pick up other occupations by giving them incentives. Yes, the impact would be significant in reducing piracy. over the years, piracy did decrease)

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How could Singapore make so much money from trading in if piracy was such a big problem in the past? (even if piracy was a threat, traders still flocked to Singapore as its free port, free trade status was irresistible. A lot of money could be made. not only traders had to pass Singapore if they wanted to travel from east to west/west to east), Singapore was a 'collection' point for goods. Many goods were transferred from ship to ship in Singapore. hence, even with piracy, traders took a chance. Sg also earned money through refueling ships, replenishing food/water supplies to ships. repairing ships etc. Singapore also earned money by processing raw materials from Malaya)

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Q1. While the chapter talks a lot about secret societies from the Chinese, did any of the other races of people living in sg back then also have secret societies that were not known as widely at that time? (good question- yes, other races did join Chinese secret societies, but not common as secret societies were formed by the Chinese and targeted the Chinese. there were reports that Malays were recruited into Chinese secret societies. The reason was because many policemen were Malays, the Chinese secret societies needed Malays to help secret societies avoid the police etc. There were Malay secret societies aimed at driving out the British government and immigrants... Other Malays were not keen to join secret societies. As for Indians, there were no known Indian secret societies in the past as many Indians worked for the British government or British companies. Hence they had more stability and financial security. There was less incentive for Indians to join secret societies) Having said that, in modern Singapore there are Malay and Indian secret societies.

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How do police in Singapore identify the members of secret societies?

Members might have tattoos- identify from arms, backs

Using informants

Secret societies had to be registered with the authorities so the British would know who the members were