# data[].attributes.body
Franz Joseph Gall, a German physician, developed the pseudoscientific idea of phrenology in the late 18th century. It was suggested that certain brain regions could be linked to particular personality traits and cognitive abilities, and that the shape of the skull could predict this. Charles Darwin and Harriet Martineau were only two of the notable intellectuals and scientists who supported phrenology as it gained prominence throughout the 19th century. . It eventually lost popularity, though, as scientific studies refuted its assertions, and is now generally regarded as a discredited and out-of-date belief.1,2

Sources:

(1) Gould, S. J. (1981). The Mismeasure of Man. W. W. Norton & Company.

(2) Young, P. T. (2009). Franz Joseph Gall and phrenology. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 80(12), 1408-1409. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2008.172031

# data[].attributes.body
The ideal instructor for the phrenology exhibit would be George Combe, a Scottish lawyer and author who was instrumental in popularizing the discipline in the 19th century.¹ Combe lectured on the subject all over Europe and the US after writing "The Constitution of Man," a landmark work in phrenology. He lived from 1788 to 1858, in the middle of the 19th century, when phrenology was becoming more and more well-liked.2 Combe's participation in the movement was essential because he was a well-known individual and was crucial in spreading the phrenological ideas. His publications and lectures were available to the general public, and he corresponded with other significant personalities of the time including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Charles Darwin, which increased his influence.1 Therefore, Combe's expertise and contribution to the field would make him the ideal docent for the phrenology exhibit.

Sources:

(1) Clark, W. E. (2017). George Combe, phrenology, and the science of mind. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 26(3), 231-247. doi: 10.1080/0964704x.2016.1216736

(2)Combe, G. (1854). The constitution of man considered in relation to external objects. Edinburgh: Maclachlan, Stewart, & Co.

# data[].attributes.body
Wet plaster strips were used to build replicas of the skull from casts of the subjects' heads used to create phrenology busts.⁴ This procedure happened in the 19th century, a time when phrenology was a well-liked subject of study. The resulting plaster busts had elaborate marks that were thought to represent where various mental abilities were thought to be located in the brain according to phrenology.² These busts were kept in phrenology museums and used to instruct practitioners. Phrenology busts are still valuable collectibles today and occasionally used as ornaments.³

Sources:

(1) Largent, M. A. (2004). The anatomy of the normal and abnormal: The rise and fall of phrenology. Endeavour, 28(2), 62-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.endeavour.2004.02.005

(2) Novella, S. (2008). Phrenology: History of a pseudoscience. The Neurologist, 14(6), 369-376. https://doi.org/10.1097/NRL.0b013e318187de3c

(3)"Phrenology." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2023. https://www.britannica.com/science/phrenology

(4)"Phrenology Bust." The Met. Metropolitan Museum of Art, n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2023. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/204373

# data[].attributes.body
The "Handbook and Outline of Phrenology" by J.G. Spurzheim is an extensive reference work on the ideas and methods of phrenology. The book, which was published in 1827, discusses phrenology's history, the anatomy of the brain, and techniques for interpreting the size and shape of the skull. Spurzheim also discusses the various mental faculties that are thought to be distributed throughout the brain, as well as how phrenological analysis can be used to test and evaluate these faculties.¹ The book has a ton of phrenology bust pictures, charts, and diagrams to assist readers comprehend the ideas given. Despite phrenology's prominence in the early 19th century, it started to lose credibility as psychology and the functioning of the brain became better understood thanks to scientific advancements.¹ The "Handbook and Outline of Phrenology" is still regarded as a crucial historical source in the development of neuroscience and psychology.¹

Source:

Harwood, B. (1996). The use of phrenology in the Victorian East End: A study of the impact of science on Victorian popular culture. The British Journal for the History of Science, 29(2), 139-159. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007087400031454

# data[].attributes.body
Although phrenology has lost its credibility, the discipline did significantly contribute to the advancement of contemporary neuroscience. The work of phrenologists, who were among the first to acknowledge the significance of the brain in comprehending human behavior, contributed to the advancement of methodologies for examining brain activity.2 They also contributed to the theories of brain lateralization and function localization, which are still significant fields of neuroscience research today. The study of phrenology also paved the way for future research in this area by popularizing the notion that the brain is the seat of the mind and that various mental activities are connected to particular regions of the brain. 1

Sources:

(1) Finger, S. (2001). Minds Behind the Brain: A History of the Pioneers and Their Discoveries. Oxford University Press.

(2)Largent, M. A. (2014). The Rise and Fall of Phrenology: The History of an Idea. The Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 23(3), 251-267. https://doi.org/10.1080/0964704X.2013.858676

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The .gov means it's official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site.

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Abstract

The history of phrenology in France has a number of unique features. It was in that country that F. J. Gall sought refuge; and it was, above all, in France that phrenology would subsequently attempt to establish its credentials as a new physiological science of the mind. Up until the 1840s, phrenology expanded rapidly in the country, a growth that coincided with attempts to provide this new field with the trappings of respectable scientific endeavor-courses of lectures, learned societies, journals, and so on. This ambitious intellectual project, despite its controversial nature, made a major cultural impact in the nineteenth century, both through its influence on the written word-from learned journals to the novel-and via its striking visual imagery (sculpture, anatomical diagrams and models, engravings, caricatures, and so on). However, as the scientific impact of phrenology declined, allusions to it lost much of their cultural force. On the borderline between respectable science and mere quackery, phrenology in France represented an attempt to construct a whole new intellectual universe based on scientific principles, and as such had a profound impact on its period.

Keywords: Dumoutier; France; Gall; Paris; collection; criminology; phrenological museum; physical anthropology.

Similar articles

Phrenology and the neurosciences: contributions of F. J. Gall and J. G. Spurzheim.

Simpson D. Simpson D. ANZ J Surg. 2005 Jun;75(6):475-82. doi: 10.1111/j.1445-2197.2005.03426.x. ANZ J Surg. 2005. PMID: 15943741

The phrenological illustrations of George Cruickshank (1792-1878): A satire on phrenology or human nature?

Russell GA. Russell GA. J Hist Neurosci. 2020 Jan-Mar;29(1):119-149. doi: 10.1080/0964704X.2019.1695455. Epub 2019 Dec 31. J Hist Neurosci. 2020. PMID: 31891284

Phrenology in the science and culture of the 19th century.

Greenblatt SH. Greenblatt SH. Neurosurgery. 1995 Oct;37(4):790-804; discussion 804-5. doi: 10.1227/00006123-199510000-00025. Neurosurgery. 1995. PMID: 8559310

Localization of brain function: the legacy of Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828).

Zola-Morgan S. Zola-Morgan S. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1995;18:359-83. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.002043. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1995. PMID: 7605066 Review. No abstract available.

Johann Gaspar Spurzheim: A Life Dedicated to Phrenology.

Bilal M, Edwards B, Loukas M, Oskouian RJ, Tubbs RS. Bilal M, et al. Cureus. 2017 May 30;9(5):e1295. doi: 10.7759/cureus.1295. Cureus. 2017. PMID: 28680783 Free PMC article. Review.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
national center for biotechnology information

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Matter over mind? The rise and fall of phrenology in nineteenth-century France - PubMed

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The history of phrenology in France has a number of unique features. It was in that country that F. J. Gall sought refuge; and it was, above all, in France that phrenology would subsequently attempt to establish its credentials as a new physiological science of the mind. Up until the 1840s, phrenolo ...

# data[].attributes.body
An academic journal devoted to phrenology research was called the American Phrenological Journal. It was the main source of knowledge on phrenology in the United States when it was first published in 1838. The journal's articles covered a range of phrenology-related subjects and were published on a monthly basis.¹ They included case studies, analyses of other phrenological publications, and research findings. During the 19th century, the American Phrenological Journal was crucial to the development and spread of phrenology in the country.²

Source:

(1) Fancher, R. E. (1998). The rise and fall of phrenology in the United States: 1820-1840. The Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 34(2), 153-169. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6696(199821)34:2<153::AID-JHBS3>3.0.CO;2-C

(2) Kidd, I. J. (2014). The rise and fall of American phrenology: New light on the old pseudoscience. História, Ciências, Saúde-Manguinhos, 21(4), 1331-1351. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-59702014000400009

# data[].attributes.body
In order to advance the study of phrenology, a collection of phrenological artifacts known as the Phrenological Cabinet was shown in the middle of the 19th century. The cabinet had a range of objects, including skulls, casts, busts, and charts, that were meant to illustrate the various brain regions and their purportedly associated mental faculties.1 The cabinet was especially well-liked in museums and exhibitions where it was used to instruct and amuse visitors. The Phrenological Cabinet contributed to the increased popularization of the study of the brain and its activities.1 Phrenology was a contentious discipline.

Source:  Lears, T. J. J. (1985). From salvation to self-realization: Advertising and the therapeutic roots of the consumer culture, 1880-1930. The Journal of American History, 72(2), 388-410. https://doi.org/10.2307/1903572