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The Kingdom of Mali was a powerful empire in West Africa that began in the 1200s. It became rich and important by controlling trade in gold and salt across the Sahara Desert. One of its most famous rulers was Mansa Musa, who is remembered for his great wealth and his journey to Mecca. The empire was also known for learning and culture, with the city of Timbuktu becoming a center of education. Mali’s influence helped shape West African history and left a lasting legacy.

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in 1299, Coxcoxtli, the king of the Culhua in Culhuacan allowed the Mexica to settle on barren lands, and be the servants of the Altepetl (City State.) The Culhua were an ancient and powerful tribe, and they did not allow the Mexica to worship their own Gods, nor keep their dignity. The Mexica however were resilient, and in 1323 Coxcoxtli promised that they could build a temple for themselves, (a trick he had planned to further humiliate the Chichimec people.) An eagle landed atop the temple where a ceremony was taking place, symbolically representing a divine protection of the Mexica people and seeing that the people could not be defeated or tricked he banished them to become wanderers again.

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Late 1200s: Tension in Tula, the Toltec Capital 

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Late 1200s: Tension in Tula, the Toltec Capital 

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While the Ancient city of Tula did exist, it is unlikely that the Mexica spent much time there. They did however celebrate the Toltec people who built Tula, and the city is mentioned as an almost mythical place representing the first time that the Mexica people broke an alliance in the late 1200s, and left society as outcasts.

In one story, while in 'Tula' the Chichimec tragically broke a truce with the Nonohualca people after a man taken in by the Chichimec sacrificed 4 Nonohualco women. The Nonohualco blamed the Chichimec and made war on them, but both parties soon decided that it was the fault of the man who had killed the women. Too many had already died however, and the two peoples broke ties the same day, leaving Tula to become wanderers again.

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1428: Triple Alliance - the Triumvirate 

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1428: Triple Alliance - the Triumvirate 

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After the death of King Tezozomoc in 1426, King Itzcoatl decided to make strategic alliances to secure power for Tenochtitlan in the Mexico Valley. The Alcohua people in the Altepetl (City State) Texcoco had previously been dependent on the Altepetl Azcapotzalco, however they were ready to overthrow the Tepenec rule, and allied themselves with the Tenochtitlan. In another Altepetl called Tlacopan, a royal family ousted from the Tepenec line in Azcapotzalco were also ready to overthrow power in the Valley, and entered into an alliance with Tenochtitlan and Texcoco. Together, the three Altepetls defeated the New Tepenec king Maxtla in Azcapotzalco, and took control of the Valley with Tenochtitlan as the capital. The Mexica finally had stability and authority, and began to build their empire. (The Aztec Empire.)

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Villa de Cortés, Mexico City, CDMX, Mexico

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The Mexica, descendent from the Chichimec, were a nomadic tribe within the Nahua linguistic family. During their travels, an eagle landed at their campsite in the place of Tenochtitlan and they decided to permanently settle - there there was an island in the middle of a marshy lake with plenty of prickly pear and water fowl. They learned quickly from nearby towns and cities and built Chinampas (floating gardens) and were able to sustain themselves from this, as well as the waterfowl, algae and lake creatures that were there.

It was here that the Great Aztec empire would be built (modern day Mexico City.)The Mexica, with their own land, were finally able to thrive and soon they had Tlatoani (King) who was recognized by other kings in the area as the spokesperson for the new Altepetl (city state.)

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late 1200s / early 1300s: Arrival of the Chichimec 

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late 1200s / early 1300s: Arrival of the Chichimec 

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Teotihuacan was a powerful city state that rose in the 300s CE - it rose to tremendous heights of power that were known to all in the land for centuries going forward, and boasted tall pyramids with colorful buildings, a complex city layout and a massive population. Teotihuacan was also the beleieved place where Nanahuatzin sacrificed himself to become the Fifth Sun.

The fall of Teotihuacan in 750 CE created a power vacuum, and Nomadic peoples like the Chichimec began arriving in the region. The Mexica people are descendants of the Chichimec warriors, however their arrival into the valley was late, meaning that the political and social power of the Mexico Valley was already held and defended by other tribes and Altepetls (City States.) This left the Chichemec reliant on alliances with other Altepetls, and they were often forced to travels as alliances broke and enemies were made. They were also unable to establish their own society, and had to fit themselves into the social and political frameworks of other communities.

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1428: Fall of Azcapotzalco, the Tepenec City State. 

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1428: Fall of Azcapotzalco, the Tepenec City State. 

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Although the Mexica had established themselves as an Atlepetl (City State,) they were still weak and under the authority of another, more ancient Nahu people who had settled the valley much earlier called the Tepenec. Their Altepetl was called Azcapotzalco, and it was ruled by King Tezozomoc (ruled from 1370 - 1426.) His death created a power vacuum, that the Mexica people in Tenochtitlan took advantage of. They along with other allied Atlepetls defeated the Tepenec king's son Maxtla, and took control of the Valley of Mexico.

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Northwest Mexico (Approximate starting point)

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According to Aztec legend, the Mexica people (later known as Aztecs) began their migration from their mythical homeland of Aztlán, the place of the Seven Caves around 1250 CE. Led by their god Huitzilopochtli, they wandered for decades in search of a promised sign - an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak. During this migration period, they developed their identity as fierce warriors and began to establish their unique cultural practices.

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Historic center of Mexico City, Centro, Mexico City, CDMX, Mexico

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1450 - 1520: Tenochtitlan, center of an Empire

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1450 - 1520: Tenochtitlan, center of an Empire

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The Triumvirate (Tenochtitlan, Texcoco & Tlacopan) worked together to control the valley, and while each maintained their own government and way of life as they had before, they worked together to secure the land surrounding them and to increase their territory. As their empires grew many villages and ethnic groups found themselves under the authority of Tenochtitlan (the Mexica were the largest and strongest ethnic group in the Valley.) They were forced to pay tribute in metal, food, resources and people.

Tenochtitlan, the Mexica capital, was built on an island in Lake Texcoco and connected to the mainland by three wide causeways with bridges that allowed canoe traffic and defense. At its center stood the sacred precinct with the Templo Mayor, palaces, temples, and schools. Surrounding this, the city was divided into four districts made up of calpulli, or neighborhoods, where commoners lived in adobe houses and nobles in larger stone homes. Canals ran throughout, making travel by canoe common. The great market at Tlatelolco (North side of the Island,) drew tens of thousands daily, trading food, tools, textiles, and luxury goods. The King's palace held gardens, aviaries, and a zoo with jaguars, monkeys, and exotic birds. Aqueducts brought fresh water from Chapultepec (Springs,) while floating gardens, supplied crops.

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Uxmal was a major Maya city in present-day Mexico that flourished between 600 and 900 CE with a population of about 20,000–25,000. Although the region had fertile soil and seasonal rains, it lacked natural water sources, so the Maya built underground reservoirs called chultuns to collect rainwater. Artifacts from these chultuns show that Uxmal was not only a royal and religious center but also home to everyday domestic life, including corn grinding with stone tools still used in the Yucatán today. Archaeology reveals people lived there as early as 300 BCE, and over centuries the city grew from wood and thatch houses into one filled with stone pyramids and temples. The main pyramid was rebuilt in stages, reflecting advances in technology and society, and pyramids symbolized the sacred mountain tied to Maya creation myths. Trade and political influence connected Uxmal to distant regions, as seen in finds of jade, obsidian, metal, and carvings of quetzal birds. Maya buildings used the distinctive Maya arch, symbolizing the sun’s path, and upside-down T–shaped doorways that represented the underworld. Carvings and symbols across the city depicted gods like Itsamná and Kukulkan, celestial cycles, and dualities such as life and death, shown through paired red and black handprints. Even the city’s layout reflected belief systems, with temples on the highest ground, houses in the middle, and the ball court—linked to underworld rituals—at the lowest point.

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Palenque

200 CE - 850 CE

Population: 8,000 - 10,000

Palenque, known in the Maya language as Lakamha, meaning “Place of Great Waters,” was one of the most important Maya cities in ancient Mesoamerica. It was located in a region called Ba’akal, meaning "Bone." Ceramic remains show people lived there as early as 300 BCE, and the city began to develop around 200 CE. It flourished around 600 CE, when it became a major urban and cultural center. By 850 CE, evidence shows that the population began to disperse, possibly due to political instability or environmental changes.

Palenque was a powerful ally of the Maya city-state Tikal, and a rival of Calakmul, another major Maya power. In the 7th century CE, Palenque was ruled by one of its most famous kings: K’inich Janaab Pakal I. He and his family were great supporters of the arts and religion. Under their leadership, Palenque became known for its impressive architecture, beautiful carvings, and deep spiritual meaning. The presence of public water systems like aqueducts further supports that Palenque was home to a large, organized population (Fig 1.)

At Palenque, the three temples were each dedicated to a different god and represented spiritual paths to Xibalba, the Maya underworld. The king had to symbolically journey to Xibalba and return with blessings of life and prosperity for his people. In the Temple of the Cross, we see the god Chan-Bahlum facing God L of the Underworld. Behind him, a text records the three-day dedication of the temples on July 23, 690. (Fig 2.) The Temple also shows a symbol of cosmic power; a cross-shaped World Tree with a Celestial Bird at the top and a Serpent Bar of kingship. This tree represents the center of the universe. The king was seen as this cosmic center, acting as both the main ritual leader and the connection between the human world and the gods (Fig 3.)

One of the most famous tombs found in Palenque is that of Lady Tz’akbu Ajaw, also known as the Red Queen. She was buried in Temple XIII, inside a beautifully carved limestone sarcophagus. Her body was covered in cinnabar, a bright red mineral symbolizing rebirth and the rising sun coming out of Xibalba, the Maya underworld (Fig 4.) Her face was covered with a malachite mask with eyes made of limestone and obsidian, giving the impression that she was still watching from the afterlife (Fig 5.) Lady Tz’akbu Ajaw’s tomb also contained two other individuals who were sacrificed to serve her in the next life. These sacrifices were done in private.

The tomb of King Pakal is just as impressive. He was buried in the Temple of the Inscriptions, a pyramid with nine levels, symbolizing the nine layers of the underworld. Inside, The relief carved on his tomb depicts the king as the Young Maize lord lying on his back representing him as a child of Xmucane and Xpiyacoc, the holy Grandmothers and Grandfathers responsible for creating human life. He lies at the base of a Ceiba tree which represents with its branches the 13 layers of the underworld, and beneath the tree are upside down figures, representing the underworld Xibalba. Above all of this sits a bird representing Itsamná, the revered Lord father of the Gods (Fig 6.) The temple that houses his tomb has 67 steps, representing each year of his reign. At the top is a stone building designed to look like a traditional wood-and-thatch Maya house, linking royalty and the gods to everyday life.

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The Almohad Caliphate was a Muslim empire founded by Berber peoples in the 12th century, ruling from North Africa into Spain until 1269. Their political system was hierarchical, often enforcing strict Islamic laws on all religious groups, while also maintaining ties with neighboring Christian empires through both trade and conflict. Marrakesh, Fez, and Seville became important centers of power, learning, and commerce, supported by trade in gold, slaves, and goods. The Almohads were known for major accomplishments in architecture, military expansion, and the development of science, mathematics, and astronomy. Thinkers such as Ibn Rushd and Ibn Zuhr advanced philosophy, medicine, and learning, leaving a legacy that influenced later generations. While their empire expanded rapidly under Abd al-Mu’min and his successors, they began to decline after defeats in the early 13th century, eventually falling to the Marinids. Despite their collapse, many of their discoveries and cultural contributions endured for centuries, shaping developments in Europe and beyond. Overall, the Almohads were a powerful and innovative empire whose influence is still recognized in history today.

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The Mamluk Sultanate ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517, beginning with Sultan Aybak and reaching great power under leaders like Baybars and al-Malik al-Nasir. Originally slave soldiers, the Mamluks built a unique system where freed men could rise to high military and political positions, even becoming sultans. Their political structure relied on emirs and sultans who enforced Islamic law while prioritizing Sunni Islam, though Christians and Jews faced restrictions. The Mamluks were famous for their military strength, especially defeating the Mongols at the Battle of Ayn Jalut, which protected Egypt and the Islamic world from invasion. They also controlled major trade routes, including the spice trade, which made them wealthy and connected to powers like Genoa and Ceylon. Culturally and scientifically, they advanced mathematics, astronomy, and medicine—improving algebra and geometry, creating astronomical tables, and producing medical discoveries like Ibn al-Nafis’s theory of blood circulation. They also built one of the first major public hospitals, supported scholars, and contributed to architecture and art. Though eventually defeated by the Ottomans, the Mamluks left a lasting legacy in politics, science, trade, and culture.

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the Nasrid Emirate of Granada (1238-1492) 

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the Nasrid Emirate of Granada (1238-1492) 

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The Nasrid Emirate of Granada, founded in 1238 by Muhammed ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr, was the last Muslim power in Europe and lasted until 1492. Located near the Strait of Gibraltar, it became a wealthy and influential state through trade with Africa, the Mamluks, the Ottomans, and Italian merchants, while also clashing with the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. Its political structure was monarchical, with Muslims as the dominant group, Jews granted protected status, and Christians living as a minority under Islamic rule. The empire became a cultural and intellectual hub, attracting scholars in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and literature, while also producing great works of art, poetry, and architecture. The Alhambra palace remains its most famous achievement, symbolizing Granada’s sophistication and geometric artistry. Agriculture, science, and technology flourished, with advances in sundials, algebra, irrigation, and medical knowledge. Despite internal struggles and reliance on shifting alliances, Granada maintained a diverse society where multiple cultures and traditions coexisted. Its fall in 1492 marked the end of Muslim rule in Iberia, but its legacy in science, culture, and architecture endures today.

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The Delhi Sultanate was a powerful Muslim empire that ruled much of the Indian subcontinent from 1206 to 1526. It was made up of five successive dynasties of Turkic and Afghan origin, with Delhi as its political and cultural center. The sultans maintained a strong military, using gunpowder weapons and fortresses to defend against Mongol invasions while expanding their territory across India. The empire thrived on trade, creating major hubs that connected India to global markets in food, textiles, jewels, and other goods, though these networks also drew in rival powers. Its society blended Persian and Indian traditions, producing advances in administration, agriculture, textiles, and especially architecture, with the introduction of domes and arches. While Muslims held the highest status, non-Muslims often faced restrictions, such as paying special taxes, though diverse communities still lived within the empire. The Delhi Sultanate also made intellectual contributions in fields like mathematics, science, and art, influencing later cultures and empires. Though it eventually fell to Babur and the Mughals in the 16th century, its legacy in politics, architecture, and culture remained significant in South Asia.

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The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I in the early 1300s and lasted for more than 600 years, with power passed down through his male descendants. Through military strength and strategic conquests, including Mehmed II’s capture of Constantinople, the Ottomans expanded their empire and absorbed political, cultural, and economic systems from Byzantium and neighboring societies. The empire controlled key trade routes like the Silk Road, connecting Europe and Asia, and became a major supplier of goods to Europe, though trade imbalances sometimes weakened its economy. Education played a central role, beginning in mosques and later expanding to primary schools and colleges where scholars taught astronomy, mathematics, medicine, science, and literature. Advances included new instruments for timekeeping, complex math theorems, medical practices, telescopes, and firearms, making the Ottomans highly advanced for their time. Society was diverse, with Muslims, Christians, and others contributing to administration and culture, while women held certain legal rights and independence. Under Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire reached its peak, becoming one of the most powerful and culturally influential states in the world. Though it eventually fell after World War I, the Ottoman legacy continues to shape modern Turkey and global history.

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The Ayyubid Dynasty was founded in 1171 by Saladin, one of the most influential Muslim leaders in history, who united Muslim forces and reconquered Jerusalem during the Crusades. The empire ruled over Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Yemen, and North Africa, with sultans at the top of the social hierarchy and family members governing different regions. Although Sunni Islam was the official religion, Christian and Jewish communities were allowed to live and practice their faith if they paid special taxes. The Ayyubids strengthened their empire by building mosques, madrasas, citadels, libraries, and hospitals, including Cairo’s citadel and the defenses of Aleppo. They contributed to advancements in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and literature, creating maps, calendars, and medical institutions that influenced later generations. Trade also flourished under their rule, as they exchanged goods with India and Europe, spreading the culture and products of Asia across the Mediterranean. Women played important roles in politics, education, architecture, and even warfare, reflecting the dynasty’s complex society. Overall, the Ayyubid Dynasty left a lasting legacy through its military victories, cultural achievements, and contributions to science and medicine.

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The Ghana Empire, often called the “Land of Gold,” was founded around the 6th century CE in West Africa and lasted until the 13th century. Its rulers controlled a powerful kingdom located between the Sahara Desert and the forests of West Africa, making it a key center for trade across the region. The empire became wealthy by taxing and trading gold, salt, ivory, and other goods, which linked it to North Africa, the Mediterranean, and beyond. The king, known as the Ghana, was at the top of the social hierarchy and relied on officials and nobles to manage the empire’s administration and military. Although many people practiced traditional African religions, Islam spread through trade and contact with Muslim merchants, creating a diverse religious society. The empire’s prosperity supported advancements in ironworking, farming, and architecture, including the building of stone towns and markets. Ghana’s strength came from its organized army and control of trade routes, but pressures from the Almoravids, internal struggles, and shifting trade eventually led to its decline. Despite its fall, the Ghana Empire left a lasting legacy as one of the first great West African trading states and laid the foundation for later empires like Mali.

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1271-1295: Marco Polo's Journey to Khanbaliq (Beijing)

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1271-1295: Marco Polo's Journey to Khanbaliq (Beijing)

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Young Venetian merchant Marco Polo traveled with his father and uncle along the Silk Road to reach the court of Kublai Khan in Khanbaliq (modern Beijing). His 24-year journey introduced Europeans to Asian luxuries like silk, spices, and porcelain. His detailed accounts in 'The Travels of Marco Polo' inspired future explorers and increased European interest in Asian trade. Marco Polo traveled from Venice across the Middle East and Central Asia along the Silk Road, eventually reaching China, where he served at the court of Kublai Khan. His journey took him through regions of Persia, the Pamir Mountains, and Mongolia, and later to parts of Southeast Asia, including Burma, Vietnam, and Sumatra. On his return, he sailed across the Indian Ocean and through the Persian Gulf, bringing back detailed accounts that connected Europe to the wider world of Asia for the first time.

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1325-1354: Ibn Battuta's Pilgrimage and Trading Journey to Mecca

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1325-1354: Ibn Battuta's Pilgrimage and Trading Journey to Mecca

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The Moroccan scholar and traveler Ibn Battuta began his famous journey with a pilgrimage to Mecca, but continued traveling for nearly 30 years. He covered over 75,000 miles across Africa, the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia, documenting the extensive Islamic trade networks. His travels show how trade routes connected Muslim communities from Spain to China.

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1405-1433: Zheng He's Treasure Fleet Voyages from Nanjing

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1405-1433: Zheng He's Treasure Fleet Voyages from Nanjing

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Chinese Admiral Zheng He led seven massive naval expeditions from Nanjing, commanding fleets of up to 300 ships and 30,000 crew members. These 'treasure ships' established Chinese trade dominance in the Indian Ocean, reaching Southeast Asia, India, the Persian Gulf, and the eastern coast of Africa. The voyages demonstrated Ming China's naval power and expanded maritime trade networks.

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1300s-1500s: Constantinople - Gateway Between East and West

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1300s-1500s: Constantinople - Gateway Between East and West

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Constantinople (modern Istanbul) served as the crucial link between European and Asian trade networks. Controlled by the Byzantine Empire until 1453, then by the Ottoman Empire, this city taxed goods flowing between Europe and Asia. Merchants traded spices, silk, precious stones, and other luxury goods here. The Ottoman control of this route motivated Europeans to seek alternative sea routes to Asia.

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1400s-1500s: Malacca - Spice Trade Capital of Southeast Asia

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1400s-1500s: Malacca - Spice Trade Capital of Southeast Asia

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The port city of Malacca became the most important trading hub in Southeast Asia, controlling the strategic Strait of Malacca. Merchants from China, India, the Middle East, and eventually Europe gathered here to trade spices, textiles, precious metals, and other goods. The city's wealth came from taxing ships passing through this narrow waterway that connected the Indian Ocean and South China Sea.

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1300s-1500s: Samarkand - Silk Road Trading Center

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1300s-1500s: Samarkand - Silk Road Trading Center

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Samarkand flourished as one of the most important cities along the Silk Road during this period, especially under the rule of Timur (Tamerlane) and his successors. Located in present-day Uzbekistan, the city was a major center for trading silk, precious stones, metals, and spices between East and West. Its famous Registan square hosted merchants from across Eurasia.

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1400s-1500s: Calicut - Pepper Port of the Indian Ocean

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1400s-1500s: Calicut - Pepper Port of the Indian Ocean

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During the medieval period, Calicut (modern Kozhikode, India) was one of the most prosperous ports on the Indian Ocean trade network. Located on the Malabar Coast, it became a major center for the exchange of spices, especially black pepper, along with textiles, precious stones, and aromatics. Merchants from Arabia, East Africa, China, and Southeast Asia converged there to trade goods carried by the seasonal monsoon winds. The city’s rulers, the Zamorins, encouraged commerce by maintaining a safe and open port for foreign traders. Calicut’s thriving markets made it a vital link between Asian, African, and later European trade networks, symbolizing the cosmopolitan nature of Indian Ocean commerce in the Middle Ages.

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1300s-1500s: Tripoli - Hub of Trans-Saharan and Red Sea Trade

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1300s-1500s: Tripoli - Hub of Trans-Saharan and Red Sea Trade

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Tripoli served as an important trading hub on the North African coast, connecting the Trans-Saharan trade routes with Mediterranean and Middle Eastern markets. Goods such as gold, salt, and enslaved people from sub-Saharan Africa were exchanged for textiles, glassware, and spices brought by Mediterranean merchants. The city’s strategic coastal location made it a key stop for caravans arriving from the Sahara and for ships sailing between North Africa, Europe, and the Middle East. Tripoli prospered from taxing and facilitating trade, acting as a gateway where African inland commerce met the wider networks of the Islamic and Mediterranean worlds.

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1400s: Timbuktu - Gold and Salt Trading Center

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1400s: Timbuktu - Gold and Salt Trading Center

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Timbuktu reached its golden age as a major trading post in the trans-Saharan trade network. Located on the Niger River bend, it was perfectly positioned to control trade between North and West Africa. Merchants traded West African gold and salt for Mediterranean goods, horses, and textiles. The city also became a center of Islamic learning, attracting scholars from across the Muslim world.

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During the late Middle Ages, Antwerp emerged as one of Europe’s most dynamic trading hubs. Located along the Scheldt River in present-day Belgium, it became a crucial meeting point between southern luxury goods and northern raw materials. Merchants from Italy and the Mediterranean brought silks, spices, and other fine goods northward, while traders from the North Sea and Baltic regions supplied wool, timber, furs, and metals.