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Industrial Revolution In the United States (1780-1830)

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Industrial Revolution In the United States (1780-1830)

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The Industrial Revolution was a period of scientific and technological development in the 18th century that transformed largely rural, agrarian societies especially in Europe and North America into industrialized, urban ones. Goods that had once been painstakingly crafted by hand started to be produced in mass quantities by machines in factories, thanks to the introduction of new machines and techniques in textiles, iron making and other industries.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/industrial-revolution.asp#:~:text=The%20American%20Industrial%20Revolution%2C%20sometimes,%2C%20the%20automobile%2C%20and%20airplanes.

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American dental surgeon who in 1846 gave the first successful public demonstration of ether anesthesia during surgery. He is credited with gaining the medical world’s acceptance of surgical anesthesia. This allowed other surgeons to see that this is effective.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Thomas-Green-Morton

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The first woman in America to receive a medical degree, Elizabeth Blackwell championed the participation of women in the medical profession and ultimately opened her own medical college for women. Back then women couldn't work or have an education and this opened opportunities for women

https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/elizabeth-blackwell

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The first woman in America to receive a medical degree, Elizabeth Blackwell championed the participation of women in the medical profession and ultimately opened her own medical college for women. Discover her story on womenshistory.org.

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Pasteur’s contributions to science, technology, and medicine are near without precedent. He pioneered the study of molecular asymmetry; discovered that microorganisms cause fermentation and disease; originated the process of pasteurization; saved the beer, wine, and silk industries in France; and developed vaccines against anthrax and rabies. This help cure the diseases

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-Pasteur

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What did Louis Pasteur discover?

What did Louis Pasteur invent?

What was Louis Pasteur's family like?

Louis Pasteur (born December 27, 1822, Dole, France-died September 28, 1895, Saint-Cloud) French chemist and microbiologist who was one of the most important founders of medical microbiology. Pasteur's contributions to science, technology, and medicine are nearly without precedent. He pioneered the study of molecular asymmetry; discovered that microorganisms cause fermentation and disease; originated the process of pasteurization; saved the beer, wine, and silk industries in France; and developed vaccines against anthrax and rabies.

Pasteur's academic positions were numerous, and his scientific accomplishments earned him France's highest decoration, the Legion of Honour, as well as election to the Académie des Sciences and many other distinctions. Today there are some 30 institutes and an impressive number of hospitals, schools, buildings, and streets that bear his name-a set of honours bestowed on few scientists.

Early education

Pasteur's father, Jean-Joseph Pasteur, was a tanner and a sergeant major decorated with the Legion of Honour during the Napoleonic Wars. This fact probably instilled in the younger Pasteur the strong patriotism that later was a defining element of his character. Louis Pasteur was an average student in his early years, but he was gifted in drawing and painting. His pastels and portraits of his parents and friends, made when he was 15, were later kept in the museum of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. After attending primary school in Arbois, where his family had moved, and secondary school in nearby Besançon, he earned his bachelor of arts degree (1840) and bachelor of science degree (1842) at the Royal College of Besançon.

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Louis Pasteur | Biography, Inventions, Achievements, Germ Theory, & Facts

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Louis Pasteur, French chemist who was one of the most important founders of medical microbiology. Pasteur's contributions to science, technology, and medicine are nearly without precedent. His accomplishments earned him France's highest decoration, the Legion of Honour. Learn about his life and discoveries.

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British surgeon and medical scientist who was the founder of antiseptic medicine and a pioneer in preventive medicine. While his method, based on the use of antiseptics, is no longer employed, his principle that bacteria must never gain entry into an operation wound remains the basis of surgery to this day. He was made a baronet in 1883 and raised to the peerage in 1897.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Lister-Baron-Lister-of-Lyme-Regis

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Joseph Lister, (born April 5, 1827, Upton, Essex, England-died February 10, 1912, Walmer, Kent), British surgeon and medical scientist who was the founder of antiseptic medicine and a pioneer in preventive medicine. While his method, based on the use of antiseptics, is no longer employed, his principle-that bacteria must never gain entry into an operation wound-remains the basis of surgery to this day. He was made a baronet in 1883 and raised to the peerage in 1897.

Education

Lister was the second son of Joseph Jackson Lister and his wife, Isabella Harris, members of the Society of Friends, or Quakers. J.J. Lister, a wine merchant and an amateur physicist and microscopist, was elected a fellow of the Royal Society for his discovery that led to the modern achromatic (non-colour-distorting) microscope.

While both parents took an active part in Lister's education, his father instructing him in natural history and the use of the microscope, Lister received his formal schooling in two Quaker institutions, which laid far more emphasis upon natural history and science than did other schools. He became interested in comparative anatomy, and, before his 16th birthday, he had decided upon a surgical career.

After taking an arts course at University College, London, he enrolled in the faculty of medical science in October 1848. A brilliant student, he was graduated a bachelor of medicine with honours in 1852; in the same year he became a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons and house surgeon at University College Hospital. A visit to Edinburgh in the fall of 1853 led to Lister's appointment as assistant to James Syme, the greatest surgical teacher of his day, and in October 1856 he was appointed surgeon to the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. In April he had married Syme's eldest daughter. Lister, a deeply religious man, joined the Scottish Episcopal Church. The marriage, although childless, was a happy one, his wife entering fully into Lister's professional life.

When three years later the Regius Professorship of Surgery at Glasgow University fell vacant, Lister was elected from seven applicants. In August 1861 he was appointed surgeon to the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, where he was in charge of wards in the new surgical block. The managers hoped that hospital disease (now known as operative sepsis-infection of the blood by disease-producing microorganisms) would be greatly decreased in their new building. The hope proved vain, however. Lister reported that, in his Male Accident Ward, between 45 and 50 percent of his amputation cases died from sepsis between 1861 and 1865.

Work in antisepsis

In this ward Lister began his experiments with antisepsis. Much of his earlier published work had dealt with the mechanism of coagulation of the blood and role of the blood vessels in the first stages of inflammation. Both researches depended upon the microscope and were directly connected with the healing of wounds. Lister had already tried out methods to encourage clean healing and had formed theories to account for the prevalence of sepsis. Discarding the popular concept of miasma-direct infection by bad air-he postulated that sepsis might be caused by a pollen-like dust. There is no evidence that he believed this dust to be living matter, but he had come close to the truth. It is therefore all the more surprising that he became acquainted with the work of the bacteriologist Louis Pasteur only in 1865.

Pasteur had arrived at his theory that microorganisms cause fermentation and disease by experiments on fermentation and putrefaction. Lister's education and his familiarity with the microscope, the process of fermentation, and the natural phenomena of inflammation and coagulation of the blood impelled him to accept Pasteur's theory as the full revelation of a half-suspected truth. At the start he believed the germs were carried solely by the air. This incorrect opinion proved useful, for it obliged him to adopt the only feasible method of surgically clean treatment. In his attempt to interpose an antiseptic barrier between the wound and the air, he protected the site of operation from infection by the surgeon's hands and instruments. He found an effective antiseptic in carbolic acid, which had already been used as a means of cleansing foul-smelling sewers and had been empirically advised as a wound dressing in 1863. Lister first successfully used his new method on August 12, 1865; in March 1867 he published a series of cases. The results were dramatic. Between 1865 and 1869, surgical mortality fell from 45 to 15 percent in his Male Accident Ward.

In 1869, Lister succeeded Syme in the chair of Clinical Surgery at Edinburgh. There followed the seven happiest years of his life when, largely as the result of German experiments with antisepsis during the Franco-German War, his clinics were crowded with visitors and eager students. In 1875 Lister made a triumphal tour of the leading surgical centres in Germany. The next year he visited America but was received with little enthusiasm except in Boston and New York City.

Lister's work had been largely misunderstood in England and the United States. Opposition was directed against his germ theory rather than against his "carbolic treatment." The majority of practicing surgeons were unconvinced; while not antagonistic, they awaited clear proof that antisepsis constituted a major advance. Lister was not a spectacular operative surgeon and refused to publish statistics. Edinburgh, despite the ancient fame of its medical school, was regarded as a provincial centre. Lister understood that he must convince London before the usefulness of his work would be generally accepted.

His chance came in 1877, when he was offered the chair of Clinical Surgery at King's College. On October 26, 1877, Lister, at King's College Hospital, for the first time performed the then-revolutionary operation of wiring a fractured patella, or kneecap. It entailed the deliberate conversion of a simple fracture, carrying no risk to life, into a compound fracture, which often resulted in generalized infection and death. Lister's proposal was widely publicized and aroused much opposition. Thus, the entire success of his operation carried out under antiseptic conditions forced surgical opinion throughout the world to accept that his method had added greatly to the safety of operative surgery.

More fortunate than many pioneers, Lister saw the almost universal acceptance of his principle during his working life. He retired from surgical practice in 1893, after the death of his wife in the previous year. Many honours came to him. Created a baronet in 1883, he was made Baron Lister of Lyme Regis in 1897 and appointed one of the 12 original members of the Order of Merit in 1902. He was a gentle, shy, unassuming man, firm in his purpose because he humbly believed himself to be directed by God. He was uninterested in social success or financial reward. In person he was handsome, with a fine athletic figure, fresh complexion, hazel eyes, and silver hair. For some years before his death, however, he was almost completely blind and deaf. Lister wrote no books but contributed many papers to professional journals. These are contained in The Collected Papers of Joseph, Baron Lister, 2 vol. (1909).
Frederick F. Cartwright

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Joseph Lister | Biography, Facts, & Antiseptic Medicine

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Joseph Lister, British surgeon and medical scientist, the founder of antiseptic medicine and a pioneer in preventive medicine. While his method, based on the use of antiseptics, is no longer employed, his principle-that bacteria must never gain entry into an operation wound-remains the basis of surgery to this day.

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At the beginning of the 19th-century cholera, emanating first from Asian countries, such as India, spread across Europe through sailors traveling from sea port to sea port. By 1831, the cholera epidemic had already struck England. In June of 1832, cholera had made its way to ports in Canada and traveled down from St. Laurence and the Hudson River to lower Manhattan, where it grew into an epidemic. 3,500 people, mostly poor immigrants, died during the course of the plague.

https://www.baruch.cuny.edu/nycdata/disasters/cholera-1832.html

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French physician who invented the stethoscope and perfected the art of auditory examination of the chest cavity.. Using this new instrument, he investigated the sounds made by the heart and lungs and determined that his diagnoses were supported by the observations made during autopsies.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rene-Laennec

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Some two years after his arrival in Berlin Koch discovered the tubercle bacillus and also a method of growing it in pure culture. He was still busy with work on tuberculosis when he was sent, in 1883, to Egypt as Leader of the German Cholera Commission, to investigate an outbreak of cholera in that country. he discovered the vibrato that causes cholera and brought back pure cultures of it to Germany. He also studied cholera in India. This study helped people understand and identify the infection

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1905/koch/biographical/

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A physicist who received the first Nobel Prize for Physics, in 1901, for his discovery of X-rays, which heralded the age of modern physics and revolutionized diagnostic medicine.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wilhelm-Rontgen

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Lillian D. Wald helped to bring health care to the residents of New York’s Lower East Side at the turn of the twentieth century. Wald fought for public health care, women’s rights, and children’s rights while running the Henry Street Settlement. . It had 3,000 members in its classes and clubs and 92 nurses making an estimated 200,000 home health calls a year. This help the community and thousands of patient.

https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/lillian-wald

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Lillian D. Wald helped to bring health care to the residents of New York's Lower East Side at the turn of the twentieth century. As a "practical idealist who worked to create a more just society," Wald fought for public health care, women's rights, and children's rights while running the Henry Street Settlement.

Born the third of four children to a Jewish family in Cincinnati, Ohio on March 10, 1867, Lillian D. Wald experienced a childhood of privilege. Her ancestors had left Europe after the 1848 revolutions to seek new opportunities in the United States and had done well. Her father, Max D. Wald, was a successful optical goods merchant and her mother, Minnie Schwarz, was amiable and warm. Wald considered herself a "spoiled" child, growing up in a happy home always filled with books and music. In 1878, the family moved to Rochester, New York, which Wald considered her hometown. While there she was educated at the Miss Cruttenden's English/French Boarding and Day School where she excelled in languages, arts, math, and science. Wald applied to Vassar College, a premier all-women's college in New York, at 16 hoping to continue her studies but was rejected due to her age. She then traveled for six years, touring the world and working briefly as a newspaper reporter.

In 1889, Wald met a young nurse who inspired her to go into nursing herself. She enrolled at the New York Hospital Training School and upon her graduation in 1891, went to work for the New York Juvenile Asylum, an orphanage. Beyond caring for the children, Wald helped with a class about home nursing for poor immigrant families on the Lower East Side. She also began classes at the Women's Medical College in New York.

While organizing classes and providing nursing on the Lower East Side, Wald witnessed first-hand the hardship and deprivation experienced by poor immigrant families living in the neighborhood. The Lower East Side was an incredibly diverse and densely populated area. At the time that Wald was working there, it was also home to a large Jewish immigrant population. In fact, if the Lower East Side was its own city, it would have been the largest Jewish city in the nineteenth century. Many of these families lived in tenement housing, low-rise, cheaply built apartment buildings. Because rents were low, they were the housing choice for many newly arrived immigrants, and it was not unusual for a family of 10 to live in a 325-square-foot apartment. Because of the cramped quarters and lack of upkeep on the buildings, many tenement residents were frequently sick.

After providing health care to a young girl's mother in a dirty, dilapidated tenement, Wald decided to dedicate her life's work to the tenement community. She left medical school and moved with a friend to the College Settlement House on the Lower East Side. In 1893, Wald coined the term "public health nurse" to describe those who worked outside hospitals in mostly poor and middle-class communities. With the help of donors and friend Mary Brewster, she also started the Visiting Nursing Service of New York to bring affordable and decent health care to the neighborhood. In 1894, Wald and Brewster started the Henry Street Settlement House, an organization dedicated to providing social services and instruction in various subjects for the Lower East Side community. Historians have since critiqued the settlement house movement for the ways in which it forced certain expectations and behaviors on immigrant communities. As part of her work with the Settlement, Wald established one of the earliest playgrounds and helped pay the salary for the first public school nurses in NYC.

By 1913, the Henry Street Settlement had expanded to seven buildings on Henry Street with two satellite centers. It had 3,000 members in its classes and clubs and 92 nurses making an estimated 200,000 home health calls a year. Wald also made the Settlement available as a meeting place for the NAACP. In 1930, Wald retired and became the Director Emeritus for the Henry Street Settlement.

Beyond her work with the Henry Street Settlement, Wald was a tireless advocate for the rights of women, children, immigrants, and laborers. She helped start the United States Children's Bureau, the National Child Labor Committee, and the National Women's Trade Union League. She supported and worked for a women's right to birth control and was a part of the women's suffrage movement. She also lobbied for workplace health and safety. She initially opposed U.S. entry into World War I but became the Chairman of the Committee on Community Nursing of the American Red Cross once war was inevitable. After WWI, she chaired the Red Cross's campaign to end the Spanish Flu epidemic of 1918 and represented the U.S. at International Red Cross Meetings. In 1922, the New York Times named Wald one of the 12 greatest living American women. She later received the Lincoln Medallion for her work as an "Outstanding Citizen of New York."

Wald died on September 1, 1940 at the age of 73. She was honored at both public and private meetings, including one at Carnegie Hall where 2,500 people listened to speeches from the governor and mayor praising her work. Wald's legacy lives on in the Henry Street Settlement and the Visiting Nurse Service of New York as well as in countless other ways in which people approach health care.

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Lillian D. Wald helped to bring health care to the residents of New York's Lower East Side at the turn of the twentieth century. As a "practical idealist who worked to create a more just society," Wald fought for public health care, women's rights, and children's rights while running the Henry Street Settlement.

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Social Darwinism is a loose set of ideologies that emerged in the late 1800s in which Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection was used to justify certain political, social, or economic views. They believed that "survival of the fittest was the way to go" for businesses and life.

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Urbanization in The United States(1790-1890

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Urbanization in The United States(1790-1890

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Urbanization refers to the concentration of human populations into discrete areas. This concentration leads to the transformation of land for residential, commercial, industrial, and transportation purposes. It can include densely populated centers, as well as their adjacent periurban or suburban fringes. This hurt cities by not having enough space for them and not enough food so most of the time they would catch diseases

https://www.census.gov/dataviz/visualizations/005/

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American educator, social reformer, and humanitarian whose devotion to the welfare of the mentally ill led to widespread reforms in the United States and abroad. She helped the mentally ill patients so they would be treated because nobody really did.

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Hungarian physician who discovered the cause of puerperal (childbed) fever and introduced antisepsis into medical practice. This helps it be identified the fever and help people fight infections and diseases

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Florence Nightingale was a British nurse, social reformer, and statistician best known as the founder of modern nursing. Her experiences as a nurse during the Crimean War were foundational in her views about sanitation. This helped with new patients coming to nice and clean areas so no more diseases would spread even more.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Florence-Nightingale