# data[].attributes.body
The inventor of color television is Guillermo González Camarena and he comes from Guadalajara. In 1940, the then 23-year-old applied for a patent for the first color image transmission system, which was later used in the Voyager 1 space ship, for example.

# data[].attributes.body
69 different languages are spoken in Mexico, which makes it one of the countries with the greatest linguistic diversity in the world. In addition to Spanish, there are 68 indigenous languages, including náhuatl, mixteco and otomí. No other country on the American continent has a comparable variety of indigenous languages. Like Spanish, the indigenous languages are recognized as national languages.

# data[].attributes.body
Mexiko is a soccer loving country. Very interesting is the rivalty in Monterrey, where two teams are playing in the first league. Right now the Tigres are better then the Rayados. I have been to both stadiums and the atmosphere is incredible. It is also a good icebreaker, asking strangers in the beginning of a conversation about which team they support.

# data[].attributes.body
The period after the Second World War was characterized by stable growth, which was secured by revenues from the oil sector and economic protectionism. Politicians saw import substitution as the basis of the industrialization process and protected domestic industry with tariffs and import quotas. In addition to a low inflation rate and low foreign debt, there was an economic upswing in the following decades. This time is also called the Golden Age of Mexico. At the beginning of the 1970s though, economic growth declined slightly and import substitution could only be financed by foreign loans. Luckily, significant oil deposits were discovered in the Gulf of Mexico in the late 1970s and oil prices rose until the early 1980s, which resulted in higher revenues from oil exports. The country, which was then undergoing political change, succeeded in entering the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) with the help of an export-oriented economic policy that was integrated into the world market. In addition, Mexico, the USA and Canada decided to form the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which came into force in January 1994 and has since represented the largest free trade area in the world.

# data[].attributes.body
From 1982 onwards, an crisis within the PRI became visible,
expressed particularly through the formation of other factions within the party. A new PRI generation, the so-called
Technocrats, rose to the upper circles of the party. In contrast to the “dinosaurs” (who have always been there), the younger politicians were often educated at US universities and represented, among other things, a neoliberal economic policy that went not with the evolutionary world of thought of the older politicians. This inner conflict was particularly evident during the elections. Carlos Salinas de Gortari became the first technocrat to win in the 1988 elections, after beating out five other PRI candidates. His follower and the PRI's official presidential candidate for the 1994 election, Luis Donaldo Colosio Murrieta, was shot dead at a campaign rally in Tijuana.  The party's crisis during the 1990s is mainly due to two developments: the new political world order and the acceptance of political competition or opposition.  The murder, probably caused by other PRI members, was the first time that tensions about the appointment of the president erupted in a violent form. Finally, in 1994, Ernesto Zedillo was made president, who also pursued a course of reform. During his time (1994-2000) the country was hit by a serious crisis. Between December 1994 and September 1995 the Mexican peso lost around 85 percent of its value, which brought further impoverishment to broad sections of the population.
Due to the loss of the presidency in 2000 the "más de lo mismo" (more of always the same party) finally ended. On the night of the election, Zedillo and the PRI candidate Francisco Labastida recognized the victory of the PAN (National Action Party) and its candidate Vicente Fox. In the ranks the party apparatus called them “traitors”. In February 2002 the board of the PRI was re-elected – for the first time democratically and not by the President's "pointer". In order to win the trust of the population, nationwide elections were held to determine the party president. Due to the dominance of the PRI, secured by authoritarian means, Mexico was not a plural democracy until the end of the 1990s. Instead, party and state politics were much more intertwined for 71 years.

# data[].attributes.body
To be honest, I think the courses name is not quite accurate. I mean this in a good way though. It is a "Introduction to Mexican Culture", but really I think the course gives much more than an introduction. I also think a big part of understanding culture is to actively process thoughts about it, think about the why and not only the what. And already the task to create a journal is a really good option to do exactly this. In the prologue I said the following things: I am mainly interested in the history of the last 400 years, yet not only about history but other things that make the culture of a country. Additionally I wanted to gain experience by traveling. No I can surely say that I have learned a lot about Mexico. In this journal I collected everything I found most imortant about the history of the country, from the very beginning to the 21th century. That collection will be helpful for me in the future, as I can talk about the topics with having a backup in information. With this my first goal is acheived. The second goal was almost easier to reach. The lectures were divers, the Case of Study gave a very detailed look into a specific topic, and the collection of Cultural Curiosities adds up on usedful information. I have been traveling quite a lot, and seen some of Mexicos national treasures, coolest places and nicest beaches. The people always were friendly and I will only take good memories. With this the last goal is also reached. Thank you very much teacher! I gained a lot of experience and can now finsih the semester by setting this dot .

# data[].attributes.body
Mexico has been the United States most important trading partner throughout all Latin America. But Mexico not only  occupies a leading position in the export of legal goods, but also for products that reach the us market via smuggling routes. Included mostly illegal drugs. Mexico produces and
supplies heroin, marijuana and synthetic narcotics (particularly methamphetamine) and is the most important transit country for cocaine from south america. A lucrative sales market for illegal drugs has enabled several large gangs of smugglers or cartels to fight for their criminal business interests with unscrupulous energy. They already came up in the 70s, but during the time of the PRI they were able to make arrangements. Since around 2002, there was intensified competition in this milieu noticeable. This is also connected to the change of the government. Increasingly military actions were started against the cartels, which also ment a increasing number of dead civilians. The cartels also fight each other, force recruit men and are reason for human trafficing and enforced dissapearences. In the last 20 year more than 100.000 people were killed in connection to the cartels.

# data[].attributes.body
The genre of mariachi is one of the most popular music in Mexico. The orchestras consist of guitarists, trumpeters, violinists and singers, with their soulful songs about homeland, heroism and love. The name of the mariachi goes back to the French occupation, when the musicians played at weddings (mariage in French). Mariachi bands have copied their uniform clothing from the «Charros», the riding cowboys. The costume usually consists of black suits (tight trousers and a short jacket) decorated with silver ornaments, pointed boots and a wide-brimmed sombrero. This is exactly how foreign visitors imagine a typical Mexican folklore band.

# data[].attributes.body
The Mexican peso was introduced as the official national currency in 1992 and is only used in Mexico.  But while the peso notes in circulation are not the world's most valued currency, the various notes do show some very influential national treasures, and it is fun to take a closer look.

# data[].attributes.body
Mexicos political system was for over three generations shaped by the "Partido Revolucionario Institutional" or PRI. The party which was originally founded in 1929 under the name of "Partido Nacional Revolucionario" (PNR), following the revolutionary ideals of land and freedom, progress and equality. With their first president, Jefe Máximo, the PNR became a big part of supporting the authoritarian political system. The second presidend, Cárdenas, continued on this route. His main contributes were the nationalization of the oil industry and the sharing of land to the people. In 1939 the party changed its name to "Partido de la Revolución Méxicana" (PRM), and it started to become more and more to establish the typical regime it is known for, especially because the government became the party, luring politicans with lucrative offers. The party changed its name for a last time under president Miguel Alemán (presidency from 1946-1952), to the name it still has today. It became clear quite soon that it was a party highly depending on a strong president and his government, as the following elections show. There were no more, the current president could just point out a new leader as wished. The party continued to develop to an instrument of the Regime to secure the political dominance. However, the currents in the 1960s also led to individual attempts democratizing the PRI system. In 1965 Carlos Madrazo made the proposal to determine presidential candidates and party leadership democratically. However, democratic structures never became really implemented - but rather were fought with violence. The sad highlight was a massacre in 1968 shortly before the Olympic Games, were 500 students, housewives and workers were killed in Mexico City.

# data[].attributes.body
was a long and bloody fight between multiple fractions and everchanging alliances. It is the long road from the end of a 30 year dictatorship into the establishment of a constitutional republik. We can see the revoultion as civil war which began in November 1910. In contrast to Porfirio Díaz, who announced his run for president already the seventh time, Francisco Madero founded the National Antireelectionist Party and started the counterthought by running for president. While Madero was put to jail, Díaz declared himself president after fake elections. But Madero was released soon and after fleeing to Texas he declared the revolution against Díaz. This marks the beginning of the end, for both Díaz and Madero. Even though Maderos troops defeated the northern City of Juarez (by the help of Villa, Orozco and Zapata), which led to resignation of Díaz who went to exil and the democratic election of Madero in 1911 - he could not manage to lead the country in the way he promised. His former supporters were not happy with the actual speed of reforming the country, and also new enemies arised. So for example the nephew of the former Dictator, Felix Díaz. He innitiated the overthrow of Madero, with the help of the US  ambassador Henry Lane. In Febraury 1913 they marched into Mexican City. There were intense fights, which are nown as the "Ten tragic days" (09.-19.) because many civilians died. After Maderos key general Victoriano Huerta joined the rebellious, it did not take long until Maderos troops were defeated, himself arrested and finally executed. Huerta was then declared president. But once again, not everyone was happy. Two of all states did not accept the new president and formed new resistance,above all the Governor of Coahuila, Venustiano Carranza, who asked for the resignation of Huerta in a public statement known as the Plan de Guadalupe. Huerta faced many enemies, soon also from northern rebellious groups under Pancho Villa or Alvaro Obregón. Another problem was, that the new president of the USA, Woodrow Wilson, would not accept the presidency and rather support rebellious groups. Huge armies were set up, revolutionary and counterrevolutionary, leading into many bloody fights. In the end Huerta lost, and left the country in July 1914. What followed was another year of insecurity, mainly because there were still to many people with to much power. Many historicans say 1920 is the year of the end of the revoultion, but it really is not clear. There were repedeatly violent incidents and many more presidents, before Lázaro Cárdenas 1934 became president and institutionalised the reforms the people in the revolution fought for.

# data[].attributes.body
The end of President Porfirio Díaz's more than three decades of office in 1910 and the years of violent conflict that followed meant a profound turning point in the country's development. It is therefore not surprising that the Revolución Mexicana is as important in the collective memory of the population as the detachment from the Spanish monarchy in the second and third decades of the 19th century (Independencia) and the liberal reform phase shaped by Benito Juárez (Reforma del Norte ) including overcoming French occupation and the Second Empire in the 1860s.

# data[].attributes.body
From 1857-1860 a civil war raged in Mexico between conservative and liberal forces. Benito Juarez, the US-backed leader of the Liberals, eventually prevailed and controlled the country from December 1860. But the war meant for Mexico that it was not able to pay its European lenders and eventually stopped paying its debts altogether. The Europeans then decided to intervene militarily to protect their interests.
The Spanish, French and British occupied the city of Veracruz in December 1861. Differences among the Allies led to the withdrawal of the Spanish and British in April 1862. Napoleon III. at the same time reinforced French troops, because he wanted to overthrow the Juarez government and achieve a puppet monarchy dependent on France. After a year of hard fighting against the Mexicans, the French conquered Mexico City in June 1863. There they installed Archduke Maximilian von Habsburg, the brother of Emperor Franz-Josef, as Emperor of Mexico. However, the guerrilla war against the new emperor and the French occupation continued because the regime was unpopular in Mexico. The Americans also continued to support Benito Juarez, who led the resistance against Maximilian. They even threatened to intervene and massed troops on the Mexican border. In 1867, Napoleon III realized that his Mexican adventure had failed and had the French troops withdraw. However, Maximilian remained unapologetic and did not want to relinquish his imperial crown. Without French protection, however, he had no chance and was trapped in Querétaro. He was finally executed in June 1867. Benito Juarez remained President of Mexico until his death in 1872.

# data[].attributes.body
From 1877 to 1910 the country lived under the dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz. Ultimately, this brought the country peace and economic prosperity, thanks to export-oriented agricultural production. Foreign financiers, initially mainly from Europe, invested in the construction of an extensive railway network. The middle and upper classes benefited from this upswing. After decades of political ups and downs since the independence, the Mexicans  experienced a long period of relative stability for the first time. However, press censorship was introduced, political oppostition was forbidden and the rural population became increasingly poor due to excessive exploitation and ruthless land grabbing. Of course this worked for many years but eventually social riots broke out and political protests began. People from all social classes distanced themself from President Díaz, because everyone was suffering from the consequences of the recession and the effects of the economic crisis that had prevailed in the USA since 1907. The dictator reacted as he had learned in the military - with violence, which was not successful. This is the beginning of the revolution in 1910 led by Francisco Madero and groups from the north of Mexico led by Pancho Villa and the south led by Emiliano Zapata, which lasted for a few years.

# data[].attributes.body
By the time the territorty of Texas was annexed by the United States, the country of Mexico found itself in a bad political and economical situation. After López de Santa Anna was banned from his position as president in 1844 due to dictatorship, it only took another two years until his country faced a war against the United States. It was not only about a unsure borderline in the Texas arrea, but the entire thought about expanding the US territory more westwards, until the pacific ocean. These thoughts were part of the in 1823 released Monroe Doctrine (after US President James Monroe), which stated the intentions to keep the American continent safe from future colonization by any European powers. However, when Mexico did not acknowledge the sovereignty of Texas, they send out troops to the area, where US soldiers were attacked in April 1846. This attack lead to a two year ongoing war which would have huge impacts for the further development of the countries. Because the mexican soldiers were both outnumbered and technologically behind, they faced immense casualties and territory occupation. When US soldiers marched into Mexico-City in September 1847 it was clear that they would win the war. This was the case when in February 1848 the "Peace Contract of Guadalupe Hidalgo" was signed, which made Mexico recieve the small amount of 15 million US Dollars, while loosing almost half of its territory. The United States however achieved their plans and now owned land from one ocean in east to the other one in the west.

# data[].attributes.body
...was established in the same year as the independence. The earlier talked about general Agustín de Iturbide allied with the remaining rebels and proclaimed an independent Mexican monarchy that would not touch the power of the Church. He proclaimed himself emperor of this monarchy as "Agustín I" in May 1822.  Only a year later, in 1823, Agustín I faced immense pressure after a military uprising led by the rebel general Antonio López de Santa Anna, who proclaimed that Mexico should be a republic. Iturbide flew, but got killed later in July 1823 by republicans.

# data[].attributes.body
The 1820s were shaped by a lot of insecurity. Even though the first constitution set the whole frame for a federal republic, consisting of 19 states, four territories, and the Mexico City federal district, the two groups who gained power were not united. Namely the centralists (conservative, favoured a strong central government) and the federalists (favoured limited central government and nearly autonomous state), could not decide on one path to go. So the power switched forth and back for quite a while. In the year of 1829 the spainiards started their last attempt to get Mexico back under control, but this attack was fought sucessfully. Especially

Antonio López de Santa Anna gained reputation in this time.  He was able to become president of Mexico in 1833.  He became president right in the time when problems with the area of Texas occured. Already in 1830 the Mexican government restricted immigration to their states, because they feared a mass of people immigrating from the United States to Texas. With a new constitution in 1836, Santa Anna took away all the states rights, to prevent from further problems. But right in that time Texas declared its independence. The president immediatly went to stop the rebellion in its raising, but it was to late and he got captured in  a battle. The mexicans did not start a further attempt to get posession of Texas, until it was annexed by the United States in 1845.

# data[].attributes.body
Mexico became a republic in the beginning of October 1824. A federal constitution was introduced and Manuel Félix Hernandez became Mexico's first president.

Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States (1824):

ARTICLE 1. The Mexican nation is for ever free and independent of the Spanish government and of every other power.

Article 3. The religion of the Mexican nation shall perpetually remain the Roman Catholic and Apostolic. The nation protects it by wise and just laws and prohibits the exercise of any other.

In 1829 there was a final Spanish attempt to retake Mexico. However, the invaders were defeated at Támpico north of Veracruz.

# data[].attributes.body
The struggles for independence began in 1810 with
the occupation of Spain by Napoleon. As the people in New Spain realized, that their former King was replaced by Napoleons Brother, and nobody really was able of contolling the situation, calls for independence even got louder. After Hidalgo had started the process and was killed by doing so, various military leaders continued to fight for their freedom.  The motivation for independece stretched throughout the whole country. An alliance was formed, between the liberal people who wanted a democratic mexico, and the conservative people who wanted a stable government, and both groups knew that the independence was the only way to achieve this. In the years after 1811, the fight went on and brought up the names of various personalities, such as Vincente Guerrero or the generals Augustin de Iturbide and Antonio López de Santa Anna. All of them were fighting in the war, and will be spoken of again years later.
However, it was not until 1821 that the Spanish crown recognized the Mexican state's sovereignty. With the "Treaty of Córdoba" (which Iturbide signed) in August 1821, the goal was achieved and ratified with the Plan of Iguala (stating that Mexico would become a monarchy). Nowadays though it is September 16th, where Mexico's independence is celebrated intensely, with huge nationwide parties - one of the most important holidays in the country.

# data[].attributes.body
In the viceroyalty of new spain, it was all about where a person was born, and by whom, to find the social groups that developed in the hierachic structure. The term "criollo" describes all people who were of European descent, yet born in the Americas. Other groups of people where the "peninsulares" (people born on Iberian Peninsular) and the "mestizos" (born in the Americas, mixed blood parents).
From the colonial period in the 16th century to the early 19th century, the criollos shaped their rank to a kind of middle class position. They were the most educated group of people, but had no real political power. Higher positions in administration and church were usually given to spanish-born Spaniards, but then also given to criollos due to how many of them there were.
However, they were viewed as inferior to the european spaniards, which was reflected in resentment towards them.
This became even more problematic during the eighteenth century under the Bourbon rule. They led a number of political, administrative and economic reforms, known today as Bourbon reforms. These reforms harmed the Creoles and made them particularly different from the Europeans.

# data[].attributes.body
As payment for their services during the conquest, the Spanish crown entrusted the colonists with a certain number of indigenous people - a so called encomienda (encomendar = entrust). The owner of an encomienda could freely use the labor power of "his" indigenous people, but he was responsible for their instruction in the Christian faith in return. This  system was essential to maintain the Spanish government's control over North, Central, and South America in the first decades after colonization.

Labor supply, education and Christianization should go hand in hand. However, for the indigenous people who were employed in housekeeping, in the gold and silver mines, on the plantations or in pearl diving, this often meant unrestrained exploitation of their labour, often combined with inhumane and unhealthy working conditions. Soon, the granting of encomiendas became an institution throughout New Spain.
The main goal was to provide cheap labor for the colonists and to increase their wealth, while integrating the natives to Spanish culture. Side goals where to promote settlement, ensure the permanence of the colony by building up strong forces.

# data[].attributes.body
The caste (or casta) system was a social hierarchy created by the Spanish to maintain power over 'New Spain.' Although originally created to explain mixed race families to those in Spain, it became a system that would dominate the lives of everyone in the region to this day. There are 16 different castes, the first five are displayed beneath.

Mestizo (Spanish with Indian) - 50% Spanish, 50% Indian

Castizo (Mestizo with Spanish) - 75% Spanish, 25% Indian

Español (Castizo with Spanish) - 87,5% Spanish, 12,5% Indian

Mulato (Spanish with "Negro") - 50% Spanish, 50% Negro

Morisco (Mulato with Spanish) - 75% Spanish, 25% Negro

People with European heritage enjoyed a better standard of life and a higher social class than those with Indigenous or African roots. Those often lived lives of low social wealth. They were associated with the notion of slavery and were prohibited from holding many positions in life. Along with the African populations, the Indigenous people in Mexico
were often taxed more than the other castes simply based on their social and racial standings.

Even though the castes system has long been
abolished in Mexico, there are still effects from it.
In fact, the poorest areas in Mexico, which recieve the least government support, are the areas with highes indigenous population.

# data[].attributes.body
The years under the Spanish Crown, between the years 1521 and 1821 shaped the development immensly. There is still evidence today, from the colonial architecture to the catholicism, the prestige charros with their
sombreros and the churros which are delicious. Of course played the spanish language an important role in uniting and conncecting the empire for such a long time.
Patterns of thought and action developed at that time
are still detected to this day: The central importance of
family, friends and personal relationships,
the positions of "formal" and "informal" structures or the pronounced hierarchical and centralistic thinking. Different forms of social groups like Mestizos, Criollos and Peninsulares formed, different systems were enablished and a immense stream of trade between New Spain and the Europeans developed. A few of these systems are displayed beneath.
By some time the people realized about the negative impacts the spainiards brought. Especially the mestizos wanted to achieve a better life standart, but also the criollos. It was sure that only the peninsulares gained profit from the ongoing system. In the early 19th century all three groups were thinking about the independence from the crown, it was just about the way this would happen, since everyone had different goals. Getting all the fractions together to fight for the same goal was a real challenge. In 1810 it was about time when they decided on a plan called the "Three Guarantees", or Plan of Iguala, stating that an independet Mexico will arise on the three attributes of unity, independence from spain and the catholicism.

# data[].attributes.body
Country Comparison Tool

# data[].attributes.body
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla is undoubtedly one of the most popular national heros. The white-haired, balding man was the true intellectual mastermind behind the Mexican strike for independence against the Spanish power.
Actually, Miguel Hidalgo was a priest, although by no means a typical one. He represented a modern, enlightened Catholicism, having children and not caring for regulations that much. Because of that it is assumed that he was not liked very popular, so he was transferred to the town of Dolores (now Dolores Hidalgo) in the state of Guanajuato. "Father" Miguel Hidalgo was not afraid and unconcernedly developed his religious and increasingly political ideology, while more and more people started to listen to him. The dissatisfaction of the people with the dominant Spanish gradually grew, and the call for independence arose. Father Miguel Hidalgo assembled the conspirators and began planning an uprising.

Suddenly, events rushed, the plan was betrayed, and the freedom fighters were forced to act immediately. On September 16, 1810 (today's Mexican Independence Day), Miguel Hidalgo gathered his followers from the Dolores region. He called against the Spanish crown and demanded the fight for independence with a repeated "Viva México!" The expelled parish priest became a determined rebel leader. Soon, he had summoned up to 80.000 people, marched onto Mexico City and demanded a independent Mexico, an abolition of slavery and a limit to the power of the church. He was heard, yet not accepted. So he got arrested and was charged with high treason against Kingdom and God, which lead to his execution in 1811.

# data[].attributes.body
In July 2002, the pope Johannes Paul II, traveled to Mexico. Reason of the visit was not only to speak to the people of a country, where more than 75% of the population are catholic, but also to canonice Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin, a indigneous priest from the early 16th century. By that time the native people did not want to believe in christianity, as it was something foreign and only brought cruelty. It is believed that Juan Diego was the one, who climbed a mountain called Tepeyac, where he had a vision in December 1531. "Our Lady of Guadalupe", a mestizo women appeared to him a fiew times and demanded the aztec priest to build a church on her behalf, on top of the mountain. The importance behind it is that her image was interpreted as christian incarnation of Tonantzin, the Goddess of the Earth. On the other side, the spaniards understood her as a native incarnation of the Virgin Mary. The Virgin was called Vírgen de Guadalupe Tonantzin, symbolises the unity of the two races and serves as one of the most important roles in latin american religion.

# data[].attributes.body
The "Vice-Kingdom of New Spain" was founded in the area of ​​the old Aztec Empire and far beyond. The northern border reached as far as the current states of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, Nevada, Utah, and part of Colorado and Wyoming (United States). With more time passing it also included today's states of Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, as well as parts of Asia. (The Viceroyalty of New Spain was one of four viceroyaltys of the Spanish world power - the others were called "Viceroyalty of Peru", "Viceroyalty of New Granada" and "Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata"). The ancient Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán, renamed "Mexico City," became the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and played a center role to atlantic and pacific trade.

The native Aztecs were enslaved by the Spaniards and forced to convert to Catholicism ("proselytizing"). The Catholic Church saw the newly discovered peoples as "sub-human". The majority of the natives perished because the Spaniards brought unknown and therefore dangerous diseases into the country. 70 to 90 million Aztecs, Inca and Maya lived on the American continent before the Spanish arrived - a century and a half later there were just 3.5 million people left. The new colonies were mercilessly exploited in the name of the Spanish crown - both in terms of human labor and agriculture and mineral resources. From the Native American perspective, the European discovery of the "New World" was a single campaign of destruction.

# data[].attributes.body
Frida Kahlo (*1907- †1957) - Her art counts as one of Mexicos treasures, with portraits and inspiring pieces of Mexicos artefacts and nature. She suffered from a bus accidant for her full life, which can be seen in her art. There is a very good Museum in the south of Mexico-City.

Diego Rivera (*1886 - †1957) - Another famous artist, who is especially famous for his mural art. His third wife was Frida Kahlo, whom he was married to until her death.

# data[].attributes.body
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (*1651 - †1695 )
Her original name was Juana Ramírez de Asbaje. She was a poet, dramatist, scholar, and nun, an outstanding writer of the Latin American colonial period and of the Hispanic Baroque.
One of her poems was talked about in class, I will note my favourte lines:

14. ¿O cuál es más de culpar,

aunque cualquiera mal haga:

la que peca por la paga,

o el que paga por pecar?

15. Pues ¿para qué os espantáis

de la culpa que tenéis?

Queredlas cual las hacéis

o hacedlas cual las buscáis.
---------------------------------------------------
14. Or who is more to blame,

even if both do act incorrectly:

she who sins for a pay

or he who pays to sin?

15. Then, why are you so horrified

at the guilt that is of your own doing?

Either love what you create

or else create what you can love.

I like these two parts of the poem especially. The first one asks for what is justice, in a kind of similar situation - and who should have more moral pangs of conscience . In the second one it is the ending for me. It reads like advice which suites all kinds of situations in life and is probably helpful.

--------------------------------------------------

Ocatvio Paz (*1914 - †1988)
One of Mexicos most famous writers, poet and diplomat, recognized as one of the major Latin American writers of the 20th century. He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1990.

# data[].attributes.body
Zoé                         - Azul

Ana Gabriel            - Ay Amor

Lila Downs             - Mezcalito

Selena Quintanilla - Si Una Vez

Luis Miguel             - Sabor A Mi

Chavela Vargas - La Llorona

# data[].attributes.body
Viva Zapata - This movie from the year 1952 tells the story of Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata (*1879-1919), who led the souther part rebellion against the authority of President Porfirio Díaz.

Frida (2002) - The biography of Frida Kahlo (played by mexican actress Salma Hayek), which combines her art and the strokes of fate her life contained. The movie won two Oscars.

Coco (2017)- The Disney/Pixar movie tells a story about a boy named Miguel, who goes far to learn about the importance of family.

# data[].attributes.body
The Mexican Flag was first introduced in 1821, after Mexicos independence. The colors green, white and red stand for hope, unity and the blood of national heroes. The center is filled with one of the most important aspekts about the settlement of the Mexicas, saying to form a civilization where a  eagle devours a snake, standing on a nopal plant.

The name Mexico derives from the náhuatl word «Mēxihco» - Mexicas, which means something like "in the center of the lake of the moon", and is nowadays the common name for the country. In the constitution from 1824, Mexico was reffered to as Nación Mexicana and Estados Unidos Mexicanos; in 1857 as República Mexicana and Estados Unidos Mexicanos and in 1917 as Estados Unidos Mexicanos.

The Himno Nacional Mexicano has been the official Mexican national anthem since 1943. The first line of the text is often used as the title: Mexicanos, al grito de guerra (“Mexicans, calling for war”). It was written by the poet Francisco González Bocanegra in 1853 while he was locked in a room by his fiancé. The music was composed in 1854 by the composer Jaime Nunó to the text by Bocanegra.

# data[].attributes.body
Moctezuma - King of Aztec Empire until 1520
Nezahualcóyotl - Poet, warrior and King of Aztec Empire
Hernan Cortez - Conquerer of Aztec Empire
Miguel Hidalgo - "Father" of Mexicos Independence
José Maria Morelos - Priest, Military and Politician
Antonio López de Santa Anna - President and General
Emiliano Zapata - Social Revolutionary
Benito Juarez - National Hero
Pancho Villa - Mexican revolutionary and Guerilla leader
Juan Diego - indian priest
Virgin de Guadalupe

# data[].attributes.body
05.02. Aniversario de la Constitución Mexicana

24.02. Día de la Bandera

21.03. Natalicito de Benito Juarez

01.05. Día de Trabajo

05.05. El Cinco de Mayo

16.09. Día de la Independencia

01. – 02.11. Días de los Muertos

20.11. Aniversario de la Revolucion

25.12. Navidad

# data[].attributes.body
Mal de Puerco

----> illness; pig / (feeling heavy after eating; related to digestive process)

En el pedir, está el dar

---->"how you ask, you will get“ (respect to strangers.)

Me voy a ir yendo

----> "I'm on my way (but not yet)"

Ahorita

----> "In a minute..." (can mean anything from now to ever)

¿Qué onda?------------------------Whats up?

Está chido / Está padre ----------- Cool

Güey [way] ------------------------Dude

¿Neta? | Neta --------------------- For real? | It is true

¡Órale! -----------------------------Wow!

¡Chale! / ¡Qué mal pedo!------ -----What a bummer!

Mexicanada ------------------fixing something “Mexican Style”

# data[].attributes.body
This part of the Journal is supposed to gather useful facts about Mexican culture. It will include known phrases and covers topics of general Mexican life. I also included some of my favourite pictures I took here.

# data[].attributes.body
On his journey towards today's city of Mexico, Cortés formed alliances with some altepetls, others were defeated. One of the alliances was with the Tlaxcaltecs, who agreed after hard fighting  to join as valuable partners against the Aztecs. The Malitzin played a big role in the negotiations between the Spaniards and the Nahua.
The by this time Aztec emperor Moctezuma (the tlaotani) already knew of the arriving men long before. Yet, even though he started various attempts to persuade the Spaniards to retreat (through bribery, requests and ambushes), the Spaniards finally marched into the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán in November 1519. Even though Moctezuma and his people did not want them Spaniards to arrive, they welcomed them as honored guests. It could be a assumed that the reason for it was a prophecy, telling about the return of a light-skinned god named Quetzalcoatl. However, Cortés was not this god, and his men took Moctezuma as hostage, which brought control over the Aztecs and with that power over the land. Keeping the tlaotani alive until more power from spain arrived, gave enought time for the spainards to gather high amounts of gold and silver from the Mexica and their vassall states.
In 1521 there where a lot of fights between the Mexicas and the spanish in Tenochtitlán, causing the death of leader Moctezuma (it is not 100% sure how he died, either by the spanish or by his own people). The day Moctezumas nephew Cuauhtémoc, who became the next emperor, was defeated by Cortés marks the fall of the Aztec empire. Cortés ordered the city to be redesigned - churches were built in place of the Aztec temples, and a new city was built on the European model.

# data[].attributes.body
In the beginning of the 16th century, the european kingdoms were in a urgent rush to gain more influence on the world, conquering new land and calling it their own. This process called colonisation was shaped by the Portuguese, the English, the Spanish and other aspiring powers from the modern age.  One of the main goals was, to find a sea route to asia, where a lot of spices and trading goods could be expected. Traveling with small amounts of ships, several expeditions started westwards. These first expeditions were very sucessful, as for example places like the Antilles, Cuba and Panama were occupied by the Spanish. From there on, the conquerers extended  their conquests to the American mainland.

After a few unsuccessful expeditions by Francisco de Córdoba and Juan de Grijalva, who arrived to the Yucatán peninsula in 1517 and 1518, Hernán Cortés followed the rumors of wealthy people more inland in 1519. With many ships, food, soldiers and even horses he first landed close to Yucatán, where he finally set foot on the mainland. From there on the army moved to Tabasco, which was quickly onquered. Out of homage, the defeated tribes gave Cortés food and information, and among other things numerous slaves. Among these slaves was a woman named Malintzin (also called Malinche). She spoke Maya and Nahuatl and served as a translator for Cortés.  In Tabasco, rumors of the wealth of the Mexica increased. So Cortés moved on, first to the region of more north (but still at the coast). Here he founded the settlement of Villa Rica de la Veracruz and was declared governor of the country he had just discovered, under the flag of the Spanish king Charles .

# data[].attributes.body
Cosmogony refers to ideas about the emergence (world formation) and development of the world or the cosmos. They either present the origin of the world in a mythical way or attempt to explain this process rationally. Cosmogonic myths tend to be of ancient origin (still alive among some peoples), while cosmogonic theories are the products of philosophy and the natural sciences that it designed to study the subject.

For this task, I choose to read “TEMPLO MAYOR: THE AZTEC VISION OF PLACE” by David Carrasco.

The author starts his text of with two impressions from when the Spaniards arrived in the valley of Mexico. These impressions both talk about the culture of the Aztec - yet being contrary. One impression states of the beauty of the city, combining architecture and nature. The other impression states of a cruel sacrifice of Spanish prisoners. Two different pictures or symbols of a culture, but how can these be united? In order to do so, the author states about the importance of understanding the Aztecs “vision of place” which is their expression of symbolic language. The center of this vision was in the city of Tenochtitlan, to be exact the Templo Mayor.  From there on the Aztec organized their empire. This shrine seems to be the Aztecs architectural image of their cosmic order and purpose determination – they not only saw themselves but the entire empire as center of the universe. The best way to communicate with the heaven or the underworld was from the centrally located shrine. The shrine was used mainly for ceremonies of tribute. One of these ceremonies was the New Fire Ceremony. It happened once within fifty-two years and was supposed to renew the cycles of cosmic time. Therefore, all people of the empire would stop any existing fire from burning, everything was cleaned, household things broken. The fear was, that the sun would not rise again if the fire could not be drawn. So in the night, people sat on their roofs watching a cruel ceremony, where a new fire was started on a humans sacrifice. The new fire was then distributed in the whole empire.

So, what did I find out? I think this text was kind of hard to understand, especially when you don’t have a lot of general knowledge about the topic. But after reading the chapter I realized there a few things I already knew, like the answer to why Tenochitlan was exactly build there. I learned about the centralization of the Atzec culture and about the importance of sacrifices.

# data[].attributes.body
The Aztec Calendar Stone, better known as the Aztec Sun Stone is a huge stone wheel, which is full of hyroglyphic carvings, inscriptions of calendar signs and other images referring to the Aztec creation myth and the worship to the sun. The stone measueres about 3.6 meters in diameter and weighs more than 24 tons. It is currently displayed at the National Musem of Anthropology in Mexico City. It is said that the stone was originally located in the ritual halls of Tenochtitlan, close to where the sacrifices happened. After the conquest of the spaniards, the stone was buried facing down close to main plaza of Mexico City, before it got recovered, cleaned and preserved in the late 18 century.
The Stone is called a calendar stone because it actually containts two totally different calendar systems which are yet interlinked.
1. The Xihuitl cycle describes the days and rituals by seasons, counting on 365 days. It contains of 18 months, each 20 days, plus five “wasted” days (disasters were likely to happen). In the center of the stone there’s a band of  20 symbols which are assigned to days.

2. The Tonalpohualli describes each day in terms of the Aztec gods, counting 260 days. Every 24-hour cycle was named one of 20 day names and a number from 1 to 13.

With these two calendars interacting, no date could be repeated for 52 years, which forms one century. After each century the people performed a ceremony (based on human sacrifice and fire) to ensure their survival.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Close-up of Aztec Calendar stone carving

# data[].attributes.body
The Aztec had a pretty clear mind about how their world was created. This myth is known as the legend of the fifth sun.

By the time the spaniards arrived to the Aztec world, the people who believed in the creation myth lived in the fifth era of the world. They believed that the world as they knew it, was created and destroyed already four more times, far before they were created. These previous cycles, according to the myth, were each ruled by various gods (or suns), which took control over the elements in favor of their interests. The story of Aztec mythology begins with the creator couple of Tonacacihuatl and Tonacateuctli (also referred to as the god Ometéotl ("two"/"god", creater of masculine and feminine). From these deities originiated four sons, the Tezcatlipocas of the East (black), South (white), West (black), and North (red). Eventually these sons began to create the universe, the world and cosmic time - in face of the so called "suns" . The first thing to give the humans was light. But therefore a sacrifice was needed, which could only be brought by one of the gods dying in fire (like in Aztec culture - a sacrifice is required to begin something new).

1. The First Sun (called "4 Tiger") was  by created by the black Tezcatlipoca.  The world was inhabited by giants, who were devoured 676 years later by jaguars.

2. The Second Sun (called "4 Wind"), was created by Quetzalcoatl ( the white Tezcatlipoca). The world was inhabited by humans, who were also killed after 676 years by catastrophic hurricanes and floods.

3. The Third Sun, (called "4-Rain") was dominated by water and ruled by the rain god Tlaloc. The humans were killed after 364 years, when Quetzalcoatl made it rain fire.

4. The Fourth Sun, (called "4-Water"), was created by Chalchiuthlicue (a goddess, wife of Tlaloc). This world was ended by a great flood after 676 years.

5. The Fifth Sun (called "4-Movement") was ruled by Tonatiuh, the sun god. This fifth sun is characterized by the sign Ollin, which means "movement". This world should have ended through earthquakes - but the spaniards ended it.

There are several different versions of this myth, because originally it was passed down orally.

# data[].attributes.body
The first week of class is over now. So far, the course was fun and filled with a lot of information. What do I expect from the class?

Since for now I don’t really know a lot about Mexican culture, the first goal is obviously to get to know it. I already have a small insight in the history of the last 400 years, but not before that. That means, I want to learn about the origin of the people – where they came from, why they stayed. We already learned that there is a variety of cultural groups that settled. To me, all sound similar and I cannot keep them apart. In the end I not only want to be able to separate them, but also what believes they had and how they are tied to the culture.

I already know a little bit about the Spanish colonization process. I find it very interesting, so I hope there will be more information on the arrival of Hernan Cortez and his supporters. Also, I am looking forward on information about the independence, the war with the united states, and history in the 20th century. To summarize – my main interest is probably the history of the last 400 years, but since this is building upon the early history, I will get to know it all.

My main difficulties will probably develop from the difficult Mexican names, but once I get used to some of them it will get easier.

I expect from the course to not only learn about history though. History is only a small part of culture. I want to get to know about public holidays and their origin, the food, common knowledge, the language and the sports. I know it will be hard to cover all that, but since I will also travel within the country, I can add my experiences about these things.

We already learned about cultural dimensions in class in Germany. From there I know that Mexican culture can be described as a high context, high power distance, collectivistic and masculine country. I am excited to see, if the contents of this class will also contribute to this information.

# data[].attributes.body
To get a better understanding of the historic means, it is important to take a look at the geocultural context.
The  middle part of the american continent can be devided into three main parts:
- Aridoamérica (orange): the "dry" America, from California to Tamaulipas
- Oasisamérica (purple): a place in the desert. from Utah to Sonora
- Mesoamérica (green): "meso" as "in the middle". From Sonora in México to Guatemala, Belice, El Salvador, Honduras, Micaragua and Costa Rica.

In the following I will mainly concentrate on the last part - Mesoamérica. Another name for this region I found is Anáhuac - from the Aztec language Náhuatl - which translates to "the world between the water". So Mesoamérica primarily means a cultural area between about 22° and 10° north latitude. It's designed on the basis of archaeological and ethnohistorical criteria. Within it's borders ermerged cultural orders which were complexly interlocked with one another.

A few examples:

Olmecas:     3000 b. C. - 400 b. C.
Toltecas:      900 a. C. - 1150 a. C.
Zapotecas:  500 b. C. - 950 a. C.
Mexicas:      1325 b. C. - 1521 a. C.
Mayas:         1800 b. C. -1697 a. C.

Special features of these cultures include sedentariness, soil construction (based on various forms of Milpa technology - will be explained later), ceremonial architecture with astronomical correlations, counting systems and calendars.

# data[].attributes.body
One of the most important things for the creation of a civilization is the availability of a variety of natural food sources. Like other ancient civilizations, the ones in Mesoamérica were based on agriculture.
Compared to Europe, Asia or the Middle East though, the process to demesticate and understand the function of seeds took way longer. The technological progress came generally along slower, everything due to environmental conditions. (--How does this carry out in example?--)
For this reason the area became one of the main regions for plant domestication. By growing mainly maize, but also pumpkin, pepper, tomato and beans, the people from back then set a basis for their main foodsources. Thereby they took use from a traditional agricultural system called milpa. The word comes from the nahuatl, and means what is sown on top of the plot. This agricultural system is essentially configured around polyculture, where main crops and some herbs are grown together and farmers try to use all the products to feed their families and animals.

One of the main advantages of the milpa is that it is a system where the different species coexist, sharing resources like water, light, soil and even ecological interactions, such as the nitrogen fixation provided by the beans. This traditional agricultural system continues to play an important economic and cultural role in our modern times, as noted in a report from CONABIO (National Commission for the Knowledge and Use of the Biodiversity)

https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2017/10/a-mexican-legacy-la-milpa-the-birthplace-of-maize/

The first used type of corn was the teocintle. It was a tiny and useless cob with minuscule grains - and a huge amount of these were necessary in order to make it nutritious and filling. Over time a huge diversity in types of maize was created and was, still is a essential part of the mexican food production.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Glyphs representing Texcoco, Tenochtitlan, and Tlacopan, the three primary altepetl of the Aztec Empire.

# data[].attributes.body
When we talk about the mesoamerican people (or the mesoamerican nation), only a few big groups come to mind. But in the end this is wrong - there were hundrets of different groups, sharing a entire part of the world.
Are they one nation or multiple small ones?

[...] I propose the following definition of the nation: It is an imagined political community - and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign. It is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them or even hear of them. Yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion [...] - Benedict Anderson

So the answer to the question above seems clear. We can describe the different poeple of central mesoamerica as an imagined community.
The origins of these communitys were the Altépetl.
The word is a combination of the Nahuatl words atl (meaning "water") and tepétl (meaning "mountain"). Basically it describes a place, where everything needed could be found. People gathered and formed what we would call  a           City-State. Estimations say there were at least 50 altepetls in the Valley of Mexico, more then 200 in central Mesoamerica. They each where independent political structures with their own capital and a own ethnical identity. The people followed the political elites and the influence, which was created also by large ceremonial centeres (for example: Teotihuacán). The tlatoani (from náhuatl, the leader "who speaks, orator") had power over regulations and the territory. Some cultural regions were interacting with other cultural regions, to trade and form eather good or bad relationships. They shared a complex tax system, which ensured control over the region. One of the most powerful connections between these city-states was the Triple Alliance (or also “Aztec Empire”).

Richard E.W. Adams, Prehistoric Mesoamerica (3d ed., University of Oklahoma Press: Norman, OK, 2005

# data[].attributes.body
This is one of the only four left high quality Maya manuscripts preserved worldwide. (Other three located in Mexico City, Paris and Madrid). It is estimated that this codex emerged towards the end of the postclassic period of the Maya culture (10th-16th centuries) in the Yucatán Peninsula. It consists of 39 sheets made from bark bast, which were originally folded as a leporello.
The codex contains rituals and prophecy calendars, astronomical and meteorological tables, ritual regulations and numerous representations of gods. It is safe to say that this document is one key for the decipherment of Maya hieroglyphs and for the study of Maya astronomy and chronology.
The official story states, that the codex was acquired by the librarian Johann Christian Götze in Vienna in 1739 and recognized as a Maya manuscript in the 19th century. It is not known how the document came to Vienna, but most likely it was brought to Europe, along other documents and treasures, by Hernan Cortez in the fifteen-twenties.
(https://www.slub-dresden.de/entdecken/handschriften/maya-handschrift-codex-dresdensis)
To be honest, I was shocked when I found out about this. One of only four documents of this type is located in my hometown, already for centuries. I knew that Dresden was very rich in treasures, because of the gatherings of the great Saxon kings, but I did not know about the Maya Codex. And to be honest it does not really make sense to me. On one hand of course Dresden always was a centrum for historical treasures (especially the “Grünes Gewölbe” https://gruenes-gewoelbe.skd.museum ), on the other hand I think the people from Saxony back then had absolutely nothing to do with the Mesoamerican continent.  Therefore, I think it is somehow bad because the document should not belong to Dresden. But, and this is probably important too – the scientists put big effort in the decipherment and therefore contributed a lot to the knowledge the world now has. So, this is probably a very good thing.
I can’t really tell if there is an ethical dilemma about this topic. In my opinion the document belongs to Mexico. But if it was not brought to Germany, it might would never have been decrypted and a lot of information might have gone missing.
To conclude, I will definitely go visit the place since I have never. And I will stay posted about upcoming discussions, whether the codex will stay in Dresden or not.

# data[].attributes.headline
Mesoamerican Collections around the World

# data[].attributes.subject
Mesoamerican Collections around the World

# data[].attributes.body
Introduction

One of the best examples on how the spaniards arrival in america led to the abduction of mesoamerican culture is for me "El Templo Mayor". This very important Aztec temple was dedicated to two different gods – Tlaloc, god of rain, and Huitzilopochtli, god of war. In 1521 the conquistadors began removing the stone, using it instead to construct their great Catholic masterpiece – the Metropolitan Cathedral. The temple was then forgotten for a very long time.

Collection in my hometown

My hometown is Dresden (Dresde), located in the state of Saxony in Germany. Back in the days (17th to 18th century), Saxony was a very important part of Europe, a kingdom with great kings, princes and wealth.

"Since the Renaissance, princes and kings have been collecting and presenting in treasury chambers whatever was accessible, curious and precious to them from distant lands."
T. Bürger: Schicksal und Glanz des Dresdner Maya-Codex. In: N. Grube: Der Dresdner Maya-Kalender. Der vollständige Codex, Freiburg/Basel/Wien 2012, S. 9.

One of these treasury chambers would be the Dresden State Library - which looks back on almost 500 years of history. From the very beginning it was a place where colonial knowledge was stored and displayed.

The most prominent example is the Dresden Maya Codex.

# data[].attributes.body
The aztec worshiped many different gods. When they formed alliances or took over other alteptls, they often adapted their gods into the own religion. However, some gods where more important than others. One of the most important aspects of Aztec religion was the sun. Huitzilopochtli - the god of war, the sun and sacrifice counts as the most powerful god, who was also the patrion god of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan. One of the two pyramids which we find today on sight, is in the honor of the sun god - the sun pyramid. It was a important place for the sacrifices, which were heald often because the human blood was supposed to keep the sun shining. The god of the rain, Tlaloc, was in charge of rain and growing plants but also thunderstorms. There is a mountain near Tenochtitlan named after him. Quetzalcoatl was the god of life and wind, Tezcatlipoca the god of the night and earth.

This is Coatlicue, (Nahuatl: "Serpent Skirt"). She is one of the gods of aztec mythology, and there also is a stone sculpture of her in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City. Her signification is of two means: Symbol of the earth as both creator and destroyer, mother of the gods and mortals. This meaning is backed by her looks. Her face is of two fanged serpents and her skirt is of interwoven snakes (snakes symbolize fertility); her breasts are flabby (she nourished many); her necklace is of hands, hearts, and a skull (she feeds on corpses, as the earth consumes all that dies); and her fingers and toes are claws. Called also Teteoinnan (“Mother of the Gods”) and Toci (“Our Grandmother”), she is a single manifestation of the earth goddess, a multifaceted being who also appears as other fearsome goddesses.

# data[].attributes.body
Náhuatl is an Amerindian language belonging to the Uto-Nahua language family. The origin of the term Náhuatl lies in the word nahua, meaning 'clear sound' or 'command'. Today, Náhuatl is spoken by about 1.7 million people, mostly in the area around Mexico City, but also in other citys which are more south.
The Uto-Nahua language family, which unites 27 languages ​​from North America to Central America and which itself is further divided into four northern and four southern groups, Náhuatl belongs to the language group of the Nahua languages. Due to regional lexical and acustical differences, this Nahua language group is subdivided into the language variants of Nahua, Pipil in Central America and Pochuteco in Oaxaca.

# data[].attributes.body
As mentioned earlier, the Triple Alliance was formed between the three Altepetls Tlacopan, Texcoco and Tenochtitlán. It is said, that this Alliance was one of the most powerful, however it was not the first one. When the Mexica arrived in the Valley of Mexico in the early 14th century, there were already a lot of established city-states, most of them around the Lake Texcoco. The most powerful altepetl at this time was Azcapotzalco. When the Mexicas arrived, they where not really accepted and had to pay tribute and work for the rulers. Because they did not find a place to stay, it is said that they settled on a unattractive island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. The Mexica soon learned about agricultural methods and became really good at it. This meant, that the former not very liked island formed into a central trading place for the area. When the tlátoani of Azcapotzalco died in 1426, chaos broke out. It was all about who will be the next ruler of the region. Until a man named Itzoatl (the tlátoani of Tenochtitlán) had a great idea. He looked for other altepetls which were depressed by the Azcapotzalco, and found them. That is how Itzcoatl formed the alliance between Tenochtitlán and the two other altepetls. They merged their armies and fought everyone in their way, becoming the main rulers of the region until the spaniards arrived.

https://www.history.com/news/aztec-empire-triple-alliance

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Presidents from left to right: Guadalupe Victoria (1824 – 1829) Manuel Gómez Pedraza  (1832 - 1833) Agustin de Iturbide (1821 – 1823)