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This link allows a student to look at several maps: national territories before the war, movement of troops/battles during the war and the results and changes to territory as a result of the war

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About this Item

About this Item

Title

The comprehensive series, historical-geographical maps of the United States

Other Title

Historical-geographical maps of the United States

Contributor Names

Modern School Supply Company.

Rowles, E. W. A.

Created / Published

Chicago, Ill. : Modern School Supply Co., [1919]

Contents

1. Early voyages and discoveries -- 2. Distribution of Indian families and tribes -- 3. Explorations of the Spanish -- 4. Explorations of the French -- 5. Explorations of the English -- 6. Early land grants -- 7. New England grants-New England colonies -- 8. Middle Atlantic grants-Middle Atlantic colonies -- 9. Southern grants-Southern colonies -- 10. Early settlements -- 11. Claims before and after French and Indian Wars -- 12. French and Indian Wars -- 13. Our country at the beginning of Revolutionary War -- 14. The Revolution in the north -- 15. The Revolution in the south -- 16. Important vicinities in the revolution -- 17. Results of the revolution-Treaty of Paris 1783 -- 18. Land claims of the states-Territorial formation 1783-1812 -- 19. Disputed claims, boundaries and purchases 1803-1819 -- 20. Explorations in the West 1804-1845 -- 21. The War of 1812-The four important theaters -- 22. The Missouri Compromise 1820 -- 23. Our country in 1837 -- 24. Settlements of northern boundary disputes 1783-1872 -- 25. United States at beginning of Mexican War 1846 -- 26. The Mexican War 1846-1848 -- 27. Results of the Mexican War 1848 -- 28. The compromise of 1850 -- 29. Kansas-Nebraska Bill 1854 -- 30. United States at beginning of Civil War 1861 -- 31. The Civil War-first year 1861-1862 -- 32. The Civil War-second year 1862-1863 -- 33. The Civil War-third year 1863-1864 -- 34. The Civil War-fourth year 1864-1865 -- 35. Spanish-American War 1898 -- 36. Territorial growth on continental United States -- 37. Admission of states -- 38. The United States at present -- 39. The greater United States -- 40. The United States in relief -- 41. Physical features of the United States -- 42. The United States in commercial relation to the world -- 43. Development of railroads and canals -- 44. Trails and highways -- 45. The westward movement -- 46. The United States in the World War -- 47. The United States in the World War -- 48. Evolution of the United States flag.

Subject Headings

- United States--Historical geography--Maps

- United States--Discovery and exploration--Maps

- United States--Territorial expansion--Maps

- United States--Territories and possessions--Maps

- United States--History--Revolution, 1775-1783--Maps

- Indians of North America--Wars--Maps

- United States--History--War of 1812--Maps

- Mexican War, 1846-1848--Maps

- United States--History--Civil War, 1861-1865--Maps

- Spanish-American War, 1898--Maps

- World War, 1914-1918--History--United States--Maps

- World War, 1939-1945--History--United States--Maps

- Flags--United States--History--Maps

- United States--Maps

- United States

Notes

- Wall maps.

- Relief shown by hachures.

- "Copyright by E.W.A. Rowles"--On map sheets.

- Publication date inferred from rubber-stamped date: Dec. 1-1919.

- Sheet edges mounted on cloth backing.

- Available also through the Library of Congress Web site as a raster image.

- Some maps include inset.

- Includes brief description for period shown on each map and col. ill.

- Maps nos. 31, 32, 33, and 34 published separately in LC Civil War Maps (2nd ed.) under entry nos. 31, 43, 52, and 77.8 respectively.

- LC copy imperfect: Torn along fold lines and margins of some sheets.

- LC Civil War maps (2nd ed.), 31; 43; 52; 77.8

Medium

48 maps : col. ; 65 x 106 cm.

Call Number/Physical Location

G3701.S1 s2600 .M6

Repository

Library of Congress Geography and Map Division Washington, D.C. 20540-4650 USA dcu

Digital Id

http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3701sm.gct00483

http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3701s.cw0031000

http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3701s.cw0043000

http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3701s.cw0052000

http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3701s.cw0077800

Library of Congress Control Number

2009581137

Online Format

image

LCCN Permalink

https://lccn.loc.gov/2009581137

Additional Metadata Formats

MARCXML Record

MODS Record

Dublin Core Record

IIIF Presentation Manifest

Manifest (JSON/LD)

The maps in the Map Collections materials were either published prior to 1922, produced by the United States government, or both (see catalogue records that accompany each map for information regarding date of publication and source). The Library of Congress is providing access to these materials for educational and research purposes and is not aware of any U.S. copyright protection (see Title 17 of the United States Code) or any other restrictions in the Map Collection materials.

Note that the written permission of the copyright owners and/or other rights holders (such as publicity and/or privacy rights) is required for distribution, reproduction, or other use of protected items beyond that allowed by fair use or other statutory exemptions. Responsibility for making an independent legal assessment of an item and securing any necessary permissions ultimately rests with persons desiring to use the item.

Credit Line: Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division.

Citations are generated automatically from bibliographic data as a convenience, and may not be complete or accurate.

Chicago citation style:

Modern School Supply Company, and E. W. A Rowles. The comprehensive series, historical-geographical maps of the United States. [Chicago, Ill.: Modern School Supply Co, 1919] Map. https://www.loc.gov/item/2009581137/.

APA citation style:

Modern School Supply Company & Rowles, E. W. A. (1919) The comprehensive series, historical-geographical maps of the United States. [Chicago, Ill.: Modern School Supply Co] [Map] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/2009581137/.

MLA citation style:

Modern School Supply Company, and E. W. A Rowles. The comprehensive series, historical-geographical maps of the United States. [Chicago, Ill.: Modern School Supply Co, 1919] Map. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, <www.loc.gov/item/2009581137/>.

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Wall maps. Relief shown by hachures. "Copyright by E.W.A. Rowles"--On map sheets. Publication date inferred from rubber-stamped date: Dec. 1-1919. Sheet edges mounted on cloth backing. Available also through the Library of Congress Web site as a raster image. Some maps include inset. Includes brief description for period shown on each map and col.

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Shows the US states and territories and Mexico's territories in North America

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Map of US Acquisition of Lands and Territories

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Map of US Acquisition of Lands and Territories

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Shows how the US acquired or ceded land from treaties, purchases, and wars, therefore adding to its geographical and economic growth.

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Shows the movement of troops and US advances as led by specific military leaders

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Similar to the 1830 map, but now shows the Republic of Texas (Texas as an independent nation and not part of Mexico or the US)

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Social & Economic Impacts of the War in California

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Social & Economic Impacts of the War in California

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This site provides various links that help understand the social and economic impacts of the Mexican American War (the effects)

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8.8 The Social and Economic Impact of the Mexican-American War in California

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In addition to learning about the political, economic, and ideological justifications for western expansion, students study the northward movement of settlers from Mexico into the Southwest, with emphasis on the location of Mexican settlements, their cultural traditions, attitudes toward slavery, the land-grant system, and the economy that was established.

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Ten Facts about the Mexican American War

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Ten Facts about the Mexican American War

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This link gives you interesting facts, little unknowns, and ah-ha learning about the Mexican American War

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One thing united American and Mexican soldiers during the war: misery. Conditions were terrible. Both sides suffered greatly from disease, which killed seven times more soldiers than combat during the war. ​ General Winfield Scott knew this and deliberately timed his invasion of Veracruz to avoid the yellow fever season. Soldiers suffered from a variety of diseases, including yellow fever, malaria, dysentery, measles, diarrhea, cholera and smallpox. These illnesses were treated with remedies such as leeches, brandy, mustard, opium and lead. As for those wounded in combat, primitive medical techniques often turned minor wounds into life-threatening ones.

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One thing united American and Mexican soldiers during the war: misery. Conditions were terrible. Both sides suffered greatly from disease, which killed seven times more soldiers than combat during the war. ​ General Winfield Scott knew this and deliberately timed his invasion of Veracruz to avoid the yellow fever season.

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The link provides you with a timeline of main events starting in the year 1821 and ending in 1848.

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The Mexican-American War (1846-1848) was a brutal conflict between neighbors largely sparked by the US annexation of Texas and their desire to take western lands such as California away from Mexico. The war lasted about two years in total and resulted in a victory for the Americans, who benefited greatly from the generous terms of the peace treaty following the war. Here are some of the more important dates of this conflict.

Mexico gains independence from Spain and difficult and chaotic years follow.

Settlers in Texas revolt and fight for independence from Mexico.

March 1: President John Tyler signs the official proposal of statehood for Texas. Mexican leaders warn that annexing Texas could lead to war.

July 4: Texas legislators agree to annexation.

December 6: John Slidell is sent to Mexico to offer $30 million for California, but his efforts are rebuffed.

January 2: Mariano Paredes becomes President of Mexico.

March 28: General Taylor reaches the Rio Grande near Matamoros.

April 12: John Riley deserts and joins the Mexican army. Because he did so before war was officially declared, he could not legally be executed later when he was captured.

April 23: Mexico declares defensive war against the United States: it would defend its territories under attack but not take the offensive.

April 25: Captain Seth Thornton's small reconnaissance force is ambushed near Brownsville: this small skirmish would be the spark that kicked off the war.

May 3-9: Mexico lays siege to Fort Texas (later renamed Fort Brown).

May 8: Battle of Palo Alto is the first major battle of the war.

May 9: Battle of Resaca de la Palma takes place, which results in Mexican army being forced out of Texas.

May 13: US Congress declares war on Mexico.

May: The St. Patrick's Battalion is organized in Mexico, led by John Riley. It consisted largely of Irish-born deserters from the US army, but there are also men of other nationalities. It would become one of Mexico's best fighting forces in the war.

June 16: Colonel Stephen Kearny and his army leave Fort Leavenworth. They will invade New Mexico and California.

July 4: American settlers in California declare the Bear Flag Republic in Sonoma. The independent republic of California only lasted a few weeks before American forces occupied the area.

July 27: Mexican President Paredes leaves Mexico City to deal with a revolt in Guadalajara. He leaves Nicolás Bravo in charge.

August 4: Mexican President Paredes is deposed by General Mariano Salas as chief executive of Mexico; Salas re-institutes federalism.

August 13: Commodore Robert F. Stockton occupies Los Angeles, California with naval forces.

August 16: Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna returns to Mexico from exile. The Americans, hoping he would promote a peace accord, had let him back in. He quickly turned on the Americans, stepping up to lead the defense of Mexico from the invaders.

August 18: Kearny occupies Santa Fe, New Mexico.

September 20-24: The Siege of Monterrey: Taylor captures the Mexican city of Monterrey.

November 19: US President James K. Polk names Winfield Scott as leader of an invasion force. Major General Scott was a highly decorated veteran of the War of 1812 and the highest-ranking US military officer.

November 23: Scott leaves Washington for Texas.

December 6: Mexican Congress names Santa Anna President.

December 12: Kearny occupies San Diego.

December 24: Mexican General/President Mariano Salas turns over power to Santa Anna's Vice-president, Valentín Gómez Farías.

February 22-23: The Battle of Buena Vista is the last major battle in the northern theater. The Americans will hold the ground they gained until the end of the war, but not advance any farther.

March 9: Scott and his army land unopposed near Veracruz.

March 29: Veracruz falls to Scott's army. With Veracruz under control, Scott has access to resupply from the USA.

February 26: Five Mexican National Guard units (the so-called "polkos") refuse to mobilize, rebelling against President Santa Anna and Vice-President Gómez Farías. They demand repeal of a law forcing a loan from the Catholic Church to the government.

February 28: Battle of Rio Sacramento near Chihuahua.

March 2: Alexander Doniphan and his army occupy Chihuahua.

March 21: Santa Anna returns to Mexico City, takes control of the government and reaches an agreement with the rebellious polkos soldiers.

April 2: Santa Anna leaves to fight Scott. He leaves Pedro María Anaya in the Presidency.

April 18: Scott defeats Santa Anna at the Battle of Cerro Gordo.

May 14: Nicholas Trist, charged with eventually creating a treaty, arrives at Jalapa.

May 20: Santa Anna returns to Mexico City, assumes the presidency once more.

May 28: Scott occupies Puebla.

August 20: The Battle of Contreras and the Battle of Churubusco open the way for the Americans to attack Mexico City. Most of the St. Patrick's Battalion is killed or captured.

August 23: Court-martial of members of St. Patrick's Battalion at Tacubaya.

August 24: Armistice is declared between US and Mexico. It would only last about two weeks.

August 26: Court-martial of members of St. Patrick's Battalion at San Angel.

September 6: Armistice breaks down. Scott accuses Mexicans of breaking the terms and using the time on defenses.

September 8: Battle of Molino del Rey.

September 10: Sixteen members of St. Patrick's Battalion are hanged at San Angel.

September 11: Four members of St. Patrick's Battalion are hanged at Mixcoac.

September 13: Battle of Chapultepec: Americans storm gates into Mexico City. Thirty members of St. Patrick's Battalion hanged within sight of the castle.

September 14: Santa Anna moves his troops out of Mexico City. General Scott occupies the city.

September 16: Santa Anna is relieved of command. The Mexican government attempts to re-group in Querétaro. Manuel de la Peña y Peña is named President.

September 17: Polk sends recall order to Trist. He receives it on November 16 but decides to remain and finish the treaty.

February 2: Trist and Mexican diplomats agree on the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

April: Santa Anna escapes from Mexico and goes into exile in Jamaica.

March 10: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is ratified by the USA.

May 13: Mexican President Manuel de la Peña y Peña resigns. General José Joaquín de Herrera is named to replace him.

May 30: The Mexican Congress ratifies the treaty.

July 15: The last US troops depart Mexico from Veracruz.

Foos, Paul. "A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair: Soldiers and Social Conflict During the Mexican-American War." Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002.

Guardino, Peter. "The Dead March: A History of the Mexican-American War." Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2017.

McCaffrey, James M. "Army of Manifest Destiny: The American Soldier in the Mexican War, 1846-1848." New York: New York University Press, 1992.

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What Were the Major Events of the Mexican-American War?

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The Mexican-American War (1846-1848) was a brutal conflict between neighbors largely sparked by the US annexation of Texas and their desire to take western lands such as California away from Mexico. The war lasted about two years in total and resulted in a victory for the Americans, who benefited greatly from the generous terms of the peace treaty following the war.

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Provides information on the little studied or known Irish immigrants who left the U.S. military to join the Mexican forces to fight against the U.S., explaining why.

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The St. Patrick's Battalion-known in Spanish as el Batallón de los San Patricios-was a Mexican army unit comprised primarily of Irish Catholics who had defected from the invading US army during the Mexican-American War. The St. Patrick's Battalion was an elite artillery unit which inflicted great damage on the Americans during the battles of Buena Vista and Churubusco. The unit was led by Irish defector John Riley. After the Battle of Churubusco, most members of the battalion were killed or captured: most of those taken prisoner were hanged and the majority of the others were branded and whipped. After the war, the unit lasted for a short time before being disbanded.

By 1846, tensions between the USA and Mexico had reached a critical point. Mexico was enraged by the American annexation of Texas, and the USA had its eye on Mexico's sparsely populated western holdings, such as California, New Mexico, and Utah. Armies were sent to the border and it didn't take long for a series of skirmishes to flare into an all-out war. The Americans took the offensive, invading first from the north and later from the east after capturing the port of Veracruz. In September of 1847, the Americans would capture Mexico City, forcing Mexico to surrender.

Many Irish were immigrating to America at about the same time as the war, due to harsh conditions and famine in Ireland. Thousands of them joined the US army in cities like New York and Boston, hoping for some pay and US citizenship. Most of them were Catholic. The US army (and US society in general) was at that time very intolerant towards both Irish and Catholics. Irish were seen as lazy and ignorant, while Catholics were considered fools who were easily distracted by pageantry and led by a faraway pope. These prejudices made life very difficult for Irish in American society at large and particularly in the army.

In the army, the Irish were considered inferior soldiers and given dirty jobs. Chances of promotion were virtually nil, and at the beginning of the war, there was no opportunity for them to attend Catholic services (by the end of the war, there were two Catholic priests serving in the army). Instead, they were forced to attend Protestant services during which Catholicism was often vilified. Punishments for infractions such as drinking or negligence of duty were often severe. Conditions were harsh for most of the soldiers, even the non-Irish, and thousands would desert during the course of the war.

The prospect of fighting for Mexico instead of the USA had a certain attraction for some of the men. Mexican generals learned of the plight of the Irish soldiers and actively encouraged defections. The Mexicans offered land and money for anyone who deserted and joined them and sent over fliers exhorting Irish Catholics to join them. In Mexico, Irish defectors were treated as heroes and given the opportunity for promotion denied them in the American army. Many of them felt a greater connection to Mexico: like Ireland, it was a poor Catholic nation. The allure of the church bells announcing mass must have been great for these soldiers far from home.

Some of the men, including Riley, defected before the actual declaration of war. These men were quickly integrated into the Mexican army, where they were assigned to the "legion of foreigners." After the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, they were organized into the St. Patrick's Battalion. The unit was made up of primarily Irish Catholics, with a fair number of German Catholics as well, plus a handful of other nationalities, including some foreigners who had been living in Mexico before war broke out. They made a banner for themselves: a bright green standard with an Irish harp, under which was "Erin go Bragh" and the Mexican coat of arms with the words "Libertad por la Republica Mexicana." On the flip side of the banner was an image of St. Patrick and the words "San Patricio."

The St. Patricks first saw action as a unit at the Siege of Monterrey. Many of the defectors had artillery experience, so they were assigned as an elite artillery unit. At Monterrey, they were stationed in the Citadel, a massive fort blocking the entrance to the city. American General Zachary Taylor wisely sent his forces around the massive fortress and attacked the city from either side. Although the defenders of the fort did fire on American troops, the citadel was largely irrelevant to the defense of the city.

On February 23, 1847, Mexican General Santa Anna, hoping to wipe out Taylor's Army of Occupation, attacked the entrenched Americans at the Battle of Buena Vista south of Saltillo. The San Patricios played a prominent part in the battle. They were stationed on a plateau where the main Mexican attack took place. They fought with distinction, supporting an infantry advance and pouring cannon fire into the American ranks. They were instrumental in capturing some American cannons: one of the few pieces of good news for the Mexicans in this battle.

After Buena Vista, the Americans and Mexicans turned their attention to eastern Mexico, where General Winfield Scott had landed his troops and taken Veracruz. Scott marched on Mexico City: Mexican General Santa Anna raced out to meet him. The armies met at the Battle of Cerro Gordo. Many records have been lost about this battle, but the San Patricios were likely in one of the forward batteries which were tied up by a diversionary attack while the Americans circled around to attack the Mexicans from the rear: again the Mexican Army was forced to retreat.

The Battle of Churubusco was the St. Patricks' greatest and final battle. The San Patricios were divided and sent to defend one of the approaches to Mexico City: Some were stationed at a defensive works at one end of a causeway into Mexico City: the others were in a fortified convent. When the Americans attacked on August 20, 1847, the San Patricios fought like demons. In the convent, Mexican soldiers three times tried to raise a white flag, and each time the San Patricios ripped it down. They only surrendered when they ran out of ammunition. Most of the San Patricios were either killed or captured in this battle: some escaped into Mexico City, but not enough to form a cohesive army unit. John Riley was among those captured. Less than a month later, Mexico City was taken by the Americans and the war was over.

Eighty-five San Patricios were taken prisoner in all. Seventy-two of them were tried for desertion (presumably, the others had never joined the US army and therefore could not desert). These were divided into two groups and all of them were court-martialed: some at Tacubaya on August 23 and the rest at San Angel on August 26. When offered a chance to present a defense, many chose drunkenness: this was likely a ploy, as it was often a successful defense for deserters. It didn't work this time, however: all of the men were convicted. Several of the men were pardoned by General Scott for a variety of reasons, including age (one was 15) and for refusing to fight for the Mexicans. Fifty were hanged and one was shot (he had convinced the officers that he had not actually fought for the Mexican army).

Some of the men, including Riley, had defected before the official declaration of war between the two nations: this was, by definition, a much less serious offense and they could not be executed for it. These men received lashes and were branded with a D (for deserter) on their faces or hips. Riley was branded twice on the face after the first brand was "accidentally" applied upside-down.

Sixteen were hanged at San Angel on September 10, 1847. Four more were hanged the following day at Mixcoac. Thirty were hanged on September 13 in Mixcoac, within sight of the fortress of Chapultepec, where the Americans and Mexicans were battling for control of the castle. Around 9:30 a.m., as the American flag was raised over the fortress, the prisoners were hanged: it was meant to be the last thing they ever saw. One of the men hanged that day, Francis O'Connor, had both his legs amputated the day before due to his battle wounds. When the surgeon told Colonel William Harney, the officer in charge, Harney said "Bring the damned son of a bitch out! My order was to hang 30 and by God, I'll do it!"

Those San Patricios who had not been hanged were thrown in dark dungeons for the duration of the war, after which they were freed. They re-formed and existed as a unit of the Mexican army for about a year. Many of them remained in Mexico and started families: a handful of Mexicans today can trace their lineage to one of the San Patricios. Those who remained were rewarded by the Mexican government with pensions and the land that had been offered to entice them to defect. Some returned to Ireland. Most, including Riley, vanished into Mexican obscurity.

Today, the San Patricios are still a bit of a hot topic between the two nations. To Americans, they were traitors, deserters, and turncoats who defected out of laziness and then fought out of fear. They were certainly loathed in their day: in his excellent book on the subject, Michael Hogan points out that out of thousands of deserters during the war, only the San Patricios were ever punished for it (of course, they were also the only ones to take up arms against their former comrades) and that their punishment was quite harsh and cruel.

Mexicans, however, see them in a vastly different light. To Mexicans, the San Patricios were great heroes who defected because they could not stand to see the Americans bullying a smaller, weaker Catholic nation. They fought not out of fear but out of a sense of righteousness and justice. Every year, St. Patrick's Day is celebrated in Mexico, particularly in the places where the soldiers were hanged. They have received many honors from the Mexican government, including streets named after them, plaques, postage stamps issued in their honor, etc.

What's the truth? Somewhere in between, certainly. Thousands of Irish Catholics fought for America during the war: they fought well and were loyal to their adopted nation. Many of those men deserted (men of all walks of life did during that harsh conflict) but only a fraction of those deserters joined the enemy army. This lends credence to the notion that the San Patricios did so out of a sense of justice or outrage as Catholics. Some may simply have done so for recognition: they proved that they were very skilled soldiers -arguably Mexico's best unit during the war - but promotions for Irish Catholics were few and far between in America. Riley, for example, made Colonel in the Mexican army.

In 1999, a major Hollywood movie called "One Man's Hero" was made about the St. Patrick's Battalion.

Eisenhower, John S.D. So Far from God: the U.S. War with Mexico, 1846-1848. Norman: the University of Oklahoma Press, 1989

Hogan, Michael. The Irish Soldiers of Mexico. Createspace, 2011.

Wheelan, Joseph. Invading Mexico: America's Continental Dream and the Mexican War, 1846-1848. New York: Carroll and Graf, 2007.

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The History of the Saint Patrick's Battalion

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The St. Patrick's Battalion-known in Spanish as el Batallón de los San Patricios-was a Mexican army unit comprised primarily of Irish Catholics who had defected from the invading US army during the Mexican-American War. The St. Patrick's Battalion was an elite artillery unit which inflicted great damage on the Americans during the battles of Buena Vista and Churubusco.

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Shows the reasons/causes leading up to the War

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The Mexican-American War (1846 to 1848) was a long, bloody conflict between the United States of America and Mexico. It would be fought from California to Mexico City and many points in between, all of them on Mexican soil. The USA won the war by capturing Mexico City in September of 1847 and forcing the Mexicans to negotiate a truce favorable to US interests.

By 1846, the war was nearly inevitable between the USA and Mexico. On the Mexican side, the lingering resentment over the loss of Texas was intolerable. In 1835, Texas, then part of the Mexican State of Coahuila and Texas, had risen in revolt. After setbacks at the Battle of the Alamo and the Goliad Massacre, the Texan rebels stunned Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836. Santa Anna was taken prisoner and forced to recognize Texas as an independent nation. Mexico, however, did not accept Santa Anna's agreements and considered Texas nothing more than a rebellious province.

Since 1836, Mexico had half-heartedly tried to invade Texas and take it back, without much success. The Mexican people, however, clamored for their politicians to do something about this outrage. Although privately many Mexican leaders knew that reclaiming Texas was impossible, to say so in public was political suicide. The Mexican politicians outdid each other in their rhetoric saying that Texas must be brought back into Mexico.

Meanwhile, tensions were high on the Texas/Mexico border. In 1842, Santa Anna sent a small army to attack San Antonio: Texas responded by attacking Santa Fe. Not long after, a bunch of Texan hotheads raided the Mexican town of Mier: they were captured and poorly treated until their release. These events and others were reported in the American press and were generally slanted to favor the Texan side. The simmering disdain of Texans for Mexico thus spread to the entire USA.

In 1845, the USA began the process of annexing Texas to the union. This was truly intolerable for Mexicans, who may have been able to accept Texas as a free republic but never part of the United States of America. Through diplomatic channels, Mexico let it be known that to annex Texas was practically a declaration of war. The USA went ahead anyway, which left Mexican politicians in a pinch: they had to do some saber-rattling or look weak.

Meanwhile, the USA had its eye on Mexico's northwestern possessions, such as California and New Mexico. The Americans wanted more land and believed that their country should stretch from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The belief that America should expand to fill the continent was called "Manifest Destiny." This philosophy was expansionist and racist: its proponents believed that the "noble and industrious" Americans deserved those lands more than the "degenerate" Mexicans and Native Americans who lived there.

The USA tried on a couple of occasions to purchase those lands from Mexico and was rebuffed every time. President James K. Polk, however, would not take no for an answer: he meant to have California and Mexico's other western territories and he would go to war to have them.

Fortunately for Polk, the border of Texas was still in question: Mexico claimed it was the Nueces River while the Americans claimed it was the Rio Grande. In early 1846, both sides sent armies to the border: by then, both nations were looking for an excuse to fight. It wasn't long before a series of small skirmishes bloomed into war. The worst of the incidents was the so-called "Thornton Affair" of April 25, 1846, in which a squad of American cavalrymen under the command of Captain Seth Thornton was attacked by a much larger Mexican force: 16 Americans were killed. Because the Mexicans were in contested territory, President Polk was able to ask for a declaration of war because Mexico had "...shed American blood upon the American soil." Larger battles followed within two weeks and both nations had declared war on one another by May 13.

The war would last about two years, until the spring of 1848. The Mexicans and Americans would fight about ten major battles, and the Americans would win all of them. In the end, the Americans would capture and occupy Mexico City and dictate terms of the peace agreement to Mexico. Polk got his lands: according to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, formalized in May of 1848, Mexico would hand over most of the current US Southwest (the border established by the treaty is very similar to today's border between the two nations) in exchange for $15 million dollars and forgiveness of some previous debt.

Brands, H.W. Lone Star Nation: the Epic Story of the Battle for Texas Independence. New York: Anchor Books, 2004.

Eisenhower, John S.D. So Far from God: the U.S. War with Mexico, 1846-1848. Norman: the University of Oklahoma Press, 1989

Henderson, Timothy J. A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and its War with the United States.New York: Hill and Wang, 2007.

Wheelan, Joseph. Invading Mexico: America's Continental Dream and the Mexican War, 1846-1848. New York: Carroll and Graf, 2007.

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The Mexican-American War (1846 to 1848) was a long, bloody conflict between the United States of America and Mexico. It would be fought from California to Mexico City and many points in between, all of them on Mexican soil.

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Think article answers the question, "What was the Mexican American War All about?

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From 1846 to 1848, the United States of America and Mexico went to war. There were several reasons why they did so, but the most important ones were the US annexation of Texas and the Americans' desire for California and other Mexican territories. The Americans took the offensive, invading Mexico on three fronts: from the north through Texas, from the east through the port of Veracruz and into the west (present-day California and New Mexico). The Americans won every major battle of the war, mostly thanks to superior artillery and officers. In September 1847, American General Winfield Scott captured Mexico City: this was the final straw for the Mexicans, who finally sat down to negotiate. The war was disastrous for Mexico, as it was forced to sign away nearly half of its national territory, including California, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and parts of several other current US states.

American President James K. Polk intended to invade and hold the territories he wanted, so he sent General Stephen Kearny west from Fort Leavenworth with 1,700 men to invade and hold New Mexico and California. Kearny captured Santa Fe and then divided his forces, sending a large contingent south under Alexander Doniphan. Doniphan would eventually take the city of Chihuahua.

Meanwhile, the war had already begun in California. Captain John C. Frémont had been in the region with 60 men: they organized American settlers in California to revolt against the Mexican authorities there. He had the support of some US navy vessels in the area. The struggle between these men and the Mexicans went back and forth for a few months until Kearny arrived with what was left of his army. Although he was down to fewer than 200 men, Kearny made the difference: by January of 1847 the Mexican northwest was in American hands.

American General Zachary Taylor was already in Texas with his army waiting for hostilities to break out. There was already a large Mexican army on the border as well: Taylor routed it twice in early May of 1846 at the Battle of Palo Alto and the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. During both battles, superior American artillery units proved the difference.

The losses forced the Mexicans to retreat to Monterrey: Taylor followed and took the city in September of 1846. Taylor moved to the south and was engaged by a massive Mexican army under the command of General Santa Anna at the Battle of Buena Vista on February 23, 1847: Taylor once again prevailed.

The Americans hoped that they had proved their point: Taylor's invasion had gone well and California was already securely under control. They sent envoys to Mexico in the hopes of ending the war and gaining the land they desired: Mexico would have none of it. Polk and his advisors decided to send yet another army into Mexico and General Winfield Scott was selected to lead it.

The best route to get to Mexico City was to go through the Atlantic port of Veracruz. In March of 1847, Scott began landing his troops near Veracruz. After a short siege, the city surrendered. Scott marched inland, defeating Santa Anna at the Battle of Cerro Gordo on April 17-18 along the way. By August Scott was at the gates of Mexico City itself. He defeated the Mexicans at the Battles of Contreras and Churubusco on August 20, gaining a toehold into the city. The two sides agreed to a brief armistice, during which time Scott hoped the Mexicans would finally negotiate, but Mexico still refused to sign away its territories to the north.

In September of 1847, Scott attacked once again, crushing the Mexican fortification at Molino del Rey before assaulting the Chapultepec Fortress, which was also the Mexican Military Academy. Chapultepec guarded the entrance to the city: once it fell the Americans were able to take and hold Mexico City. General Santa Anna, seeing that the city had fallen, retreated with what troops he had left to unsuccessfully try and cut the American supply lines near Puebla. The major combat phase of the war had ended.

The Mexican politicians and diplomats were finally forced to negotiate in earnest. For the next few months, they met with American diplomat Nicholas Trist, who had been ordered by Polk to secure all of the Mexican northwest in any peace settlement.

In February of 1848, the two sides agreed on the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico was forced to sign over all of California, Utah, and Nevada as well as parts of New Mexico, Arizona, Wyoming, and Colorado in exchange for $15 million dollars and exoneration of about $3 million more in previous liability. The Rio Grande was established as the border of Texas. People living in these territories, including several tribes of Native Americans, reserved their properties and rights and were to be given US citizenship after a year. Lastly, future disagreements between the US and Mexico would be settled by mediation, not warfare.

Although it is often overlooked in comparison with the American Civil War, which broke out about 12 years later, the Mexican-American War was just as important to American History. The massive territories gained during the war make up a large percentage of present-day United States. As an added bonus, gold was discovered shortly thereafter in California which made the newly acquired lands even more valuable.

The Mexican-American War was in many ways a precursor to the Civil War. Most of the important Civil War Generals fought in the Mexican-American War, including Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant, William Tecumseh Sherman, George Meade, George McClellan, Stonewall Jackson, and many others. The tension between the slave states of the southern USA and the free states of the north was made worse by the addition of so much new territory: this hastened the onset of the Civil War.

The Mexican-American War made the reputations of future US Presidents. Ulysses S. Grant, Zachary Taylor, and Franklin Pierce all fought in the war, and James Buchanan was Polk's Secretary of State during the war. A Congressman named Abraham Lincoln made a name for himself in Washington by vocally opposing the war. Jefferson Davis, who would become President of the Confederate States of America, also distinguished himself during the war.

If the war was a bonanza for the United States of America, it was a disaster for Mexico. If Texas is included, Mexico lost more than half of its national territory to the USA between 1836 and 1848. After the bloody war, Mexico was in ruins physically, economically, politically and socially. Many peasant groups took advantage of the chaos of war to lead uprisings all over the country: the worst was in Yucatan, where hundreds of thousands of people were killed.

Although Americans have forgotten about the war, for the most part, many Mexicans are still irate about the "theft" of so much land and the humiliation of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Even though there is no realistic chance of Mexico ever reclaiming those lands, many Mexicans feel they still belong to them.

Because of the war, there was much bad blood between the USA and Mexico for decades: relations did not begin to improve until World War II when Mexico decided to join the Allies and make common cause with the USA.

Eisenhower, John S.D. So Far from God: the U.S. War with Mexico, 1846-1848. Norman: the University of Oklahoma Press, 1989

Henderson, Timothy J. A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and Its War with the United States.New York: Hill and Wang, 2007.

Wheelan, Joseph. Invading Mexico: America's Continental Dream and the Mexican War, 1846-1848. New York: Carroll and Graf, 2007.

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What Was the Mexican-American War About?

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From 1846 to 1848, the United States of America and Mexico went to war. There were several reasons why they did so, but the most important ones were the US annexation of Texas and the Americans' desire for California and other Mexican territories.

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This link provides information on how the Mexican American War was one important event in America's realization of its Manifest Destiny encompassing land from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

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The United States went to war with Mexico in 1846. The war lasted for two years. By the end of the war, Mexico would lose almost half its territory to the US, including lands from Texas to California. The war was a key event in American History as it fulfilled its ' manifest destiny', encompassing land from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific.

In the 1840s, America was struck with the idea of manifest destiny: the belief that the country should span from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Two areas stood in America's way of achieving this: the Oregon Territory which was occupied by both Great Britain and the US and western and southwestern lands which were owned by Mexico. Presidential candidate James K. Polk fully embraced manifest destiny, even running on the campaign slogan " 54'40" or Fight," referring to the northern latitude line to which he believed the American portion of the Oregon Territory should span. By 1846, the Oregon issue was settled with America. Great Britain agreed to set the border at the 49th parallel, a line that still stands today as the border between the US and Canada.

However, the Mexican lands were considerably harder to attain. In 1845, the US had admitted Texas as a slave state after it had achieved independence from Mexico in 1836. While the Texans believed that their southern border should be at the Rio Grande River, Mexico claimed it should be at the Nueces River, further north.

Early in 1846, President Polk sent General Zachary Taylor and American troops to protect the disputed area between the two rivers. On April 25, 1846, a Mexican cavalry unit of 2000 men crossed the Rio Grande and ambushed an American unit of 70 men led by Captain Seth Thornton. Sixteen men were killed, and five were injured. Fifty men were taken prisoner. Polk took this as an opportunity to ask Congress to declare war against Mexico. As he stated,

"But now, after reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced and that the two nations are now at war."

Two days later, on May 13, 1846, Congress declared war. However, many questioned the necessity of the war, especially northerners who feared an increase in the power of slave states. Abraham Lincoln, then the representative from Illinois, became a vocal critic of the war and argued that it was unnecessary and unwarranted.

In May 1846, General Taylor defended the Rio Grande and then led his troops from there to Monterrey, Mexico. He was able to capture this key city in September 1846. He was then told to hold his position with only 5,000 men while General Winfield Scott would lead an attack on Mexico City. Mexican General Santa Anna took advantage of this, and on February 23, 1847, near the Buena Vista Ranch met Taylor in battle with approximately 20,000 troops. After two fierce days of fighting, Santa Anna's troops retreated.

On March 9, 1847, General Winfield Scott landed at Veracruz, Mexico leading troops to invade southern Mexico. By September 1847, Mexico City fell to Scott and his troops.

Meanwhile, starting in August 1846, General Stephen Kearny's troops were ordered to occupy New Mexico. He was able to take the territory without a fight. Upon his victory, his troops were divided in two so that some went to occupy California while others went to Mexico. In the meantime, Americans living in California revolted in what was called the Bear Flag Revolt. They claimed independence from Mexico and called themselves the California Republic.

The Mexican War officially ended on February 2, 1848, when America and Mexico agreed to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. With this treaty, Mexico recognized Texas as independent and the Rio Grande as its southern border. In addition, through the Mexican Cession, America required land that included parts of present-day Arizona, California, New Mexico, Texas, Colorado, Nevada, and Utah.

America's manifest destiny would be complete when in 1853, it completed the Gadsden Purchase for $10 million, an area that includes parts of New Mexico and Arizona. They were planning to use this area to complete the transcontinental railroad.

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The United States went to war with Mexico in 1846. The war lasted for two years. By the end of the war, Mexico would lose almost half its territory to the US, including lands from Texas to California.

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This article discusses the short and long term effects of the War and how its legacy leads to the American Civil War.

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In 1847, with the conflict still raging, Secretary of State James Buchanan suggested that President James K. Polk send an emissary to Mexico to assist in bringing the war to a close. Agreeing, Polk chose Chief Clerk of the State Department Nicholas Trist and dispatched him south to join General Winfield Scott's army near Veracruz. Initially disliked by Scott, who resented Trist's presence, the emissary soon earned the general's trust and the two became close friends. With the army driving inland towards Mexico City and the enemy in retreat, Trist received orders from Washington, DC to negotiate for the acquisition of California and New Mexico to the 32nd Parallel as well as Baja California.

Following Scott's capture of Mexico City in September 1847, the Mexicans appointed three commissioners, Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain, to meet with Trist to discuss peace terms. Commencing talks, Trist's situation was complicated in October when he was recalled by Polk who was unhappy with the representative's inability to conclude a treaty earlier. Believing that the president did not fully understand the situation in Mexico, Trist elected to ignore the recall order and wrote a 65-page response to Polk outlining his reasons for doing so. Continuing to meet with the Mexican delegation, final terms were agreed to in early 1848.

The war officially ended on February 2, 1848, with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The treaty ceded to the United States the land that now comprises the states of California, Utah, and Nevada, as well as parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Colorado. In exchange for this land, the United States paid Mexico $15,000,000, less than half the amount offered by Washington prior to the conflict. Mexico also forfeited all rights to Texas and the border was permanently established at the Rio Grande. Trist also agreed that the United States would assume $3.25 million in debt owed by the Mexican government to American citizens as well as would work to curtail Apache and Comanche raids into northern Mexico. In an effort to avoid later conflicts, the treaty also stipulated that future disagreements between the two countries would be settled through compulsory arbitration.

Sent north, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was delivered to the US Senate for ratification. After extensive debate and some alterations, the Senate approved it on March 10. In the course of the debate, an attempt to insert the Wilmot Proviso, which would have banned slavery in the newly-acquired territories, failed 38-15 along sectional lines. The treaty received ratification from the Mexican government on May 19. With Mexican acceptance of the treaty, American troops began departing the country. The American victory confirmed most citizens' belief in Manifest Destiny and the nation's expansion westward. In 1854, the United States concluded the Gadsden Purchase which added territory in Arizona and New Mexico and reconciled several border issues that had arisen from the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

Like most wars in the 19th century, more soldiers died from disease than from wounds received in battle. In the course of the war, 1,773 Americans were killed in action as opposed to 13,271 dead from sickness. A total of 4,152 were wounded in the conflict. Mexican casualty reports are incomplete, but it estimated that approximately 25,000 were killed or wounded between 1846-1848.

The Mexican War in many ways may be directly connected to the Civil War. Arguments over the expansion of slavery into the newly acquired lands further heightened sectional tensions and forced new states to be added through compromise. In addition, the battlefields of Mexico served as a practical learning ground for those officers who would play prominent roles in the upcoming conflict. Leaders such as Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant, Braxton Bragg, Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, George McClellan, Ambrose Burnside, George G. Meade, and James Longstreet all saw service with either Taylor or Scott's armies. The experiences these leaders gained in Mexico helped to shape their decisions in the Civil War.

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Mexican-American War: Aftermath & Legacy

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In 1847, with the conflict still raging, Secretary of State James Buchanan suggested that President James K. Polk send an emissary to Mexico to assist in bringing the war to a close. Agreeing, Polk chose Chief Clerk of the State Department Nicholas Trist and dispatched him south to join General Winfield Scott's army near Veracruz.

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Learn fun facts, debunk myths about the battle and have historical ah-ha moments from this article.

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The "line in the sand" may have been a myth

When events become legendary, facts tend to get forgotten. Such is the case with the fabled Battle of the Alamo.

Fast Facts: The Battle of the Alamo

Short Description: The Alamo was the site of a battle that took place during Texas's bid for independence from Mexico: All defenders were killed, but within six weeks the opposition leader, Santa Anna, was captured.

Key Players/Participants: Santa Anna (president of Mexico), William Travis, Davy Crockett, Jim Bowie

Event Date: March 6, 1836

Location: San Antonio, Texas

Independence: Although the independence of a Texas republic was declared two days before the battle, the defenders did not hear of it, and it was not achieved until 1848, under the Treaty of Hidalgo Guadalupe.

Ethnic Makeup: Travis's forces at the Alamo comprised several different ethnicities: Texian (people born in Texas), Tejano (Mexican Americans), Europeans, African Americans, and recent newcomers from the United States.

The basic story of the Alamo is that rebellious Texans had captured the city of San Antonio de Béxar (modern-day San Antonio, Texas) in a battle in December 1835 and afterward had fortified the Alamo, a fortress-like former mission in the center of town. Mexican general Santa Anna appeared in short order at the head of a massive army and laid siege to the Alamo. He attacked on March 6, 1836, overrunning the approximately 200 defenders in less than two hours. None of the defenders survived. Many myths and legends have grown about the Battle of the Alamo, but the facts often give a different account.

The Alamo Battle Was Not About Texan Independence

Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821, and at the time, Texas (or rather Tejas) was part of Mexico. In 1824, Mexico's leaders wrote a federalist constitution, not much different from that of the United States, and thousands of people from the U.S. moved into the region. The new colonists brought slavery with them, and in 1829, the Mexican government outlawed slavery, specifically to discourage that influx, since slavery was not an issue in Mexico. By 1835, there were 30,000 Anglo-Americans (called Texians) in Texas, and only 7,800 Texas-Mexicans (Tejanos).

In 1832, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna took control of the Mexican government, and he annulled the constitution and set up centralist control. Some Texians and Tejanos wanted the federalist constitution back, some wanted centralist control to be based in Mexico: That was the main basis for the turmoil in Texas, not independence.

The Texans Weren't Supposed to Defend the Alamo

San Antonio was captured by rebellious Texans in December 1835. General Sam Houston felt that holding San Antonio was impossible and unnecessary, as most of the settlements of the rebellious Texans were far to the east.

Houston sent Jim Bowie to San Antonio: his orders were to destroy the Alamo and return with all of the men and artillery stationed there. Once he saw the fort's defenses, Bowie decided to ignore Houston's orders, having become convinced of the need to defend the city.

The Defenders Experienced Internal Tension

The official commander of the Alamo was James Neill. He left on family matters, however, leaving in charge Lt. Col. William Travis (a ne'er-do-well and slave owner who had no military reputation before the Alamo). The problem was that about half of the men there were not enlisted soldiers, but volunteers who technically could come, go, and do as they pleased. These men only listened to Jim Bowie, who disliked Travis and often refused to follow his orders.

This tense situation was resolved by three events: the advance of a common enemy (the Mexican army), the arrival of the charismatic and famous Davy Crockett (who proved very skilled at defusing the tension between Travis and Bowie), and Bowie's illness just before the battle.

They Could Have Escaped Had They Wished

Santa Anna's army arrived in San Antonio in late February 1836. Seeing the massive Mexican army on their doorstep, the Texan defenders hastily retreated to the well-fortified Alamo. During the first couple of days, however, Santa Anna made no attempt to seal the exits from the Alamo and the town: the defenders could very easily have slipped away in the night if they had so desired.

But they remained, trusting their defenses and their skill with their lethal long rifles. In the end, it would not be enough.

The Defenders Died Believing Reinforcements Were on the Way

Lieutenant Travis sent repeated requests to Col. James Fannin in Goliad (about 90 miles to the east) for reinforcements, and he had no reason to suspect that Fannin would not come. Every day during the siege, the defenders of the Alamo looked for Fannin and his men, but they never arrived. Fannin had decided that the logistics of reaching the Alamo in time were impossible, and in any event, his 300 or so men would not make a difference against the Mexican army and its 2,000 soldiers.

There Were Many Mexicans Among the Defenders

It's a common misconception that the Texans who rose up against Mexico were all settlers from the U.S. who decided on independence. There were many native Texans-Mexican nationals referred to as Tejanos-who joined the movement and fought every bit as bravely as their Anglo companions. Both sides included prominent Mexican citizens.

Among the 187 men in Travis's forces who died were 13 native-born Texans, 11 of Mexican descent. There were 41 Europeans, two African Americans, and the rest were Americans from states in the United States. Santa Anna's forces included a mix of former Spanish citizens, Spanish-Mexican criollos and mestizos, and several indigenous young men sent from the interior of Mexico.

They Weren't Fighting for Independence

Many of the defenders of the Alamo believed in independence for Texas, but their leaders had not declared independence from Mexico yet. It was on March 2, 1836, that delegates meeting in Washington-on-the-Brazos formally declared independence from Mexico. Meanwhile, the Alamo had been under siege for days, and it fell early on March 6, with the defenders never knowing that independence had been formally declared a few days before.

Although Texas declared itself an independent republic in 1836, the Mexican state did not recognize Texas until the signing of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848.

Davy Crockett, a famous frontiersman and former U.S. congressman, was the highest-profile defender to fall at the Alamo. Crockett's fate is unclear. According to Jose Enrique de la Pefia, one of Santa Anna's officers, a handful of prisoners, including Crockett, were taken after the battle and put to death.

The mayor of San Antonio, however, claimed to have seen Crockett dead among the other defenders, and he had met Crockett before the battle. Whether he fell in battle or was captured and executed, Crockett fought bravely and did not survive the Battle of the Alamo.

Travis Drew a Line in the Dirt. . .Maybe

According to legend, fort commander William Travis drew a line in the sand with his sword and asked all of the defenders who were willing to fight to the death to cross it: only one man refused. Legendary frontiersman Jim Bowie, suffering from a debilitating illness, asked to be carried over the line. This famous story shows the dedication of the Texans to fight for their freedom. The only problem? It probably didn't happen.

The first time the story appeared in print was in 1888, in Anna Pennybackers' "New History for Texas Schools." Pennybacker included a later often-quoted speech by Travis, with a footnote reporting that "Some unknown author has written the following imaginary speech of Travis." Pennybacker describes the line-drawing episode and puts in another footnote: "The student may wonder if none escaped from the Alamo, how we know the above to be true. The story runs, that this one man, Rose by name, who refused to step over the line, did make his escape that night. He reported the events..." Historians are doubtful.

Not Everyone Died at the Alamo

Not everyone in the fort was killed. Most of the survivors were women, children, servants, and slaves. Among them was Susanna W. Dickinson, widow of Capt. Almeron Dickinson and her infant daughter, Angelina: Dickinson later reported the fall of the post to Sam Houston in Gonzales.

Mexican dictator and general Antonio López de Santa Anna won the Battle of the Alamo, taking back the city of San Antonio and putting the Texans on notice that the war would be one without quarter.

Still, many of his officers believed he had paid too high a price. Some 600 Mexican soldiers died in the battle, compared to roughly 200 rebellious Texans. Furthermore, the brave defense of the Alamo caused many more rebels to join the Texan army. And in the end, Santa Anna lost the war, going down in defeat within six weeks.

Some Rebels Snuck into the Alamo

Some men reportedly deserted the Alamo and ran off in the days before the battle. As the Texans were facing the whole Mexican army, desertions are not surprising. Rather, what is surprising is that some men snuck into the Alamo in the days before the fatal attack. On March 1, 32 brave men from the town of Gonzales made their way through enemy lines to reinforce the defenders at the Alamo. Two days later, on March 3, James Butler Bonham, who had been sent out by Travis with a call for reinforcements, crept back into the Alamo, his message delivered. Bonham and the men from Gonzales all died during the battle.

The Source of "Remember the Alamo!"

After the Alamo battle, the soldiers under Sam Houston's command were the only obstacle between Santa Anna's attempt to reincorporate Texas into Mexico. Houston was indecisive, lacking a clear plan to meet the Mexican army, but by either chance or design, he met Santa Anna at San Jacinto on April 21, overtaking his forces and capturing him as he retreated south. Houston's men were the first to shout. "Remember the Alamo!"

The Alamo Was Not Preserved in Place

In early April 1836, Santa Anna had the structural elements of the Alamo burned, and the site was left in ruins for the next several decades, as Texas became first a republic, then a state. It was rebuilt by Maj. E. B. Babbitt in 1854, but then the Civil War interrupted.

Not until the late 1890s did two women, Adina De Zavala and Clara Driscoll, collaborate to preserve the Alamo. They and the Daughters of the Republic of Texas started a movement to rebuild the monument to its 1836 configuration.

The 350-Year Old Alamo Was a Fort for Only a Decade

The small (63 feet wide and 33 feet tall) adobe structure known as the Alamo was started in 1727 as a stone and mortar church for the Spanish Catholic Mission San Antonio de Valero. The church was still not completed when it was transferred to civil authorities in 1792. It was finished when Spanish troops arrived in 1805 but it was used as a hospital. About this time it was renamed the Alamo ("cottonwood" in Spanish), after the Spanish military company that occupied it.

During the Mexican War of Independence, it briefly (1818) housed Mexican forces under the command of Jose Bernardo Maximiliano Gutierrez and William Agustus Magee. In 1825, it finally became the permanent quarters for a garrison of men, under the direction of Anastacio Bustamante, the captain general of the Provincias Internas.

At the time of the Battle of the Alamo, however, the structure had become dilapidated. Martin Perfecto de Cos at Bexar arrived in late 1835 and put the Alamo into "fort fashion" by building a dirt ramp up to the top rear of the church wall and covering it with planks. He installed an 18-pounder cannon and mounted a half-dozen other cannons. and the Mexican army defended it in the battle of December 1835, when it was further damaged.

Chang, Robert S. "Forget the Alamo: Race Courses as a Struggle over History and Collective Memory." Berkeley La Raza Law Journal 13.Article 1 (2015). Print.

Flores, Richard R. "Memory-Place, Meaning, and the Alamo." American Literary History 10.3 (1998): 428-45. Print.

---. "Private Visions, Public Culture: The Making of the Alamo." Cultural Anthropology 10.1 (1995): 99-115. Print.

Fox, Anne A., Feris A. Bass, and Thomas R. Hester. "The Archaeology and History of Alamo Plaza." Index of Texas Archaeology: Open Access Gray Literature from the Lone Star State 1976 (1976). Print.

Grider, Sylvia Ann. "How Texans Remember the Alamo." Usable Pasts. Ed. Tuleja, Tad. Traditions and Group Expressions in North America. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1997. 274-90. Print.

Matovina, Timothy. "San Fernando Cathedral and the Alamo: Sacred Place, Public Ritual, and Construction of Meaning." Journal of Ritual Studies 12.2 (1998): 1-13. Print.

Matovina, Timothy M. "The Alamo Remembered: Tejano Accounts and Perspectives." Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995. Print.

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15 Fascinating Facts About the Battle of the Alamo

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The "line in the sand" may have been a myth When events become legendary, facts tend to get forgotten. Such is the case with the fabled Battle of the Alamo. Short Description: The Alamo was the site of a battle that took place during Texas's bid for independence from Mexico: All defenders were killed, but within six weeks the opposition leader, Santa Anna, was captured.

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Main Battles of the Mexican American War

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Main Battles of the Mexican American War

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Discover the main battles that defined the War.

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California to Mexico City: the Battles of the Mexican-American War

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During the Mexican-American War, the rival armies met in battle from California to Mexico City. Here you'll find descriptions of the major engagements.

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Learn about the Battle of the Alamo and the events leading to the Texas Revolution and the birth of the Lone Star Republic.

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Battle of the Alamo - Conflict & Dates:

The siege of the Alamo took place from February 23 to March 6, 1836, during the Texas Revolution (1835-1836).

Armies & Commanders:

Texans

Mexicans

General Antonio López de Santa Anna

Background:

In the wake of the Battle of Gonzales which opened the Texas Revolution, a Texan force under Stephen F. Austin encircled the Mexican garrison in the town of San Antonio de Béxar. On December 11, 1835, after an eight-week siege, Austin's men were able to compel General Martín Perfecto de Cos to surrender. Occupying the town, the defenders were paroled with the requirement that they forfeit the majority of their supplies and weapons as well as not fight against the Constitution of 1824. The fall of Cos' command eliminated the last major Mexican force in Texas. Returning to friendly territory, Cos provided his superior, General Antonio López de Santa Anna, with information about the uprising in Texas.

Santa Anna Prepares:

Seeking to take a hard line with the rebelling Texans and angered by perceived American interference in Texas, Santa Anna ordered a resolution passed stating that any foreigners found fighting in the province would be treated as pirates. As such, they would be immediately executed. While these intentions were communicated to US President Andrew Jackson, it is unlikely that many of the American volunteers in Texas were aware of the Mexican intention to forego taking prisoners. Establishing his headquarters at San Luis Potosí, Santa Anna began assembling an army of 6,000 with the goal of marching north and putting down the revolt in Texas. In early 1836, after adding 20 guns to his command, he began marching north through Saltillo and Coahuila.

Fortifying the Alamo:

To the north in San Antonio, Texan forces were occupying the Misión San Antonio de Valero, also known as the Alamo. Possessing a large enclosed courtyard, the Alamo had first been occupied by Cos' men during siege of the town the previous fall. Under the command of Colonel James Neill, the future of the Alamo soon proved a matter of debate for the Texan leadership. Far from the majority of the province's settlements, San Antonio was short on both supplies and men. As such, General Sam Houston advised that the Alamo be demolished and directed Colonel Jim Bowie to take a force of volunteers to accomplish this task. Arriving on January 19, Bowie found that work to improve the mission's defenses had been successful and he was persuaded by Neill that the post could be held as well as that it was an important barrier between Mexico and the Texas settlements.

During this time Major Green B. Jameson had constructed platforms along the mission's walls to allow the emplacement of captured Mexican artillery and to provide firing positions for infantry. Though useful, these platforms left the upper bodies of the defenders exposed. Initially manned by about 100 volunteers, the mission's garrison grew as January passed. The Alamo was again reinforced on February 3, with the arrival of 29 men under Lieutenant Colonel William Travis. A few days later, Neill, departed to deal with an illness in his family and left Travis in charge. Travis' ascent to command did not sit well with Jim Bowie. A renowned frontiersman, Bowie argued with Travis over who should lead until it was agreed that the former would command the volunteers and the latter the regulars. Another notable frontiersman arrived on February 8, when Davy Crockett rode into the Alamo with 12 men.

The Mexicans Arrive:

As preparations moved forward, the defenders, relying on faulty intelligence, came to believe that the Mexicans would not arrive until mid-March. To the surprise of the garrison, Santa Anna's army arrived outside of San Antonio on February 23. Having marched through driving snow and foul weather, Santa Anna reached the town a month sooner than the Texans anticipated. Surrounding the mission, Santa Anna sent a courier requesting the Alamo's surrender. To this Travis responded by firing one of the mission's cannon. Seeing that the Texans planned to resist, Santa Anna laid siege to the mission. The next day, Bowie fell ill and full command passed to Travis. Badly outnumbered, Travis sent out riders asking for reinforcements.

Under Siege:

Travis's calls went largely unanswered as the Texans lacked the strength to fight Santa Anna's larger army. As the days passed the Mexicans slowly worked their lines closer to the Alamo, with their artillery reducing the mission's walls. At 1:00 AM, on March 1, 32 men from Gonzales were able to ride through the Mexican lines to join the defenders. With the situation grim, legend states that Travis drew a line in the sand and asked all those willing to stay and fight to step over it. All except one did.

The Final Assault:

At dawn on March 6, Santa Anna's men launched their final attack on the Alamo. Flying a red flag and playing the El Degüello bugle call, Santa Anna signaled that no quarter would be given to the defenders. Sending 1,400-1,600 men forward in four columns they overwhelmed the Alamo's tiny garrison. One column, led by General Cos, broke through the mission's north wall and poured into the Alamo. It is believed that Travis was killed resisting this breach. As the Mexicans entered the Alamo, brutal hand-to-hand fighting ensued until almost the entire garrison had been killed. Records indicate that seven may have survived the fighting, but were summarily executed by Santa Anna.

Battle of the Alamo - Aftermath:

The Battle of the Alamo cost the Texans the entire 180-250-man garrison. Mexican casualties are disputed but were approximately 600 killed and wounded. While Travis and Bowie were killed in the fighting, Crockett's death is a subject of controversy. While some sources state that he was killed during the battle, others indicate that he was one of the seven survivors executed on Santa Anna's orders. Following his victory at the Alamo, Santa Anna moved quickly to destroy Houston's small Texas Army. Outnumbered, Houston began retreating towards the US border. Moving with a flying column of 1,400 men, Santa Anna encountered the Texans at San Jacinto on April 21, 1836. Charging the Mexican camp, and yelling "Remember the Alamo," Houston's men routed Santa Anna's troops. The next day, Santa Anna was captured effectively securing Texan independence.

Selected Sources

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The siege of the Alamo took place from February 23 to March 6, 1836, during the Texas Revolution (1835-1836). Texans Mexicans General Antonio López de Santa Anna In the wake of the Battle of Gonzales which opened the Texas Revolution, a Texan force under Stephen F.

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Learn how the Texas Revolution led to Texas declaring its independence and becoming its own nation from 1836-1846

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The Texas Revolution (1835-1836) was a political and military insurrection by settlers and inhabitants of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Texas against the Mexican government. Mexican forces under General Santa Anna attempted to crush the rebellion and had victories at the legendary Battle of the Alamo and the Battle of Coleto Creek, but in the end, they were defeated at the Battle of San Jacinto and forced to leave Texas. The revolution was successful, as the present-day US state of Texas broke off from Mexico and Coahuila and formed the Republic of Texas.

In the 1820's, Mexico wished to attract settlers to the vast, sparsely populated State of Coahuila y Texas, which consisted of the present-day Mexican State of Coahuila as well as the US State of Texas. American settlers were eager to go, as the land was plentiful and good for farming and ranching, but Mexican citizens were reluctant to relocate to a backwater province. Mexico reluctantly allowed Americans to settle there, provided they became Mexican citizens and converted to Catholicism. Many took advantage of colonization projects, such as the one led by Stephen F. Austin, while others simply came to Texas and squatted on vacant land.

The settlers soon chafed under Mexican rule. Mexico had just won its independence from Spain in 1821, and there was much chaos and infighting in Mexico City as liberals and conservatives struggled for power. Most Texas settlers approved of the Mexican constitution of 1824, which granted many freedoms to states (as opposed to federal control). This constitution was later rescinded, angering the Texans (and many Mexicans as well). The settlers also wanted to split from Coahuila and form a state in Texas. The Texan settlers were initially offered tax breaks which were later taken away, causing further discontent.

By 1835, troubles in Texas had reached a boiling point. Tensions were always high between Mexicans and American settlers, and the unstable government in Mexico City made things that much worse. Stephen F. Austin, long a believer in staying loyal to Mexico, was jailed without charges for a year and a half: when he was finally released, even he was in favor of independence. Many Tejanos (Texan-born Mexicans) were in favor of independence: some would go on to fight valiantly at the Alamo and other battles.

The first shots of the Texas Revolution were fired on October 2, 1835, in the town of Gonzales. The Mexican authorities in Texas, nervous about the increased hostility with the Texans, decided to disarm them. A small squad of Mexican soldiers was sent to Gonzales to retrieve a cannon stationed there to fight off Indian attacks. The Texans in the town did not allow the Mexicans entry: after a tense standoff, the Texans fired on the Mexicans. The Mexicans swiftly retreated, and in the whole battle there was but one casualty on the Mexican side. But the war had begun and there was no going back for the Texans.

With the outbreak of hostilities, Mexico began making preparations for a massive punitive expedition north, to be led by President/General Antonio López de Santa Anna. The Texans knew they had to move quickly to consolidate their gains. The rebels, led by Austin, marched on San Antonio (then more commonly referred to as Béxar). They laid siege for two months, during which time they fought off a Mexican sally at the Battle of Concepción. In early December, the Texans attacked the city. Mexican General Martín Perfecto de Cos conceded defeat and surrendered: by December 12 all Mexican forces had left the city.

The Mexican army arrived in Texas, and in late February laid siege to the Alamo, a fortified old mission in San Antonio. Some 200 defenders, among them William Travis, Jim Bowie, and Davy Crockett, held out to the last: the Alamo was overrun on March 6, 1836, and all within were slain. Less than a month later, about 350 rebellious Texans were captured in battle and then executed days later: this was known as the ​ Goliad Massacre. These twin setbacks seemed to spell doom for the nascent rebellion. Meanwhile, on March 2, a congress of elected Texans officially declared Texas independent from Mexico.

After the Alamo and Goliad, Santa Anna assumed he had beaten the Texans and divided his army. Texan General Sam Houston caught up to Santa Anna on the banks of the San Jacinto River. On the afternoon of April 21, 1836, Houston attacked. Surprise was complete and the attack turned first into a rout, then into a massacre. Half of Santa Anna's men were killed and most of the others were taken prisoner, including Santa Anna himself. Santa Anna signed papers ordering all Mexican forces out of Texas and recognizing the independence of Texas.

Mexico would make several half-hearted attempts to re-take Texas, but after all Mexican forces left Texas following San Jacinto, they never had a realistic chance of re-conquering their former territory. Sam Houston became the first President of Texas: he would serve as Governor and Senator later when Texas accepted statehood. Texas was a republic for almost ten years, a time which was marked by many troubles, including tension with Mexico and the US and difficult relations with local Indian tribes. Nevertheless, this period of independence is looked back upon with great pride by modern Texans.

Even before Texas split from Mexico in 1835, there were those in Texas and the USA that were in favor of statehood in the USA. Once Texas became independent, there were repeated calls for annexation. It wasn't so simple, however. Mexico had made it clear that while it was forced to tolerate an independent Texas, annexation would likely lead to war (in fact, the US annexation was a factor in the outbreak of the 1846-1848 Mexican-American War). Other sticking points included whether slavery would be legal in Texas and the federal assumptions of Texas' debts, which were considerable. These difficulties were overcome and Texas became the 28th state on December 29, 1845.

Brands, H.W. Lone Star Nation: the Epic Story of the Battle for Texas Independence. New York: Anchor Books, 2004.

Henderson, Timothy J. A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and its War with the United States.New York: Hill and Wang, 2007.

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The Texas Revolution and the Republic of Texas

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The Texas Revolution (1835-1836) was a political and military insurrection by settlers and inhabitants of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Texas against the Mexican government. Mexican forces under General Santa Anna attempted to crush the rebellion and had victories at the legendary Battle of the Alamo and the Battle of Coleto Creek, but in the end, they were defeated at the Battle of San Jacinto and forced to leave Texas.

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Learn about America's expansion west, its fulfillment of Manifest Destiny leading to the Mexican American War

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War & Expansion: Crash Course US History #17

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History Channel - Why Mexico Lost (article and video)

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History Channel - Why Mexico Lost (article and video)

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Learn why Mexico won at the Alamo, but then lost the Mexican American War

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Why Mexico Won the Alamo but Lost the Mexican-American War | HISTORY

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In the Mexican-American War, Mexico faced an enemy that was coming into its own as a military power.

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Facts about Manifest Destiny - the origin (coining of the phrase), expansion events leading to Mexican American War, the conflict over the spread of slavery and to the Civil War

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Manifest Destiny, a phrase coined in 1845, is the idea that the United States is destined—by God, its advocates believed—to expand its dominion and spread

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Lumen Learning - Texas, America and the War

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Lumen Learning - Texas, America and the War

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This article covers a lot - causes, events and battles, and effects

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Before the debate over slavery in the West reached a national level, the issue became one of the prime forces behind the Texas revolution and that republic's annexation to the United States. After gaining its independence from Spain in 1821 Mexico hoped to attract new settlers to its northern areas in order to create a buffer between it and the expanding western populations of the United States. New immigrants, mostly from the southern United States, poured into Texas. Over the next twenty-five years, concerns over growing Anglo influence and possible American designs on Texas produced great friction between Mexican and American populations. In 1829, Mexico, hoping to quell anger and immigration, outlawed slavery and required all new immigrants to convert to Catholicism. American immigrants, eager to expand their agricultural fortunes, largely ignored these requirements. In response, Mexican authorities closed their territory to any new immigration in 1830- a prohibition roundly elided by Americans who often squatted on public lands.

In 1834, an internal conflict between federalists and centralists in the Mexican government led to the political ascendency of General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. Santa Anna, Governing as a dictator, repudiated the federalist Constitution of 1824, pursued a policy of authoritarian central control, and crushed several revolts throughout Mexico prompted by his coup. Texian settlers opposed Santa Anna's centralizing policies and met in November after issued a statement of purpose that emphasized their commitment to the Constitution of 1824 and declared Texas to be a separate state within Mexico. After angry Mexican rejection of the offer, Texian leaders soon abandoned their fight for the Constitution of 1824 and declared independence on March 2, 1836. The Texas Revolution of 1835-1836 was a successful secessionist movement in the northern district of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas that resulted in an independent Republic of Texas.

At the Alamo and Goliad, Santa Anna crushed smaller rebel forces and massacred hundreds of Texian prisoners. The Mexican army pursued the retreating Texian army deep into East Texas, spurring a mass panic and evacuation by Anglo civilians known as the "Runaway Scrape." Santa Anna consistently failed to make adequate defensive preparations and was eventually caught by surprise on April 21, 1836 by an attack from the outnumbered Texian army led by Sam Houston. The battle of San Jacinto lasted only eighteen minutes and resulted in a decisive victory for the Texians, who retaliated for previous Mexican atrocities by continuing to kill fleeing and surrendering Mexican troops for hours after the initial assault. Santa Anna was captured in the aftermath and compelled to sign the Treaty of Velasco on May 14, 1836, by which he agreed to withdraw his army from Texas and acknowledged Texas independence. Although a new Mexican government never recognized the Republic of Texas, the United States and several other nations gave the new country diplomatic recognition.

Texas annexation had remained a political landmine since the Republic declared independence from Mexico in 1836. American politicians feared that adding Texas to the Union would provoke a war with Mexico and re-ignite sectional tensions by throwing off the balance between free and slave states. However, after his expulsion from the Whig party, President John Tyler saw Texas statehood as the key to saving his political career. In 1842, he began work on opening annexation to national debate. Harnessing public outcry over the issue, Democrat James K. Polk rose from virtual obscurity to win the presidential election of 1844. Polk and his party campaigned on promises of westward expansion, with eyes toward Texas, Oregon, and California. In the final days of his presidency, Tyler at last extended an official offer to Texas on March 3, 1845. The republic accepted on July 4, becoming the twenty-eighth state.

Mexico denounced annexation as "an act of aggression, the most unjust which can be found recorded in the annals of modern history." However, perhaps the most important point of conflict between Mexico and the United States was a narrow strip of land to which both countries now laid claim. While Mexico drew the southwestern border of Texas at the Nueces River, Texans had claimed that the border lay roughly 150 miles further west at the Rio Grande. Neither claim was realistic. The sparsely populated area, known as the Nueces strip, was in fact controlled by independent Indian tribes.

In November of 1845, President Polk secretly dispatched John Slidell to Mexico City in order to attempt a purchase of the Nueces strip along with large sections of New Mexico and California. The mission was an empty gesture, designed largely to pacify those in Washington who insisted on diplomacy before war. Predictably, officials in Mexico City refused to receive Slidell. Earlier that year, Polk had also sent a 4,000 man army under General Zachary Taylor to Corpus Christi, Texas; just northeast of the Nueces River. Upon word of Slidell's refusal in January 1846, Polk ordered Taylor to cross into the disputed territory. The President hoped that this show of force would push the lands of California onto the bargaining table as well. He badly misread the situation. After losing Texas, the Mexican public strongly opposed surrendering any more ground to U.S. expansionism. Popular opinion left the shaky government in Mexico City without room to negotiate. On April 24, Mexican cavalrymen attacked a detachment of Taylor's troops just north of the Rio Grande, killing eleven U.S. soldiers.

It took two weeks for the news to reach Washington. Polk sent a message to Congress on May 11. "We have tried every effort at reconciliation...but now, after reiterated menaces, Mexico...has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil." However, with fighting already underway, a vote against war became a vote against supporting American soldiers under fire. Congress passed a declaration of war on May 13. Only a few members of both parties, notably John Quincy Adams and John C. Calhoun, voted against the measure. However, opposition to "Mr. Polk's War" soon grew widespread. Upon declaring war in 1846, Congress issued a call for 50,000 volunteer soldiers. Spurred by promises of adventure and conquest abroad, thousands of eager men flocked to assembly points across the country.

In the early fall of 1846, the U.S. Army invaded Mexico on multiple fronts and within a year's time General Winfield Scott's men took control of Mexico City. However, the city's fall did not bring an end to the war. Scott's men occupied Mexico's capital for over four months while the two countries negotiated. In the United States, the war had been controversial from the beginning. Embedded journalists sent back detailed reports from the front lines, and a divided press spun and debated the news viciously. Volunteers found that the real experience of war was not as they expected. Disease killed seven times as many American soldiers as combat did. Harsh discipline, conflict within the ranks, and violent clashes with civilians led soldiers to desert in huge numbers. Peace finally came on February 2, 1848 with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

The new American Southwest attracted a diverse group of entrepreneurs and settlers to the commercial towns of New Mexico, the fertile lands of eastern Texas, and the famed gold deposits of California and the Rocky Mountain chains. This postwar migration built upon migration to the region dating back to the 1820s, when the lucrative Santa Fe trade enticed merchants to New Mexico and generous land grant opportunities brought numerous settlers to Texas. The Gadsden Purchase of 1854 further added to American gains north of Mexico.

The U.S.-Mexican War had an enormous impact on both countries. The American victory helped set the United States on the path to becoming a world power, elevated Zachary Taylor to the presidency, and served as a training ground for many of the Civil War's future commanders. Most significantly, however, Mexico lost roughly half of its territory. Yet, the United States' victory was not without danger. Ralph Waldo Emerson predicted ominously at the beginning of the war that, "Mexico will poison us." Indeed, the conflict over whether or not to extend slavery into the newly won territory pushed the nation ever closer to disunion and civil war.

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Before the debate over slavery in the West reached a national level, the issue became one of the prime forces behind the Texas revolution and that republic's annexation to the United States. After gaining its independence from Spain in 1821 Mexico hoped to attract new settlers to its northern areas in order to create a buffer between it and the expanding western populations of the United States.

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Newsela Article

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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Translate any articles or docs to Spanish using this link

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Tech giants Google, Microsoft and Facebook are all applying the lessons of machine learning to translation, but a small company called DeepL has outdone them all and raised the bar for the field.
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DeepL Translate: The world's most accurate translator

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Translate texts & full document files instantly. Accurate translations for individuals and Teams. Millions translate with DeepL every day.

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Learn about the aftermath of the Mexican American War and how it impacted the debate over the spread of slavery into the newly won/acquired western states.

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David Wilmot proposal divided both parties along sectional lines.

By the standards of his day, David Wilmot could be considered a racist.

Yet the Pennsylvania representative was so adamantly against the extension of slavery to lands ceded by Mexico, he made a proposition that would divide the Congress. On August 8, 1846, Wilmot introduced legislation in the House that boldly declared, "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist" in lands won in the Mexican-American War. If he was not opposed to slavery, why would Wilmot propose such an action? Why would the north, which only contained a small, but growing minority, of abolitionists, agree?

Provided, That, as an express and fundamental condition to the acquisition of any territory from the Republic of Mexico by the United States, by virtue of any treaty which may be negotiated between them, and to the use by the Executive of the moneys herein appropriated, neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of said territory, except for crime, whereof the party shall first be duly convicted.
- The Wilmot Proviso, 1846

The status of the territories regarding slavery had not been decided by the beginning of the Mexican War. Even before the war ended the issue of slavery in the region of the Mexican Cession was a hot-button political issue.

Wilmot and other northerners were angered by President Polk. They felt that the entire Cabinet and national agenda were dominated by southern minds and southern principles. Polk was willing to fight for southern territory, but proved willing to compromise when it came to the north. Polk had lowered the tariff and denied funds for internal improvements, both to the dismay of northerners. Now they felt a war was being fought to extend the southern way of life. The term "Slave Power" jumped off the lips of northern lawmakers when they angrily referred to their southern colleagues. It was time for northerners to be heard.

Salmon P. Chase, commemorated on the $10,000 bill, founded the Free Soil Party in 1848. This party advocated an end to the spread of American slavery and elected 14 representatives and two senators to the federal government.

Though Wilmot's heart did not bleed for the slave, he envisioned California as a place where free white Pennsylvanians could work without the competition of slave labor. Since the north was more populous and had more Representatives in the House, the Wilmot Proviso passed. Laws require the approval of both houses of Congress, however. The Senate, equally divided between free states and slave states could not muster the majority necessary for approval. Angrily the House passed Wilmot's Proviso several times, all to no avail. It would never become law.

For years, the arguments for and against slavery were debated in the churches and in the newspapers. The House of Representatives had passed a gag rule forbidding the discussion of slavery for much of the previous decade. The issue could no longer be avoided. Lawmakers in the House and Senate, north and south, would have to stand up and be counted.

As a part of Mexico, which abolished slavery in 1829, California had no slave tradition, and its citizens saw no reason to import one. But there were many other reasons that 4 out of 5 Californians insisted on admission as a free state.
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Former President Martin Van Buren split from the Democratic Party over the slavery issue and ran for President as the Free Soil candidate in 1848.
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David Wilmot proposal divided both parties along sectional lines. By the standards of his day, David Wilmot could be considered a racist. Yet the Pennsylvania representative was so adamantly against the extension of slavery to lands ceded by Mexico, he made a proposition that would divide the Congress.

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Destino manifiesto de la: la idea detrás de la expansión hacia el oeste de Estados Unidos

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Destino manifiesto de la: la idea detrás de la expansión hacia el oeste de Estados Unidos

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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Mexican American War and the Debate over the Spread of Slavery (video)

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Mexican American War and the Debate over the Spread of Slavery (video)

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The Mexican-American war (1846-1848) changed the slavery debate. It almost doubled the size of the United States and began a debate, between Northerners and Southerners, over what to do with the newly acquired land.

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American Experience
Clip: Season 25 Episode 12 | 1m 10s |

The Mexican-American war (1846-1848) changed the slavery debate. It almost doubled the size of the United States and began a debate, between Northerners and Southerners, over what to do with the newly acquired land.

Aired: 01/15/13

Rating: NR

The full episode is no longer available for online streaming. Why?

Please continue to enjoy extra(s) from this episode. The full episode is still available for purchase through the "Buy Now" links.

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American Experience | Slavery and the Mexican-American War | Season 25 | Episode 12

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American Experience Clip: Season 25 Episode 12 | 1m 10s | The Mexican-American war (1846-1848) changed the slavery debate. It almost doubled the size of the United States and began a debate, between Northerners and Southerners, over what to do with the newly acquired land.

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Information on: Missouri Compromise, Mexican American War, Fugitive Slave Laws, Uncle Tom's Cabin, etc.

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#9   Slavery and the Western Territories

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Nineteenth-century Americans settled the western United States, but displaced Native Americans in the homesteading process. Tim and Moby look at the concept of Manifest Destiny.

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The history of Texas is truly unique. Trace its journey from foreign territory to independent nation to 28th state in the union!