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Journal References:

Armenta-Medina, A., Gillmor, C. S., Gao, P., Mora-Macias, J., Kochian, L. V., Xiang, D., & Datla, R. (2020). Developmental and genomic architecture of plant embryogenesis: From model plant to crops. Plant Communications, 100136.

Baskin, C. C., & Baskin, J. M. (2020). Breaking Seed Dormancy during Dry Storage: A Useful Tool or Major Problem for Successful Restoration via Direct Seeding?. Plants (Basel, Switzerland), 9(5), 636. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9050636

Bentsink, L., & Koornneef, M. (2008). Seed dormancy and germination. The arabidopsis book, 6, e0119. https://doi.org/10.1199/tab.0119

Dapar, M. L. G. (2020). Cinnamomum mercadoi S. Vidal Lauraceae. Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, 1-6.

Dong, H. Q., Li, M., Zhu, F., Liu, F. L., & Huang, J. B. (2012). Inhibitory potential of trilobatin from Lithocarpus polystachyus Rehd against α-glucosidase and α-amylase linked to type 2 diabetes. Food Chemistry, 130(2), 261-266.

Finch-Savage, W. E., & Footitt, S. (2017). Seed dormancy cycling and the regulation of dormancy mechanisms to time germination in variable field environments. Journal of Experimental Botany, 68(4), 843-856. doi:10.1093/jxb/erw477

Jürgens, G. (1995). Axis formation in plant embryogenesis: Cues and clues. Cell, 81(4), 467-470. doi:10.1016/0092-8674(95)90065-9

Jurgens, G. (2001). Apical-basal pattern formation in Arabidopsis embryogenesis. The EMBO Journal, 20(14), 3609-3616. doi:10.1093/emboj/20.14.3609

Kalita, H., Boruah, D. C., Deori, M., Hazarika, A., Sarma, R., Kumari, S., ... & Devi, R. (2016). Antidiabetic and antilipidemic effect of Musa balbisiana root extract: a potent agent for glucose homeostasis in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat. Frontiers in pharmacology, 7, 102.

Kildisheva, O. A., Dixon, K. W., Silveira, F. A., Chapman, T., Sacco, A. D., Mondoni, A., . . . Cross, A. T. (2020). Dormancy and germination: Making every seed count in restoration. Restoration Ecology, 28(S3). doi:10.1111/rec.13140

Kimura, E., & Islam, M. A. (2012). Seed Scarification Methods and their Use in Forage Legumes. Research Journal of Seed Science, 5(2), 38-50. doi:10.3923/rjss.2012.38.50

Magadula, J. J. (2014). Phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Macaranga: a review. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 8(12), 489-503.

Park, H., Ko, C., Lee, S., Kim, S., Yang, J., & Lee, K. (2019). Ecophysiology of seed dormancy and germination in four Lonicera (Caprifoliaceae) species native to Korea. Journal of Ecology and Environment, 43(1). doi:10.1186/s41610-019-0121-8

Peng, W., Liu, Y. J., Wu, N., Sun, T., He, X. Y., Gao, Y. X., & Wu, C. J. (2015). Areca catechu L.(Arecaceae): a review of its traditional uses, botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 164, 340-356.

Pritchard, S. L., Charlton, W. L., Baker, A., & Graham, I. A. (2002). Germination and storage reserve mobilization are regulated independently in Arabidopsis. The Plant Journal, 31(5), 639-647. doi:10.1046/j.1365-313x.2002.01376.x

Robert, H., Grones, P., Stepanova, A., Robles, L., Lokerse, A., Alonso, J., . . . Friml, J. (2013). Local Auxin Sources Orient the Apical-Basal Axis in Arabidopsis Embryos. Current Biology, 23(24), 2506-2512. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2013.09.039

Su, S., Gibbs, N. M., Jancewicz, A. L., & Masson, P. H. (2017). Molecular Mechanisms of Root Gravitropism. Current Biology, 27(17). doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.07.015

Wolny, E., Betekhtin, A., Rojek, M., Braszewska-Zalewska, A., Lusinska, J., & Hasterok, R. (2018). Germination and the Early Stages of Seedling Development in Brachypodium distachyon. International journal of molecular sciences, 19(10), 2916. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19102916

Zhang, Y., & Friml, J. (2020). Auxin guides roots to avoid obstacles during gravitropic growth. The New phytologist, 225(3), 1049–1052. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.16203

Online Database

Genesys. (n.d.). NPGRL National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory. Genesys-Pgr.Org. Retrieved May 23, 2021, from https://www.genesys-pgr.org/partners/aaa02346-762a-4798-a306-f77553479df1

International Rice Research Institute. (2020, June 5). International Rice Genebank. https://www.irri.org/international-rice-genebank

Online Articles

Bengwayan, M. A. (2020, December 10). Philippine Indigenous NGO Seed Banking For Food Security. Eurasia Review. https://www.eurasiareview.com/10122020-philippine-indigenous-ngo-seed-banking-for-food-security-oped/

Image Reference:

Cornell University Vascular Plant Herbarium. (n.d.). Retrieved May 23, 2021, from http://phytoimages.siu.edu/

De Leon, M. D. (2016). Bulbophyllum gnomoniferum (Orchidaceae) PhytoImages.siu.edu. PhytoImages.Siu.Edu. http://www.phytoimages.siu.edu/imgs/pelserpb/r/Orchidaceae_Bulbophyllum_gnomoniferum_108598.html

GRAIN. (2007). A genebank in tatters. https://grain.org/article/entries/4203-a-genebank-in-tatters

Pelser, P. B., & Barcelona, J. F. (2016). Cinnamomum mercadoi (Lauraceae). PhytoImages.Siu.Edu. http://phytoimages.siu.edu/imgs/pelserpb/r/Lauraceae_Cinnamomum_mercadoi_108898.html

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Contributing to the embryonic axis formation is the presence of a polarized auxin transport (e.g., PIN7) that delivers auxin into the cell and activates downstream signaling pathways. PIN7 is a suspensor-specific auxin carrier that mediates the flow of auxin from the suspensor cell to the proembryo, where auxin response can contribute to the specification of the proembryo. Furthermore, various genes participate and contribute to the development of the seedling. Some include genes like the YUC3, YUC4, and YUC9 genes that are expressed in the suspensor cell. These are responsible for controlling localized auxin biosynthesis in the embryo (Robert et al., 2013). In the later stages, such as during the formation of the shoot meristem, a continuous expression of genes like Knotted1 (Kn1) contributes in the generation of shoot meristems on the leaves of seedlings. A homolog of this gene, the shoot meristem-less (STM) gene, also participates in tissue regeneration aside from shoot meristem formation (Jurgens, 1995). Additionally, some genes are only expressed by either the apical or basal cell. One example is the meristem layer 1 (AtML1) that is expressed by the apical cell, thus, it becomes strictly expressed in the epidermis primordium of the embryo. This and other genes that participate in the asymmetric division of the zygote contributes to the formation of the apical-basal polarity of the embryo (Jurgens, 2001).

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Seeds develop tissues and organs by following a polarization along a longitudal axis that extends between the shoot and root apical meristems and along a radial axis that extends between the center and the surface of both the shoot and root. The formation of these axes begin as early as in the zygote. During the formation of the apical-basal axis, the zygote elongates and starts to polarize, causing an asymmetrical division in the zygote into a densely cytoplasmic apical cell and a vacuolated basal cell. The apical cell undergoes division to become an 8-cell globular embryo, which will eventually become almost the entire embryo and subsequently, the mature plant. The basal cell also undergoes division to produce a suspensor, which connects the embryo to the parent plant’s vascular system, and a hypophysis, which eventually fuses with the mature embryo. Further division also causes hypophysis to contribute to the formation of the columnella, tissues of the root cap, and the quiescent center in the root apical meristem. Once it develops into a seedling, the cotyledon and the shoot apical meristem develop from the apical region, the hypocotyl, root, and apical regions of the root meristem develop from the middle region, and lastly, the rest of the root meristem develop from the hypophysis. It is worth noting that during the 8-cell stage, the cells divide periclinally, meaning they divide parallel to the tissue surface, forming a layer called the protoderm, which forms the epidermis later on. Moreover, the growth of the embryo causes the cells to divide anticlinally, meaning they divide perpendicular to the tissue surface, in order to widen the area of the tissue (Taiz et al., 2015).

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Despite these differences, similarities in concepts are observed. Perhaps the most fundamental of these relates to polarity. Originating from the single-celled zygote, embryos become progressively more polarized throughout their development along two axes: an apical– basal axis, which runs between the tips of the embryonic shoot and root, and a radial axis, perpendicular to the apical–basal axis, which extends from the center of the plant outward (Taiz et al., 2015).

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In gramineous plants, which are monocots, five stages are also recognized:

1. Zygote Stage. This is the first stage which is the result of fertilization. As compared to the zygote of dicots, the upper portion of this is larger, which gives it its irregular shape.

2. Proembryo Stage. Stage. After fertilization, the first cell division is asymmetrical, and lead to the formation of the apical and basal cell. Because the apical cell divides more rapidly as compared to the basal cell, it becomes the embryo

3. Globular Stage. The proembryo in the globular stage is similar to dicots, except that the suspensor is not a single or double row of cells and is less differentiated. In the late globular stage, the outer epidermal layer is evident and a group of cells on one side of the proembryo divides more rapidly. These will give rise to the embryo axis.

4. Coleoptilar Stage. The embryo axis differentiates into the plumule and radicle. In monocots, the embryo axis also has a specialized tissue surrounding the shoot and root tissue to aid in emergence during germination. These are the coleoptile and coleorhiza, respectively.

5. Mature Stage. Although their early embryo development of monocots is somehow similar to dicots, their mature embryo is evidently more complex in structure.

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In Arabidopsis, a representative for eudicots, five stages, each of which is linked to the shape of the embryo, are widely recognized:

1. Zygotic stage. The first stage of the diploid life cycle starts when the haploid sperm and egg fuse to form the single-celled zygote. Polarized growth of this cell, followed by an asymmetric transverse division, gives rise to a small apical cell and an elongated basal cell.

2. Globular stage. The apical cell undergoes a series of divisions to generate a spherical, eight-cell globular embryo, exhibiting radial symmetry, which undergoes cell divisions to increase its number of cells in the globular embryo. This results in the outer layer, the protoderm, which later becomes the epidermis.

3. Heart stage. Focused cell division in two regions occurs on either side of the future shoot apical meristem to form the two cotyledons, giving the embryo a heart-shaped bilateral symmetry.

4. Torpedo stage. Throughout the embryonic axis, cell elongation and cellular differentiation processes occur. Visible distinctions between the adaxial and abaxial tissues of the cotyledons may be observed.

5. Mature stage. This resulting embryo forms after the continuation of cell division, leading to the increase in overall size and elongation of the cotyledons. This embryo relatively looks very simple as compared to that of monocots.

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MONOCOT VS. EUDICOT EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

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MONOCOT VS. EUDICOT EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

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A comparison of embryogenesis in Arabidopsis (A), a eudicot, with that of a gramineous plant (B), a monocot, illustrates differences in embryo size, shape, cell number, and division patterns (Taiz et al., 2015; Armenta-Medina et al., 2020).

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As plants grow and mature, they respond to external stimuli in order to continuously adapt to their environment, thus, altering their growth and development patterns. Factors such as light, gravity, and touch influence the tropism or growth response of plants, which may be positive (towards the stimulus) or negative (away from the stimulus). The first is gravitropism, a growth in response to gravity. Shoots, which grow upward and against gravity exhibit negative gravitropism, while roots, which grow downward into the soil in order to obtain water and nutrients exhibit positive gravitropism. Next is phototropism, a growth in response to light. Shoots, which grow toward the sunlight in order to maximize photosynthesis exhibit a positive phototropism, while roots, which grow downward and away from the sunlight exhibit negative phototropism. Lastly, thigmotropism is the differential growth in response to touch (Taiz et al., 2015). Gravitropism, in particular, involves several steps: (1) gravity sensing and signal transduction within statocytes, (2) signal translocation to responding zone, and (3) curvature response, promoting growth. Gravity sensing primarily occurs in the root cap, which is responsible for inducing the gravitropism response along roots. Within statocytes in the root cap are statoliths or amyloplasts (starch-filled plastids), which sediment and occupy the bottom half, triggering a signal transduction pathway that influences the downward curvature of the root. The presence of auxin also plays a role in the gravitropism response of roots. Gravity sensing within the root cap causes a change in auxin polarity, causing a lateral redistribution across the root cap. Thus, an auxin gradient from the cap to the elongation zone forms. This is the Cholodny-Went hypothesis (Su et al., 2017). In phototropism, phototropins 1 (phot1) and 2 (phot2) are the two photoreceptors that are primarily responsible for the phototropic bending of shoots as they trigger a cascade of signaling events that are posttranslational to support this response. Exposure to unilateral blue light triggers photot1 to autophosphorylate and hence, becomes activated, which then phosphorylates the auxin transporter, ABCB19, briefly inhibiting long-distance transport of auxin, which results in the accumulation of auxin above the cotyledonary node. This is followed by a PIN3-mediated basipetal auxin transport on the shaded side of the shoot, which now results in the accumulation of auxin on this side, hence, an increase in auxin concentration. This finally causes the shoot to exhibit a positive phototropism response, bending toward the blue light source (Taiz et al., 2015). Lastly, in thigmotropism, the cells beneath the touched surfaces of the plant produce auxin, which stimulates signaling pathways that would cause a rapid redirection of auxin flow towards areas of untouched cells to produce auxins, which would eventually initiate bending around the stimulus (Zhang & Friml, 2020).

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MECHANISM BEHIND THE MOBILIZATION OF FOOD RESERVES

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MECHANISM BEHIND THE MOBILIZATION OF FOOD RESERVES

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The mobilization of food reserves within the cotyledon or endosperm follows shortly once germination is complete, providing nutrients and energy to the seedling until it becomes photoautotrophic. The major food reserves are carbohydrates like starches, proteins, and lipids (Pritchard et al., 2002). Starch is stored in amyloplasts and is degraded by both ɑ- and β-amylase. The former specifically hydrolyzes the starch chains to produce oligosaccharides with ɑ(1,4)-linked glucose residues. These oligosaccharides are then degraded by the latter, β-amylase, to produce a disaccharide, i.e., maltose. With the aid of the enzyme, maltase, maltose is converted to glucose, which is a vital factor in the process of photosynthesis. Next, protein storage vacuoles are the primary source of amino acids, which are utilized for protein synthesis within the seedling. These structures contain phytin, the K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ salt of phytic acid that stores phosphate within seeds, which is hydrolyzed by the enzyme, phytase, to release phosphate and other ions that would aid in the growth of the seedling. Lastly, oil bodies contain lipids, such as triacylglycerol (TAG) and phospholipids, which are high-energy carbon sources (Taiz et al., 2015). TAG, in particular, is cleaved by lipases, causing the release of fatty acids that are then broken down by enzymes through β-oxidation and the glyoxylate cycle. Cereals are great examples for showing the mobilization of food reserves. Specifically for rice, wheat, and barley, both abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellic acid (GA) are responsible for regulating the expression of various genes that encode enzymes required for the mobilization of carbohydrates and proteins (Pritchard et al., 2002).

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Water uptake is a vital process in seed germination driven by water potential gradients in order to develop a turgor pressure to influence cell expansion within the seed. It occurs in three phases, beginning when (1) the dry seed rapidly takes up water through imbibition. (2) Fully hydrated seeds continue to imbibe water but at a limited and constant rate, reinitiating cellular and metabolic processes. This results in the expansion in the embryo and the emergence of the coleorhiza/radicle from the seed coat. With that, (3) normal water uptake resumes rapidly due to the decrease in water potential, resulting in the loosening of the cell wall and an overall expansion in the cell. This fully mobilizes the stored food reserves and eventually completes the germination process (Taiz et al., 2015; Wolny et al., 2018).

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marks the beginning of a plant’s developmental phase. It is a process wherein the mature seed begins to grow by primarily taking up water and lasts until the embryonic axis emerges. It occurs when seeds are exposed to favorable conditions due to the presence of light, oxygen, an appropriate temperature, soil components like nitrate, and water, which is most essential for the seed during this stage. Seed germination in monocot species is characterized by the initial growth of the coleorhiza instead of the radicle, which is the first to grow in seeds of eudicot species (Taiz et al., 2015). Furthermore, at this stage of a plant’s development, the cell cycle, which is a crucial part of seedling formation, is activated. This event is regulated by protein kinases and phosphatases through reversible phosphorylation, and by five groups of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKA-CDKE) along with their cyclin subunits (CYC). CDKAs and CDKBs, in particular, are necessary for G1-S and G2-M transitions and mitosis, respectively. Cyclins are classified into five groups (A, B, C, D, H), with A-type cyclins being expressed during the S, G2, and M phases, the B-type cyclins accumulating during the G2-M phases and regulating entry to the M phase, and D-type cyclins controlling the advancement from the G1 to the S phase and occasionally from the G2 to the M phase as well. All these events are in preparation for the final stages of seed germination, where the cell cycle continues in both the root and shoot meristems and becomes dependent on gibberellic acid (GA), a hormone that promotes seed germination (Wolny et al., 2018).

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Seed dormancy may be broken through scarification techniques, which involves inflicting physical damage to the hard seed coat without affecting the embryo. The various scarification methods are mechanical, chemical, heat, and freeze-thaw scarification. Mechanical scarification makes use of clippers, probes, or scarifiers (e.g., sandpaper, nail file) that are rubbed against the hard seed coat to slightly damage it. Chemical scarification involves soaking the seeds in acid, usually sulfuric acid, for a certain amount of time to soften its hard seed coat. The effectiveness of this specific method depends on several factors including the duration of scarification, the concentration of the acid used, and the plant species and cultivar used. Heat scarification may be conducted by using either a dry heat oven or a hot water bath, both of which are effective at appropriate temperatures and durations. Lastly, freeze-thaw scarification involves subjecting the seeds to cool and warm conditions to make the seed coat brittle as well as giving it small scars to enhance germination. The force applied to the seed depends on its size, shape, water content, as well as treatment intensity and duration Kimura & Islam, 2012). Additionally, another way of breaking seed dormancy is through after-ripening during a period of dry storage of seeds (Baskin & Baskin, 2020).

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Guioa koelreuteriana of Family Sapindaceae (left; Pelser & Barcelona, 2018); Colletia spinosissima of Family Rhamnaceae (right; Pelser, 2010)

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Calochortus apiculatus of Family Liliaceae (left; M. Costea & G. Costea, 2019); Aralia bipinnata of Family Araliaceae (right; Pelser & Barcelona 2012)

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Cinnamomum mercadoi (Pelser & Barcelona, 2016)

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If we were to give seeds of 10 native species from this plant area, we would select five rare and endemic plants and five native plants. We would want to give seeds of five endemic species from Mount Apo to international seed banks considering that there are no seed banks in the Philippines that comprehensively stores seeds for all native and endemic species. We would like to do so to protect and preserve these rare species, and so that their seeds may be used for future scientific research.

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Adonidia merrilii of Family Arecaceae (left; Pelser & Barcelona, 2015); Aristolochia durior of Family Aristolochiaceae (right; M. Costea & G. Costea, 2013)

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Cerastium arvense of Family Caryophyllaceae (left; M. Costea & G. Costea, 2018); Drosera spatulata of Family Droseraceae (right; Pelser & Barcelona, 2019)

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Bixa orellana of Family Bixaceae (left); Canna indica of Family Cannaceae (right)
(Morrow, 2016)

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Seed dormancy is a phenomenon wherein a seed does not germinate despite being exposed to environmental factors (e.g., water, oxygen, appropriate temperature) that would normally allow it to grow. Seeds may exhibit either primary or secondary dormancy. The former occurs when mature and newly dispersed seeds are unable to germinate even in favorable conditions due to the presence of abscisic acid (ABA), which is responsible for promoting seed dormancy in plants. Secondary dormancy, on the other hand, occurs when seeds are exposed to unfavorable conditions that would inhibit them from germinating. It is evident that seeds exhibit dormancy for different reasons but mainly for their survival, especially during dispersal over long distances, cycling in the soil seed bank, and exposure to unfavorable conditions (Taiz et al., 2015). This phenomenon is further divided into five categories: (1) physical - PY, (2) physiological - PD, (3) morphological - MD, (4) morphophysiological - MPD, and (5) combinational - PY+PD (Park et al., 2019). Seeds with PY have water-impermeable teguments in their seed coat; seeds with PD are most abundant, preventing germination from occurring until it undergoes chemical changes, i.e., stratification (Finch-Savage & Footitt, 2017; Bentsink & Koornneef, 2008); seeds with MD have underdeveloped but differentiated embryos that only require time to fully grow and germinate; seeds with MPD are characterized by a combination of MD and PD, thus, they have underdeveloped embryos that require time to grow and undergo a chemical change to break dormancy (Park et al., 2019); and lastly, seeds with PY+PD have water-impermeable seed coats and have embryos that need to undergo chemical changes in order to break dormancy. Examples of seeds with different types of dormancy are shown below (Kildisheva et al., 2020).

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The image below shows the different  structures of certain monocot and eudicot seeds (Taiz et al., 2015).

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The five medicinal plants that we selected are Cinnamomum mercadoi, Lithocarpus sp., Areca catechu, Musa balbisiana,  and Macaranga bicolor. All these species have been discovered to have medicinal properties or have been used as ethno-medicinal plants (Dapar, 2020: Kalita, 2016; Magadla, 2014; Peng, 2015). Further research can still be done on these species, elucidating more about their molecular mechanisms and medicinal effects so it would be good to preserve their seeds for future research.

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The other four endemic species we selected are Gymnopachis pulcherrima, Aglaia apoana, Ardisia apoensis, and Acoridium elmeri. What's common about these species is that although they are considered endemic, they have problems in their taxonomic position, which would require further research to declare them truly distinct species from their closest relatives. Moreover, data on these species are not updated. Storing their seeds in seed banks would increase the assurance that future research on these species would still be possible and their genetic material would be safe, regardless of what unfortunate environmental catastrophe that would occur in their native home.

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(GRAIN, 2007)

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There is already been an established national seed bank in the Philippines such as the National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory (NPGRL) of the Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB), College of Agriculture and Food Science (CAFS), University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB). It serves as the national repository of important and potentially useful agricultural crops including the wild and weedy relatives, currency housing over 30,000 accessions of 300 species. Also known as the Genebank, NPGRL continuously undertakes acquisition, characterization, conservation and management, regeneration and documentation of plant genetic resources which are stored  as seeds, live plants in the field, greenhouse, nursery and in vitro. It actively participates in activities to increase utilization and exchange of plant genetic resources to provide plant germplasm materials as sources of genetic variability to IPB and to both national and international crop improvement programs (Genesys. n.d.)

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(De Leon, 2016)

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Bulbophyllum gnomoniferum
This plant is very rare, and has no other recorded synonym. Little is known about this species with only one taxonomic study that mentions 14 years ago (Agoo, 2007).

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is the most prominent mountain in the Philippines, having an elevation of 2,954 meters (9,692 ft) above sea level. It is a solfataric, dormant stratovolcano on the island of Mindanao, Philippines, located between Davao City and Davao del Sur province and Cotabato It is home to more than a thousand species of flora and fauna, many of which are endemic only to the mountain and its vicinity.

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Furthermore, in early 2020, the World Bank released an official announcement of possible serious food shortages in at least 60 developing countries that might lead to social unrest. The warning served as a sign that global food security is being threatened and there is a pressing need to address the origins of the problem, such as continuous erosion and loss of crop genetic material. Food crops are being lost globally, with some of them being owned and controlled by few corporations. One way to end this is to get communities more involved in seed banking for their own future. In support of this global seed banking movement, the Cordillera Ecological Center, better known as PINE TREE which is composed of several indigenous peoples operating in the Cordillera region has established four community seed banking sites in the Philippines for food security. One of these community seed banks is located in Lusod, Kabayan, also in Benguet where 29 endemic sweet potato varieties are now being grown for many uses by the Kalanguya and Ibaloi tribes (Bengwayan, 2020).

It can be observed that the seed banks currently found in the Philippines are only for useful crop species, somehow similar to the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, although still very far in terms of size. These seed banks focus more on agricultural use rather than comprehensive biodiversity conservation like that of the Kew Millennium Seed Bank, which harbors all sorts of plant types and species regardless of agricultural use.

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(IRRI, 2020)

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Also located in the Philippines is the International Rice Genebank, maintained by the  International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), which holds more than 132,000 available accessions as of December 2019, including cultivated species of rice, wild relatives, and species from related genera. The IRRI works to ensure the long-term preservation of rice biodiversity as part of the global strategy for the conservation of rice genetic resources, in collaboration with national programs and regional and international organizations, including the CGIAR Research Program for Managing and Sustaining Crop Collections (IRRI, 2020)

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A seed bank is a repository of seeds created for several reasons, primarily for the preservation of genetic diversity which in a sense, makes it a type of gene bank as well. Stored seeds are kept in a constant low moisture and low temperature environment guarding them against any loss of genetic material and preventing them from proceeding to physiological processes such as germination. Most seed banks are publicly funded and seeds are usually available for research that benefits the public.

Plant gene preservation is very important as it gives plant breeders the access to genes responsible for certain crop adaptations such as disease resistance, drought tolerance, yield increase, and many more. Seed banks also function to conserve biodiversity by preventing the loss of genetic diversity in endangered and rare plant species. Some seed banks serve as backups for staple crops in case of calamities that would cause crop food shortages. Furthermore, seed banks don’t only preserve biodiversity, but they also preserve the history and culture of humans by storing seeds that have been used centuries ago that are not being used as frequently today (Thompson, 1987).