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Dr. Marc Brackett, the founder and Director of the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, talks about how developing emotional intelligence skills helps children and adults to lead more successful lives.

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Emotional Intelligence in Children and Adults | Expert Videos

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Enhancing MLs/ELs' Academic Resilience - Lamprea, 2020

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Enhancing MLs/ELs' Academic Resilience - Lamprea, 2020

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MLs/ELs' Emotion Education - Samples of Evidence-Based Practices

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MLs/ELs' Emotion Education - Samples of Evidence-Based Practices

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MLsELs’ Emotion Education - Evidence-Based Practices

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What Is Emotional Intelligence?

Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions. Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others claim it's an inborn characteristic.

The ability to express and control emotions is essential, but so is the ability to understand, interpret, and respond to the emotions of others. Imagine a world in which you could not understand when a friend was feeling sad or when a co-worker was angry. Psychologists refer to this ability as emotional intelligence, and some experts even suggest that it can be more important than IQ in your overall success in life.

How Emotional Intelligence Is Measured

A number of different assessments have emerged to measure levels of emotional intelligence. Such tests generally fall into one of two types: self-report tests and ability tests.

Self-report tests are the most common because they are the easiest to administer and score. On such tests, respondents respond to questions or statements by rating their own behaviors. For example, on a statement such as "I often feel that I understand how others are feeling," a test-taker might describe the statement as disagree, somewhat disagree, agree, or strongly agree.

Ability tests, on the other hand, involve having people respond to situations and then assessing their skills. Such tests often require people to demonstrate their abilities, which are then rated by a third party.

If you are taking an emotional intelligence test administered by a mental health professional, here are two measures that might be used:

Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is an ability-based test that measures the four branches of Mayer and Salovey's EI model. Test-takers perform tasks designed to assess their ability to perceive, identify, understand, and manage emotions.

Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI) is based on an older instrument known as the Self-Assessment Questionnaire and involves having people who know the individual offer ratings of that person's abilities in several different emotional competencies. The test is designed to evaluate the social and emotional abilities that help distinguish people as strong leaders.

There are also plenty of more informal online resources, many of them free, to investigate your emotional intelligence.

Components

Researchers suggest that there are four different levels of emotional intelligence including emotional perception, the ability to reason using emotions, the ability to understand emotions, and the ability to manage emotions.﻿﻿

1. Perceiving emotions: The first step in understanding emotions is to perceive them accurately. In many cases, this might involve understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial expressions.

2. Reasoning with emotions: The next step involves using emotions to promote thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions help prioritize what we pay attention and react to; we respond emotionally to things that garner our attention.

3. Understanding emotions:The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide variety of meanings. If someone is expressing angry emotions, the observer must interpret the cause of the person's anger and what it could mean. For example, if your boss is acting angry, it might mean that they are dissatisfied with your work, or it could be because they got a speeding ticket on their way to work that morning or that they've been fighting with their partner.

4. Managing emotions: The ability to manage emotions effectively is a crucial part of emotional intelligence and the highest level. Regulating emotions and responding appropriately as well as responding to the emotions of others are all important aspects of emotional management.

The four branches of this model are arranged by complexity with the more basic processes at the lower levels and the more advanced processes at the higher levels. For example, the lowest levels involve perceiving and expressing emotion, while higher levels require greater conscious involvement and involve regulating emotions.

Impact of Emotional Intelligence

Interest in teaching and learning social and emotional intelligence has grown in recent years. Social and emotional learning (SEL) programs have become a standard part of the curriculum for many schools.

The goal of these initiatives is not only to improve health and well-being but also to help students succeed academically and prevent bullying. There are many examples of how emotional intelligence can play a role in daily life.

Thinking Before Reacting

Emotionally intelligent people know that emotions can be powerful, but also temporary. When a highly charged emotional event happens, such as becoming angry with a co-worker, the emotionally intelligent response would be to take some time before responding. This allows everyone to calm their emotions and think more rationally about all the factors surrounding the argument.

Greater Self-Awareness

Emotionally intelligent people are not only good at thinking about how other people might feel but they are also adept at understanding their own feelings. Self-awareness allows people to consider the many different factors that contribute to their emotions.

Empathy for Others

A large part of emotional intelligence is being able to think about and empathize with how other people are feeling. This often involves considering how you would respond if you were in the same situation.

Emotional intelligence can be used in many different ways in your daily life. Some different ways to practice emotional intelligence include:

Being able to accept criticism and responsibility

Being able to move on after making a mistake

Being able to say no when you need to

Being able to share your feelings with others

Being able to solve problems in ways that work for everyone

Having empathy for other people

Having great listening skills

Knowing why you do the things you do

Not being judgemental of others

Emotional intelligence is essential for good interpersonal communication. Some experts believe that this ability is more important in determining life success than IQ alone. Fortunately, there are things that you can do to strengthen your own social and emotional intelligence.

Tips for Improving EI

Being emotionally intelligent is important, but what steps can you take to improve your own social and emotional skills? Here are some tips.

If you want to understand what other people are feeling, the first step is to pay attention. Take the time to listen to what people are trying to tell you, both verbally and non-verbally. Body language can carry a great deal of meaning. When you sense that someone is feeling a certain way, consider the different factors that might be contributing to that emotion.

Picking up on emotions is critical, but you also need to be able to put yourself into someone else's shoes in order to truly understand their point of view. Practice empathizing with other people. Imagine how you would feel in their situation. Such activities can help you build an emotional understanding of a specific situation as well as develop stronger emotional skills in the long-term.

The ability to reason with emotions is an important part of emotional intelligence. Consider how your own emotions influence your decisions and behaviors. When you are thinking about how other people respond, assess the role that their emotions play.

Why is this person feeling this way? Are there any unseen factors that might be contributing to these feelings? How to your emotions differ from theirs? As you explore such questions, you may find that it becomes easier to understand the role that emotions play in how people think and behave.

Potential Pitfalls

Having lower emotional intelligence skills can lead to a number of potential pitfalls that can affect multiple areas of life including work and relationships.

Being low on emotional intelligence can have a number of drawbacks, but having a very high level of emotional skills can also come with challenges. For example:

Research suggests that people with high emotional intelligence may actually be less creative and innovative.﻿﻿

Highly emotionally intelligent people may have a hard time delivering negative feedback for fear of hurting other people's feelings.

Research has found that high EQ can sometimes be used for manipulative and deceptive purposes.﻿﻿

History of Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence as a term didn't come into our vernacular until around 1990. Despite being a relatively new term, interest in the concept has grown tremendously since then.

Early Growth

As early as the 1930s, the psychologist Edward Thorndike described the concept of "social intelligence" as the ability to get along with other people. During the 1940s, psychologist David Wechsler proposed that different effective components of intelligence could play an important role in how successful people are in life.

Later Developments

The 1950s saw the rise of the school of thought known as humanistic psychology, and thinkers such as Abraham Maslow focused greater attention on the different ways that people could build emotional strength.

Another important concept to emerge in the development of emotional intelligence was the notion of multiple intelligences. This concept was put forth in the mid-1970s by Howard Gardner, introducing the idea that intelligence was more than just a single, general ability.

The Emergence of Emotional Intelligence

It was not until 1985 that the term "emotional intelligence" was first used by in a doctoral dissertation by Wayne Payne. In 1987, an article published in Mensa Magazine, Keith Beasley uses the term "emotional quotient."

In 1990, psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer published their landmark article, "Emotional Intelligence," in the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality. They defined emotional intelligence as "the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions."

The topic of emotional intelligence has continued to capture the public interest since and has become important in fields outside of psychology including education and business.

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Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions. Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others claim it's an inborn characteristic. The ability to express and control emotions is essential, but so is the ability to understand, interpret, and respond to the emotions of others.

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Self-Science Curriculum: An Early Version of Social-Emotional Learning, SEL

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Self-Science Curriculum: An Early Version of Social-Emotional Learning, SEL

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In his book, Daniel Goleman described the Self-Science curriculum, a model for teaching emotional intelligence that had been used at schools for about 20 years. The components of the Self- Science course included self-awareness of own feelings, personal decision-making, managing feelings and monitoring self-talk, handling stress, empathy, communication of feelings, self-disclosure to build trust in relationships, insight to identify emotional patterns, self-acceptance, personal responsibility, assertiveness to state concerns and feelings without anger or passivity, group dynamics and cooperation, and conflict resolution.

More Information Below:
Open in a new window. The article starts on  p. 126.

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In 1990, Jack Mayer and Peter Salovey coined the concept of emotional intelligence through three mental processes that involved emotional information:
a) appraising and expressing emotions in the self and others
b) regulating emotions in the self and others
c) using emotions in adaptive ways
Later, they presented the "Four Branch Model of EI."

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The Four Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence

The four branch model of emotional intelligence describes four areas of capacities or skills that collectively describe many of areas of emotional intelligence (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). More specifically, this model defines emotional intelligence as involving the abilities to:

accurately perceive emotions in oneself and others

use emotions to facilitate thinking

understand emotional meanings, and

manage emotions

1. PERCEIVING EMOTION. The initial, most basic, area has to do with the nonverbal reception and expression of emotion. Evolutionary biologists and psychologists have pointed out that emotional expression evolved in animal species as a form of crucial social communication. Facial expressions such as happiness, sadness, anger, and fear, were universally recognizable in human beings. Emotions researchers, evolutionary biologists, specialists in nonverbal behavior, and others, have made tremendous inroads into understanding how human beings recognize and express emotions. The capacity to accurately perceive emotions in the face or voice of others provides a crucial starting point for more advanced understanding of emotions.

2. USING EMOTIONS TO FACILITATE THOUGHT. The second area appeared every bit as basic as the first. This was the capacity of the emotions to enter into and guide the cognitive system and promote thinking. For example, cognitive scientists pointed out that emotions prioritize thinking. In other words: something we respond to emotionally, is something that grabs our attention. Having a good system of emotional input, therefore, should helped direct thinking toward matters that are truly important. As a second example, a number of researchers have suggested that emotions are important for certain kinds of creativity to emerge. For example, both mood swings, and positive moods, have been implicated in the capacity to carry out creative thought.

3. UNDERSTANDING EMOTIONS. Emotions convey information: Happiness usually indicates a desire to join with other people; anger indicates a desire to attack or harm others; fear indicates a desire to escape, and so forth. Each emotion conveys its own pattern of possible messages, and actions associated with those messages. A message of anger, for example, may mean that the individual feels treated unfairly. The anger, in turn, might be associated with specific sets of possible actions: peacemaking, attacking, retribution and revenge-seeking, or withdrawal to seek calmness. Understanding emotional messages and the actions associated with them is one important aspect of this area of skill.

Once a person can identify such messages and potential actions, the capacity to reason with and about those emotional messages and actions becomes of importance as well. Fully understanding emotions, in other words, involves the comprehension of the meaning of emotions, coupled with the capacity to reason about those meanings. It is central to this group of emotionally intelligent skills.

(For a more advanced discussion of emotional information, see the section, "Similarities and Differences Between Emotional and Cognitive Information" in this article).

4. MANAGING EMOTIONS. Finally, emotions often can be managed. A person needs to understand emotions convey information. To the extent that it is under voluntary control, a person may want to remain open emotional signals so long as they are not too painful, and block out those that are overwhelming. In between, within the person's emotional comfort zone, it becomes possible to regulate and manage one's own and others' emotions so as to promote one's own and others' personal and social goals. The means and methods for emotional self-regulation has become a topic of increasing research in this decade.

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The Four Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence

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The four branch model of emotional intelligence describes four areas of capacities or skills that collectively describe many of areas of emotional intelligence (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). More specifically, this model defines emotional intelligence as involving the abilities to: accurately perceive emotions in oneself and others use emotions to facilitate thinking understand emotional meanings, and manage emotions 1.

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In his 1996 bestseller, "Emotional Intelligence," Daniel Goleman defied the narrow view of intelligence in the concept of IQ– intelligence quotient–and disseminated the term as skills that included “self-control, zeal and persistence, and the ability to motivate oneself” (p. iii).

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Daniel Goleman - Emotional Intelligence, Social Intelligence, Ecological Intelligence

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Welcome to the website and blog of psychologist Daniel Goleman, Ph.D., author of the New York Times bestseller Emotional Intelligence and Social Intelligence: The New Science of Human Relationships. Dr. Goleman is an internationally known psychologist who lectures frequently to professional groups, business audiences, and on college campuses.

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A learning module created by Marc Brackett, Sarah Delaney, and Peter Salovey from Yale University.

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Marc Brackett, Sarah Delaney, and Peter Salovey
Yale University

In this module, we review the construct of emotional intelligence by examining its underlying theoretical model, measurement tools, validity, and applications in real-world settings. We use empirical research from the past few decades to support and discuss competing definitions of emotional intelligence and possible future directions for the field.

Learning Objectives

Understand the theoretical foundations of emotional intelligence and the relationship between emotion and cognition.

Distinguish between mixed and ability models of emotional intelligence.

Understand various methods for measuring emotional intelligence.

Describe emotional intelligence's evolution as a theoretical, success-oriented, and achievement-based framework.

Identify and define key concepts of emotional intelligence (including emotion regulation, expression of emotion, understanding emotion, etc.) and the ways they contribute to decision making, relationship building, and overall well-being.

Imagine you are waiting in line to buy tickets to see your favorite band. Knowing tickets are limited and prices will rise quickly, you showed up 4 hours early. Unfortunately, so did everyone else. The line stretches for blocks and hasn't moved since you arrived. It starts to rain. You are now close to Will Call when you notice three people jump ahead of you to join their friends, who appear to have been saving a spot for them. They talk loudly on their cellphones as you inch forward, following the slow procession of others waiting in line. You finally reach the ticket counter only to have the clerk tell you the show is sold out. You notice the loud group off to the side, waving their tickets in the air. At this exact moment, a fiery line of emotion shoots through your whole body. Your heart begins to race, and you feel the urge to either slam your hands on the counter or scream in the face of those you believe have slighted you. What are these feelings, and what will you do with them?

After a serious disappointment or injustice how hard is it to keep control of your emotions? [Image: DCist, https://goo.gl/o9EZOG, CC BY-2.0, https://goo.gl/zHmGV2]

Emotional intelligence (EI) involves the idea that cognition and emotion are interrelated. From this notion stems the belief that emotions influence decision making, relationship building, and everyday behavior. After spending hours waiting eagerly in the pouring rain and having nothing to show for it, is it even possible to squelch such intense feelings of anger due to injustice? From an EI perspective, emotions are active mental processes that can be managed, so long as individuals develop the knowledge and skills to do so. But how, exactly, do we reason with our emotions? In other words, how intelligent is our emotion system?

To begin, we'll briefly review the concept of standard, or general, intelligence. The late American psychologist, David Wechsler, claimed that intelligence is the "global capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with their environment" (Wechsler, 1944). If we choose to accept this definition, then intelligence is an operational process through which we learn to utilize our internal abilities in order to better navigate our surroundings-a process that is most certainly similar to, if not impacted by, our emotions. In 1990, Drs. Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer first explored and defined EI. They explained EI as "the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and use this information to guide one's thinking and actions" ( Salovey & Mayer, 1990). EI, according to these researchers, asserts that all individuals possess the ability to leverage their emotions to enhance thinking, judgment, and behavior. This module aims to unpack this theory by exploring the growing empirical research on EI, as well as what can be learned about its impact on our daily lives.

Perhaps Aristotle might have revised his statement about people not being "defeated by their emotion" if he was ever stuck in rush hour traffic. [CC0 Public Domain, https://goo.gl/m25gce]

Traditionally, many psychologists and philosophers viewed cognition and emotion as separate domains, with emotion posing a threat to productive and rational thinking. Have you ever been told not to let your emotions get in the way of your decisions? This separation of passion and reason stretches as far back as early ancient Greece ( Lyons, 1999). Additionally, mid-20th century scholars explained emotions as mentally destabilizing forces ( Young, 1943). Yet, there are traces throughout history where the intersection of emotion and cognition has been theoretically questioned. In 350 B.C.E., the famous Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote, "some men . . . if they have first perceived and seen what is coming and have first roused themselves and their calculative faculty, are not defeated by their emotion, whether it be pleasant or painful"( Aristotle, trans. 2009, Book VII, Chapter 7, Section 8). Still, our social interactions and experiences suggest this belief has undergone centuries of disregard, both in Western and Eastern cultures. These are the same interactions that teach us to "toughen up" and keep our emotions hidden. So, how did we arrive at EI-a scientific theory that claims all individuals have access to a "calculative faculty" through emotion?

In the early 1970s, many scientists began to recognize the limitations of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ)-the standardized assessment of intelligence. In particular, they noticed its inability to explain differences among individuals unrelated to just cognitive ability alone. These frustrations led to the advancement of more inclusive theories of intelligence such as Gardner's multiple intelligences theory ( 1983/1993) and Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence ( 1985). Researchers also began to explore the influence of moods and emotions on thought processes, including judgment ( Isen, Shalker, Clark, & Karp, 1978) and memory ( Bower, 1981). It was through these theoretical explorations and empirical studies that the concept of EI began to take shape.

Today, the field of EI is extensive, encompassing varying perspectives and measurement tools. Some attribute this growth to Daniel Goleman's popularization of the construct in his 1995 book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Generating public appeal, he focused on EI's connection to personal and professional success. Goleman's model of EI includes a blend of emotion-related skills, traditional cognitive intelligence, and distinct personality traits. This embellished conceptualization of EI, followed by an increase in EI literature, contributed, at least in part, to conflicting definitional and measurement models within the field.

Ability models approach EI as a standard intelligence that utilizes a distinct set of mental abilities that (1) are intercorrelated, (2) relate to other extant intelligences, and (3) develop with age and experience ( Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2003). In contrast, both mixed and trait models define and measure EI as a set of perceived abilities, skills, and personality traits.

Ability Models: Mayer and Salovey Four-Branch Model of EI

In this section, we describe the EI ( Four-Branch) model espoused by Mayer and Salovey ( 1997). This model proposes that four fundamental emotion-related abilities comprise EI: (1) perception/expression of emotion, (2) use of emotion to facilitate thinking, (3) understanding of emotion, and (4) management of emotion in oneself and others.

1. Perception of Emotion

Perception of emotion refers to people's capacity to identify emotions in themselves and others using facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language ( Brackett et al., 2013). Those skilled in the perception of emotion also are able to express emotion accordingly and communicate emotional needs. For example, let's return to our opening scenario. After being turned away at the ticket booth, you slowly settle into the reality that you cannot attend the concert. A group of your classmates, however, managed to buy tickets and are discussing their plans at your lunch table. When they ask if you are excited for the opening band, you shrug and pick at your food. If your classmates are skilled at perception of emotion, then they will read your facial expression and body language and determine that you might be masking your true feelings of disappointment, frustration, or disengagement from the conversation. As a result, they might ask you if something is wrong or choose not to talk about the concert in your presence.

2. Use of Emotion to Facilitate Thinking

Which emotions would serve you best during a football game? Would the same emotions be useful for a chess match? Matching the emotion to the task at hand is valuable skill to have. [Image: Ian Sane, https://goo.gl/lKuqyz, CC BY 2.0, https://goo.gl/zHmGV2]

Using emotion to enhance cognitive activities and adapt to various situations is the second component of EI. People who are skilled in this area understand that some emotional states are more optimal for targeted outcomes than others. Feeling frustrated over the concert tickets may be a helpful mindset as you are about to play a football game or begin a wrestling match. The high levels of adrenaline associated with frustration may boost your energy and strength, helping you compete. These same emotions, however, will likely impede your ability to sit at your school desk and solve algebra problems or write an essay.

Individuals who have developed and practiced this area of EI actively generate emotions that support certain tasks or objectives. For example, a teacher skilled in this domain may recognize that her students need to experience positive emotions, like joy or excitement, in order to succeed when doing creative work such as brainstorming or collaborative art projects. She may plan accordingly by scheduling these activities for after recess, knowing students will likely come into the classroom cheerful and happy from playing outside. Making decisions based on the impact that emotional experiences may have on actions and behavior is an essential component of EI.

3. Understanding of Emotion

EI also includes the ability to differentiate between emotional states, as well as their specific causes and trajectories. Feelings of sadness or disappointment can result from the loss of a person or object, such as your concert tickets. Standing in the rain, by most standards, is merely a slight annoyance. However, waiting in the rain for hours in a large crowd will likely result in irritation or frustration. Feeling like you have been treated unfairly when someone cuts in line and takes the tickets you feel you deserved can cause your unpleasantness to escalate into anger and resentment. People skilled in this area are aware of this emotional trajectory and also have a strong sense of how multiple emotions can work together to produce another. For instance, it is possible that you may feel contempt for the people who cut in front of you in line. However, this feeling of contempt does not arise from anger alone. Rather, it is the combination of anger and disgust by the fact that these individuals, unlike you, have disobeyed the rules. Successfully discriminating between negative emotions is an important skill related to understanding of emotion, and it may lead to more effective emotion management ( Feldman Barret, Gross, Christensen, & Benvenuto, 2001).

4. Management of Emotion

Emotion management includes the ability to remain open to a wide range of emotions, recognize the value of feeling certain emotions in specific situations, and understand which short- and long-term strategies are most efficient for emotion regulation ( Gross, 1998). Anger seems an appropriate response to falling short of a goal (concert tickets) that you pursued both fairly and patiently. In fact, you may even find it valuable to allow yourself the experience of this feeling. However, this feeling will certainly need to be managed in order to prevent aggressive, unwanted behavior. Coming up with strategies, such as taking a deep breath and waiting until you feel calm before letting the group ahead of you know they cut in line, will allow you to regulate your anger and prevent the situation from escalating. Using this strategy may even let you gain insight into other perspectives-perhaps you learn they had already purchased their tickets and were merely accompanying their friends.

While self-report tests are common in psychology, ability models of EI require a different approach: performance measures. Performance measures require respondents to demonstrate their four emotion skills ( Mayer & Salovey, 1997) by solving emotion-related problems. Among these measures, the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) ( Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002) is the most commonly used. The MSCEIT is a 141-item test comprised of a total of eight tasks, two per each of the four emotion abilities. To measure emotion management, for example, respondents are asked to read through scenarios involving emotionally charged conflicts and then asked to evaluate the effectiveness of different resolutions. For a comprehensive review of the MSCEIT and other performance-assessment tools, please see Rivers, Brackett, Salovey, and Mayer ( 2007).

As an alternative to somewhat unreliable self-report measures, researchers have been using fMRI studies to detect changes in brain function when a self-report type of question is given to a participant. [Image: NIH Image Gallery, https://goo.gl/aWZBvI, CC BY-NC 2.0, https://goo.gl/VnKlK8]

Self-report assessments-surveys that ask respondents to report their own emotional skills-are most often associated with mixed and trait models. Self-report measures are usually quick to administer. However, many researchers argue that their vulnerability to social-desirability biases and faking are problematic ( Day & Carroll, 2008). In addition, there is wide speculation concerning the potential for inaccurate judgments of personal ability and skill on behalf of responders (e.g., Paulhus, Lysy, & Yik, 1998). Self-report measures have been shown to lack discriminant validity from existing personality measures and have very low correlations with ability measures of EI ( Brackett & Mayer, 2003; Brackett, Rivers, Shiffman, Lerner, & Salovey, 2006). According to Mayer and colleagues ( 2008), self-report tests may show reliability for individual personalities, but should not be considered EI because performance tests are the gold standard for measuring intelligence.

Although tensions between ability and mixed or trait model approaches appear to divide the field, competing definitions and measurements can only enhance the quality of research devoted to EI and its impact on real-world outcomes.

While mixed and trait models shed some light on the concept of EI, many researchers feel these approaches undermine the EI construct as a discrete and measurable mental ability. EI, when conceptualized as an ability, most accurately describes the relationship between cognition and emotion by accounting for changes in individual outcomes that are often missed when focusing solely on cognitive intelligence or personality traits ( O'Boyle, Humphrey, Pollack, Hawver, & Story, 2010). What's more, among adults, personality traits provide little room for malleability, making development in these areas difficult even when combined with emotional skills. For example, characteristics such as agreeableness and neuroticism, while contributing to personal and professional success, are seen as innate traits that are likely to remain static over time. Distinguishing EI from personality traits helps us better target the skills that can improve desirable outcomes ( Brackett et al., 2013). Approaching EI with language that provides the opportunity for personal growth is crucial to its application. Because the ability model aligns with this approach, the remainder of this module will focus on ability EI and the ways in which it can be applied both in professional and academic settings.

Historically, emotions have been thought to have no place in the classroom or workplace ( Sutton & Wheatly, 2003). Yet today, we know empirical research supports the belief that EI has the potential to influence decision making, health, relationships, and performance in both professional and academic settings (e.g., Brackett et al., 2013; Brackett, Rivers, & Salovey, 2011).

Workplace

Think of a time when you made a choice to demonstrate emotional intelligence at work - what happened? [Image: Pricenfees, https://goo.gl/8GOJPR, CC BY 2.0, https://goo.gl/BRvSA7]

Leaders in the workplace also benefit from high EI. Experts in the field of organizational behavior are beginning to view leadership as a process of social interactions where leaders motivate, influence, guide, and empower followers to achieve organizational goals ( Bass & Riggio, 2006). This is known as transformational leadership-where leaders create a vision and then inspire others to work in this direction ( Bass, 1985). In a sample of 24 managers, MSCEIT scores correlated positively with a leader's ability to inspire followers to emulate their own actions and attend to the needs and problems of each individual ( Leban & Zulauf, 2004).

Schools

When applied in educational settings, theoretical foundations of EI are often integrated into social and emotional learning (SEL) programs. SEL is the process of merging thinking, feeling, and behaving. These skills enable individuals to be aware of themselves and of others, make responsible decisions, and manage their own behaviors and those of others ( Elias et al., 1997; Elbertson, Brackett, & Weissberg, 2010). SEL programs are designed to enhance the climate of a classroom, school, or district, with the ultimate goal of enhancing children's social and emotional skills and improving their academic outcomes ( Greenberg et al., 2003). Adopting curricula that focus on these elements is believed to enable success in academics, relationships, and, ultimately, in life ( Becker & Luthar, 2002; Catalino, Berglundh, Ryan, Lonczek, & Hawkins, 2004).

EI, when embedded into SEL programs, has been shown to contribute positively to personal and academic success in students ( Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Tayloer, & Schellinger, 2011). Research also shows that strong emotion regulation can help students pay attention in class, adjust to the school environment, and manage academic anxiety ( Lopes & Salovey, 2004; Mestre, Guil, Lopes, Salovey, & Gil-Olarte, 2006). A recent randomized control trial of RULER* also found that, after one year, schools that used RULER-compared with those that used only the standard curriculum-were rated by independent observers as having higher degrees of warmth and connectedness between teachers and students, more autonomy and leadership, less bullying among students, and teachers who focused more on students' interests and motivations ( Rivers, Brackett, Reyes, Elbertson, & Salovey, 2013).

*RULER - Recognize emotions in oneself and in other people. Understand the causes and consequences of a wide range of emotions. Label emotions using a sophisticated vocabulary. Express emotions in socially appropriate way. Regulate emotions effectively.

Future directions for EI research include more study of those in cultures outside North America and Europe, and more attention to the dynamics of EI in the workplace and schools. [Image: CC0 Public Domain, https://goo.gl/m25gce]

Although further explorations and research in the field of EI are needed, current findings indicate a fundamental relationship between emotion and cognition. Returning to our opening question, what will you do when denied concert tickets? One of the more compelling aspects of EI is that it grants us reign over our own emotions-forces once thought to rule the self by denying individual agency. But with this power comes responsibility. If you are enraged about not getting tickets to the show, perhaps you can take a few deep breaths, go for a walk, and wait until your physiological indicators (shaky hands or accelerated heartbeat) subside. Once you've removed yourself, your feeling of rage may lessen to annoyance. Lowering the intensity level of this feeling (a process known as down regulating) will help re-direct your focus on the situation itself, rather than the activated emotion. In this sense, emotion regulation allows you to objectively view the point of conflict without dismissing your true feelings. Merely down regulating the emotional experience facilitates better problem solving. Now that you are less activated, what is the best approach? Should you talk to the ticket clerk? Ask to see the sales manager? Or do you let the group know how you felt when they cut the line? All of these options present better solutions than impulsively acting out rage.

As discussed in this module, research shows that the cultivation and development of EI contributes to more productive, supportive, and healthy experiences. Whether we're waiting in a crowded public place, delivering lesson plans, or engaging in conversation with friends, we are the ultimate decision makers when it comes how we want to feel and, in turn, behave. By engaging the right mental processes and strategies, we can better understand, regulate, and manage our emotional states in order to live the lives we desire.

Outside Resources

Article: Are you emotionally intelligent? Here's how to know for sure. Inc.com Retrieved from:

http://www.inc.com/travis-bradberry/are-you-emotionally-intelligent-here-s-how-to-know-for-sure.html

Article: Grant, A. (2014, January 2). The dark side of emotional intelligence, The Atlantic. Retrieved from:

http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/01/the-dark-side-of-emotional-intelligence/282720/

Article: Gregoire, C. (2014, January 23) How emotionally intelligent are you? Here's how to tell. Huffington Post. Retrieved from:

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/12/05/are-you-emotionally-intel_n_4371920.html

Book: Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam.

Book: Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam.

Discussion Questions

1. What are the four emotional abilities that comprise EI, and how do they relate to each other?

2. What are three possible implications for using ability-based and mixed or trait-based models of EI?

3. Discuss the ways in which EI can contribute positively to the workplace and classroom settings.

Vocabulary

Ability model

An approach that views EI as a standard intelligence that utilizes a distinct set of mental abilities that (1) are intercorrelated, (2) relate to other extant intelligences, and (3) develop with age and experience (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).

Emotional intelligence

The ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions. (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). EI includes four specific abilities: perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions.

Four-Branch Model

An ability model developed by Drs. Peter Salovey and John Mayer that includes four main components of EI, arranged in hierarchical order, beginning with basic psychological processes and advancing to integrative psychological processes. The branches are (1) perception of emotion, (2) use of emotion to facilitate thinking, (3) understanding emotion, and (4) management of emotion.

Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)

A 141-item performance assessment of EI that measures the four emotion abilities (as defined by the four-branch model of EI) with a total of eight tasks.

Mixed and Trait Models

Approaches that view EI as a combination of self-perceived emotion skills, personality traits, and attitudes.

Performance assessmen​t

A method of measurement associated with ability models of EI that evaluate the test taker's ability to solve emotion-related problems.

Self-report assessment

A method of measurement associated with mixed and trait models of EI, which evaluates the test taker's perceived emotion-related skills, distinct personality traits, and other characteristics.

Social and emotional learning (SEL)

The real-world application of EI in an educational setting and/or classroom that involves curricula that teach the process of integrating thinking, feeling, and behaving in order to become aware of the self and of others, make responsible decisions, and manage one's own behaviors and those of others (Elias et al., 1997)

References

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Authors

Creative Commons License
Emotional Intelligence by Marc Brackett, Sarah Delaney, and Peter Salovey is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Permissions beyond the scope of this license may be available in our Licensing Agreement.

How to cite this Noba module using APA Style
Brackett, M., Delaney, S., & Salovey, P. (2024). Emotional intelligence. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. Retrieved from http://noba.to/xzvpfun7

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In this module, we review the construct of emotional intelligence by examining its underlying theoretical model, measurement tools, validity, and applications in real-world settings. We use empirical research from the past few decades to support and discuss competing definitions of emotional intelligence and possible future directions for the field.

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The Science of Emotions v. Social-Emotional Learning

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The Science of Emotions v. Social-Emotional Learning

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Unlocking the Power of Emotions to Help Our Kids, Ourselves, and Our Society Thrive
Author: Marc Brackett, Ph.D.

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Permission to Feel chornicles Dr. Brackett's personal and professional experiences in developing effective strategies for increased emotional intelligence.

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Professional Learning in Emotion Education for Teachers of MLsELs

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Dr. Lamprea's Study on Emotion Education & M/ELs

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Dr. Lamprea's Study on Emotion Education & M/ELs

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"Traditionally underserved students –children with disabilities, justice-involved youth, and ELs– are more likely to experience negative environments which limits their social-emotional development. As immigrants, refugees, adoptees, or US-born children of non-English speaking immigrants, ELs face barriers that include isolation, communication difficulties, discrimination, acculturation issues, structural inequalities, misunderstanding of social practices, and disparate cultural and academic expectations (Beyer, 2017; Niehaus & Adelson, 2014; Zacarian et al., 2017). However, “unlike special education, ELL-serving programs rarely focus on students’ self-efficacy, social inclusion, and independence. Instead, the emphasis is on English acquisition, with instruction often carried out in segregated classrooms” (Beyer, 2017, p. 10), where students cannot develop the sufficient higher order skills, communication abilities, and cultural awareness necessary to succeed in the global economy and society (Zacarian et al., 2017)."
- Lamprea, 2020, p. 38

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Digital Commons @ Gardner-Webb University

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Abstract

This professional development/learning design study sought to create, evaluate, and refine a learning experience for English language learning (ELL) teachers that provided them with additional instructional tools to support improvement of Multilingual Learners and English Learners' (MLs/ELs) academic resilience. MLs/ELs are one of the fastest growing groups of students in U.S. schools with one of the lowest academic performance and graduation rates. These students are also a vulnerable and resilient population that could have been exposed to distressing and adverse experiences. ELL teacher preparation has concentrated on fostering language and literacy development; still, MLs/ELs' achievement gap fails to close significantly, and their resilience abilities are not effectively transferred to academics. Research shows that improving emotional intelligence skills benefits all areas of life. The integration of emotion education and language development offers a more comprehensive approach to MLs/ELs' learning for its impact to academics, relationships, performance, decision-making, and health. This study used educational design-based research (DBR) and conjecture mapping to produce and validate theoretical and pragmatic outcomes-the conceptual framework, Enhancing MLs/ELs' Academic Resilience, and a suggested table of contents for ELL teacher preparation in emotional intelligence education with social-emotional learning, brain-based learning, self-efficacy, trauma-informed care, and language development evidence-based practices-to strengthen ELL teacher learning and MLs/ELs' attributes of personal resilience and academic achievement.

Recommended Citation

Lamprea Altuve, Mabel E, "Enhancing English Learners' Academic Resilience: A Professional Development/Learning Design Study" (2020). Doctor of Education Dissertations. 12.
https://digitalcommons.gardner-webb.edu/education-dissertations/12

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Enhancing English Learners' Academic Resilience: A Professional Development/Learning Design Study

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This professional development/learning design study sought to create, evaluate, and refine a learning experience for English language learning (ELL) teachers that provided them with additional instructional tools to support improvement of Multilingual Learners and English Learners' (MLs/ELs) academic resilience. MLs/ELs are one of the fastest growing groups of students in U.S.

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Caine and Caine (1994) identified 12 principles of brain-based learning, and Lombardi (2008) applied them to ELL and teaching.

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The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning- defined Social-Emotional Learning as: "The process through which children and adults acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions" (2015, p. 5).

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Foster knowledge, skills, and attitudes across five areas of social and emotional competence;

Establish equitable learning environments and coordinate practices across four key settings that support students' social, emotional, and academic development.

Download more information on the framework (available in and Spanish).

Use our reflection protocol to facilitate a discussion on implementation efforts in your school, district, or other setting.

Read more about the 2020 update to our framework, which highlighted the potential of SEL in promoting educational equity and excellence.

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Communities

Communities. Community partners often provide safe and developmentally rich settings for learning and development, have deep understanding of community needs and assets, are seen as trusted partners by families and students, and have connections to additional supports and services that school and families need. Community programs also offer opportunities for young people to practice their social and emotional skills in settings that are both personally relevant and can open opportunities for their future. To integrate SEL efforts across the school day and out-of-school time, school staff and community partners should align on common language and coordinate strategies and communication around SEL-related efforts and initiatives.
Learn more: CASEL Guide to Schoolwide SEL - Community Partnerships

Families & Caregivers

Families & Caregivers. When schools and families form authentic partnerships, they can build strong connections that reinforce students' social and emotional development. Families and caregivers are children's first teachers, and bring deep expertise about their development, experiences, culture, and learning needs. These insights and perspectives are critical to informing, supporting, and sustaining SEL efforts. Research suggests that evidence-based SEL programs are more effective when they extend into the home, and families are far more likely to form partnerships with schools when their schools' norms, values, and cultural representations reflect their own experiences. Schools need inclusive decision-making processes that ensure that families-particularly those from historically marginalized groups-are part of planning, implementing, and continuously improving SEL.

Schools can also create other avenues for family partnership that may include creating ongoing two-way communication with families, helping caregivers understand child development, helping teachers understand family backgrounds and cultures, providing opportunities for families to volunteer in schools, extending learning activities and discussions into homes, and coordinating family services with community partners. These efforts should engage families in understanding, experiencing, informing, and supporting the social and emotional development of their students.
Learn more: CASEL Guide to Schoolwide SEL - Family Partnerships

Schools

Schools. Effectively integrating SEL schoolwide involves ongoing planning, implementation, evaluation, and continuous improvement by all members of the school community. SEL efforts both contribute to and depend upon a school climate where all students and adults feel respected, supported, and engaged.

Because the school setting includes many contexts-classrooms, hallways, cafeteria, playground, bus-fostering a healthy school climate and culture requires active engagement from all adults and students. A strong school culture is rooted in students' sense of belonging, with evidence that suggests that it plays a crucial role in students' engagement. SEL also offers an opportunity to enhance existing systems of student support by integrating SEL goals and practices with universal, targeted, and intensive academic and behavioral supports. By coordinating and building upon SEL practices and programs, schools can create an environment that infuses SEL into every part of students' educational experience and promotes positive social, emotional, and academic outcomes for all students.
Learn more: CASEL Guide to Schoolwide SEL

Classrooms

Classrooms. Research has shown that social and emotional competence can be enhanced using a variety of classroom-based approaches such as: (a) explicit instruction through which social and emotional skills and attitudes are taught and practiced in developmentally, contextually, and culturally responsive ways; (b) teaching practices such as cooperative learning and project-based learning; and (c) integration of SEL and academic curriculum such as language arts, math, science, social studies, health, and performing arts. High-quality SEL instruction has four elements represented by the acronym SAFE: Sequenced - following a coordinated set of training approaches to foster the development of competencies; Active - emphasizing active forms of learning to help students practice and master new skills; Focused - implementing curriculum that intentionally emphasizes the development of SEL competencies; and Explicit - defining and targeting specific skills, attitudes, and knowledge.

SEL instruction is carried out most effectively in nurturing, safe environments characterized by positive, caring relationships among students and teachers. To facilitate age-appropriate and culturally responsive instruction, adults must understand and appreciate the unique strengths and needs of each student and support students' identities. When adults incorporate students' personal experiences and cultural backgrounds and seek their input, they create an inclusive classroom environment where students are partners in the educational process, elevating their own agency. Strong relationships between adults and students can facilitate co-learning, foster student and adult growth, and generate collaborative solutions to shared concerns.
Learn more: CASEL Guide to Effective SEL Programs

Self-Awareness

Self-awareness: The abilities to understand one's own emotions, thoughts, and values and how they influence behavior across contexts. This includes capacities to recognize one's strengths and limitations with a well-grounded sense of confidence and purpose.

Such as:

Integrating personal and social identities

Identifying personal, cultural, and linguistic assets

Identifying one's emotions

Demonstrating honesty and integrity

Linking feelings, values, and thoughts

Examining prejudices and biases

Experiencing self-efficacy

Having a growth mindset

Developing interests and a sense of purpose

Check out this video from PBS Learning Media for more information.

Self-Management

Self-management: The abilities to manage one's emotions, thoughts, and behaviors effectively in different situations and to achieve goals and aspirations. This includes the capacities to delay gratification, manage stress, and feel motivation and agency to accomplish personal and collective goals.

Such as:

Managing one's emotions

Identifying and using stress management strategies

Exhibiting self-discipline and self-motivation

Setting personal and collective goals

Using planning and organizational skills

Showing the courage to take initiative

Demonstrating personal and collective agency

Check out this video from PBS Learning Media for more information.

Social Awareness

Social awareness: The abilities to understand the perspectives of and empathize with others, including those from diverse backgrounds, cultures, and contexts. This includes the capacities to feel compassion for others, understand broader historical and social norms for behavior in different settings, and recognize family, school, and community resources and supports.

Such as:

Taking others' perspectives

Recognizing strengths in others

Demonstrating empathy and compassion

Showing concern for the feelings of others

Understanding and expressing gratitude

Identifying diverse social norms, including unjust ones

Recognizing situational demands and opportunities

Understanding the influences of organizations and systems on behavior

Check out this video from PBS Learning Media for more information.

Responsible Decision-Making

Responsible decision-making: The abilities to make caring and constructive choices about personal behavior and social interactions across diverse situations. This includes the capacities to consider ethical standards and safety concerns, and to evaluate the benefits and consequences of various actions for personal, social, and collective well-being.

Such as:

Demonstrating curiosity and open-mindedness

Learning how to make a reasoned judgment after analyzing information, data, and facts

Identifying solutions for personal and social problems

Anticipating and evaluating the consequences of one's actions

Recognizing how critical thinking skills are useful both inside and outside of school

Reflecting on one's role to promote personal, family, and community well-being

Evaluating personal, interpersonal, community, and institutional impacts

Check out this video from PBS Learning Media for more information.

Relationship Skills

Relationship skills: The abilities to establish and maintain healthy and supportive relationships and to effectively navigate settings with diverse individuals and groups. This includes the capacities to communicate clearly, listen actively, cooperate, work collaboratively to problem solve and negotiate conflict constructively, navigate settings with differing social and cultural demands and opportunities, provide leadership, and seek or offer help when needed.

Such as:

Communicating effectively

Developing positive relationships

Demonstrating cultural competency

Practicing teamwork and collaborative problem-solving

Resolving conflicts constructively

Resisting negative social pressure

Showing leadership in groups

Seeking or offering support and help when needed

Standing up for the rights of others

Check out this video from PBS Learning Media for more information.

Social & Emotional Learning

Social and emotional learning (SEL) is an integral part of education and human development. SEL is the process through which all young people and adults acquire and apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to develop healthy identities, manage emotions and achieve personal and collective goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain supportive relationships, and make responsible and caring decisions.

SEL advances educational equity and excellence through authentic school-family-community partnerships to establish learning environments and experiences that feature trusting and collaborative relationships, rigorous and meaningful curriculum and instruction, and ongoing evaluation. SEL can help address various forms of inequity and empower young people and adults to co-create thriving schools and contribute to safe, healthy, and just communities.

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Our SEL framework, known to many as the "CASEL wheel," helps cultivate skills and environments that advance students' learning and development.

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The Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence developed a systemic approach to SEL that uses five skills of emotional intelligence and four core tools.
RULER is the acronym for the skills:
R - Recognizing Emotion
U - Understanding Emotion
L - Labeling Emotion
E - Expressing Emotion
R - Regulating Emotion
The core tools are: the CHARTER, Mood Meter, Meta-Moment, and Blueprint.

The YCEI offers the free course above for school staff.

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Managing Emotions in Times of Uncertainty & Stress

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Offered by Yale University. Developed by the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, Managing Emotions in Times of Uncertainty & Stress will ... Enroll for free.

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--Sample of an ELD tool to learn Emotions of Anger and Anxiety words

From a RULER brochure:
"If you’re feeling …

Irritated

Angry

Frustrated

Stressed

Anxious

Now is a good time to write a persuasive argument or advocate for something you believe in. Being a little in the red helps us get things done or rise to a challenge.

Want to Move Out of the Red?
Try going for a walk, listening to your favorite music, or taking a few slow deep breaths to clear your head and calm your body. Use self-talk (e.g., “This is part of my day, but it does not define my day”). If someone else is involved in a situation that puts you in the red, take a moment to think about their feelings or perspective."

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Store photos and docs online. Access them from any PC, Mac or phone. Create and work together on Word, Excel or PowerPoint documents.