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Some Harry Potter readers today complain that J.K. Rowling's universe is not accurately diverse enough. Population research yields an interesting dialogue about the demographics in the series, but representation is an even more complex issue.
By Serena Ypelaar
I'm about to do something which may surprise you: I'm going to criticize Harry Potter.

During my life I've spoken with many friends about my favourite book series, and in the last few years especially, the issue of diversity often looms large.

In Harry Potter the possibilities for discussing diversity are endless, from ethnicity, to LGBTQ+ inclusion, to gender, to species.

Today, I'd like to talk specifically about ethnic diversity. Why are there only, like, five* non-white kids at Hogwarts? (*Seven, but who's counting?) The fact that there are so few minority characters isn't ideal for the most popular book franchise of the twenty-first century so far. Even in the 1990s when the Harry Potter books are set, shouldn't there be more diverse characters to represent the society the novels portray?

I definitely thought so... and then I embarked upon some research for this article and found this thread on Reddit, in which a fellow fan argues that the Harry Potter universe accurately reflects the ethnic demographic of the United Kingdom at the time. In the census for 1991, the year Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone begins, 94.1% of Britons identified themselves as white, 5.9% as non-white.* (I don't think the census asked about mixed ethnicity, since it was the first UK census to collect information about ethnic background.)

With the 40 students in Harry's year (5 of whom are non-white), that places the white population at 90% and the non-white population at 10%, which is actually almost double the proportion of non-white people in Britain at the time. What?!

Indisputably, Harry Potter is a product of its time. Though author J.K. Rowling's illustrated demographic fits the temporal setting of the story, it doesn't accurately represent its readers, who span the world over. Readers aren't going to see the current population (of either Britain or the world) represented in the novels; they're going to see the population of Britain 20 years ago. And with such a diverse present-day audience, we're now left with a disparity in terms of ethnic representation.

I would therefore argue that the problem doesn't necessarily lie in the number of non-white characters featured in the story, but rather the significance J.K. Rowling gives (or doesn't give) them in the narrative. Let's count the confirmed non-white students mentioned at Hogwarts in the books:

How many of these students have a major part in the story? None, really.

Cho Chang, Harry's one-time love interest, features prominently in Order of the Phoenix but isn't central to the other books. Rowling has received major criticism for her portrayal of Cho, with accusations of cultural ignorance in choosing her name, negatively depicting the only East Asian character in the books, and more.

Dean Thomas, who is Black, is consistently present as one of Harry's friends; he shares a dormitory with Harry and Ron and dates Ron's sister Ginny for most of Half-Blood Prince. Dean has a rich backstory which was originally included in the books but didn't survive the editor's cuts. His story, in which he eventually learns his wizard father was killed fleeing the Death Eaters (Lord Voldemort's followers), was omitted in favour of Neville Longbottom (a white character, interestingly) avenging his parents after Death Eaters tortured them into insanity.

The whiteness of Harry Potter goes beyond Hogwarts, too. Kingsley Shacklebolt, a Black wizard who is a powerful Auror and future Minister for Magic, is praised throughout the last three books, but he's still a fairly minor character. There are also no identified South Asian characters in the Harry Potter universe apart from the Patil twins, and Latin American characters are non-existent.

All the main characters in Harry Potter are white. We've gone over historical demographics, but we should be asking a critical question here: why didn't Rowling write any of the main characters, or even the major supporting characters, non-white?

After Hermione was portrayed as Black in the broadway play Harry Potter and the Cursed Child (a play that was approved, but not written, by Rowling), the author stated on Twitter that she "loves black Hermione". I personally feel that Rowling latched onto the casting to retroactively interpret her novels as more inclusive than they were when she wrote them. Yes, she supports diversity now, but my reading of Rowling's character descriptions has me convinced that she never wrote Hermione as non-white.*

It's easy to approve a casting choice and take credit for diversity, but it's a pretty passive act. In terms of the heavy lifting, Rowling hadn't originally made strides to portray ethnic diversity in her books. Given all we've considered, that seems fair since she wrote the books in the 1990s - even in 2001 when the first film was released, Britain was still 90.9% white. Nevertheless, the later films, made 15 to 20 years after the books take place, haven't increased ethnic diversity in the casting despite the chance to broaden the demographic for a contemporary audience. And it doesn't change the fact that none of the non-white characters were given major roles in the books.

Are questions of ethnicity more prevalent here in Canada (and the United States)? Possibly, since both nations were built on mass immigration. Does that mean North American readers scrutinize diversity more than those in Europe or worldwide? Maybe.

What do you think? Should the Harry Potter films have tried to reflect today's population to bridge the gap between the whiteness of Britain in the 1990s and its current demographic? Should we throw accuracy out the window? Going forward, what should the cast of spinoffs like Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them look like? Are J.K. Rowling's efforts at diverse representation tokenistic, or am I not giving her enough credit?

Who knows, maybe in 20 years we'll get a remake that fulfills all its potential for representation, and the concept of a "diversity quota" will be so outdated that it's laughable. Only time will tell.

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FOOTNOTES

*As of the last census in 2011, 81.9% of the British population identified as White British.

*My reasoning regarding Hermione's race, and my argument that J.K. Rowling is opportunistically interpreting her past work, is as follows:

"Hermione's white face was sticking out from behind a tree." This quote from Prisoner of Azkaban describes Hermione in a state of fear, and while it may be a turn of phrase for a stricken expression, it seems odd to describe a Black person having a white face no matter how bloodless or pale they've gone. There are countless other ways to describe fear or panic.

"... Ron looking incredibly freckly, Hermione very brown, both waving frantically..." Ron and Hermione have both just returned from holidays in sunny places; Ron from Egypt, Hermione from France. I'm certain Rowling is describing Hermione's tan here, which implies that her "very brown" face is darker than her original skin tone.

Hermione appears as white in book covers. J.K. Rowling has the power to veto such a portrayal if it is inaccurate, and as Hermione's race is such major difference, I'm sure she would have noticed and corrected it.

Rowling approved white actress Emma Watson's casting as Hermione for the films despite overriding other more minor character details (she told writers to remove a line where Dumbledore mentions a girl he once dated, since Dumbledore is gay!). She would have instructed casting directors of Hermione's appearance.

This sketch by Rowling, like all others by her, depicts Hermione with fair skin.

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Critiquing Harry Potter: Ethnicity & Representation

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Some Harry Potter readers today complain that J.K. Rowling's universe is not accurately diverse enough. Population research yields an interesting dialogue about the demographics in the series, but representation is an even more complex issue. By Serena Ypelaar I'm about to do something which may surprise you: I'm going to criticize Harry Potter.

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Illustration: Davide Bonazzi

What is the nature of contemporary copyright regulation compared with previous practices?

To answer this question, we have broken it into three bite-sized sections. The answers have been drawn from Copyrightuser.org, an online resource which aims to make UK copyright law accessible to creators and members of the public. The material made available on Copyrightuser.org is free to use, share and adapt according to the Creative Commons Licence as long as you acknowledge Copyrightuser.org. Acknowledging the creator is also a very important requirement under copyright law, as outlined below. Accordingly we request that you please acknowledge and reference Copyrightuser.org in answering this question.

1. How does copyright work and why is it important?

How does copyright work?

In Copyrightuser.org under the section protecting we explain the types of works protected under copyright, such as books, songs, films and video games amongst others. Copyright protection is provided for the expression of ideas and not the ideas themselves. Therefore, although a creator can take inspiration from other people's ideas, to obtain copyright in their own work the creator must express those ideas in their own individual way. This means that it is important that the work you create is your own intellectual creation according to the test established by a recent European ruling or, as the UK law puts it, you have used your own "skill, labour, effort and judgement". If you meet these criteria your work will be considered "original" and you will have copyright in your work.

Copyright is a set of rights through which writers, visual artists, filmmakers, musicians and other types of creators can control the use of their work and get paid for it. Copyright grants the owner the exclusive right to copy, issue, rent, lend, perform, show, communicate and adapt their work. How you go about getting permission to use other people's copyright works is explained in Copyrightuser.org. For example, if you want to produce a film based on a novel, you need to get permission from the author and others who may have rights in that novel (e.g. the publisher). Once you have obtained all the relevant permissions you can produce your film, which will also be protected by copyright.

You may wonder how books, films and other creative works actually receive copyright protection. This is not as difficult as it may seem: copyright is granted automatically, so there is no need for registration. As long as your work is original and in permanent or fixed form, you have copyright. For example, if you take a photo or write a short story, you will automatically have copyright in your work. Marking your work with the © followed by your name and the year of publication can be a useful way of asserting your ownership, but it is not essential in order for copyright to arise.

Infringement of copyright occurs if someone uses a whole, or a substantial part of, a copyright work without permission. The precise meaning of "substantial part" is unclear as this is decided on a case-by-case basis. However, we do know that the court considers it to be a matter of quality and not quantity.

Copyright does not last forever: in the UK copyright generally lasts for the lifetime of the author plus 70 years after their death. After that, the work is in the public domain and everyone can use it without having to seek permission from the copyright owner. For more information about how to deal with public domain works, see, the public domain section on Copyrightuser.org

Why is copyright important?
"The objective of copyright is to promote and spread creativity as well as balancing the interests of the copyright owners and the users." (Internet Service Provider)
As such, the ultimate goal of copyright is the creation and spread of knowledge. Indeed one of the main purposes of copyright regulation is to strike a balance between production and dissemination of knowledge. In other words, copyright regulation has to reward and incentivise creators to produce new works, whilst allowing the public to access and use these works.

Copyright enables creators to make a living from their work by selling or licensing their material. By rewarding creators' efforts and ensuring an income for them, copyright encourages creativity leading to the creation of new material, which in turn leads to the development of a society rich in innovative content.

At the same time, in order to be beneficial, knowledge needs to be spread and shared. As explained on Copyrightuser.org it is important to give access to creative works in order to take inspiration from ideas and develop more creations. Similarly, there has to be a mechanism in place for the use and re-use of copyright works. Copyright law provides for this important balance by rewarding and incentivising creators on the one hand, whilst providing for the spread of knowledge on the other.
"The purpose of copyright is to provide a balance between the need to encourage the continued production/creation of new knowledge by enabling the control of the exploitation of that work for a period of time, after which it enters the public domain." (Television Industry Expert)
2. How does copyright regulate Media?

Copyright regulates the use of media in creative productions. We explain this concept in further detail in the 'Copyright and Creativity' section of Copyrightuser.org. For example, if you are producing a video, copyright law says what you can or cannot do with other people's work in creating the video (e.g. including film footage or music), and protects the work which you have created. As such, it enables creators to control how other people use their work so that they can be rewarded for their creation.
"One of the roles of copyright regulation is to ensure that creators are fairly rewarded for the exploitation of their works and to facilitate the exploitation of such works, in particular through the mechanisms of assignment and licensing." (Judge)
In general, if you want to re-use the whole or a substantial part of a copyright protected work - e.g. you want to create a mash-up of your favourite TV series using your favourite song - you need to get permission from all the copyright owners involved. This can be a difficult (and expensive) process, because works like TV programmes have several rights attached to them and each of these rights may have more than one owner. However, many creators are members of collecting societies (e.g. PRS for Music or DACS) that license work on their behalf. This often simplifies the process of obtaining a licence.

There are also cases where it is not possible to identify the owner of a specific work because he or she is unknown or cannot be found. These works are called 'orphan works' and you can find more information about this in the orphan works section within Copyrightuser.org

You need permission of the copyright owners not only to reproduce their work, which includes adapting or editing it, but also to share it. This means that if you want to upload your mash-up to YouTube for example, you should make sure that your video is not infringing copyright law. It is the users who are responsible for complying with copyright law, not YouTube; and if you are uploading your video in the UK, then UK copyright law applies. YouTube can take down a video that is infringing someone's copyright on request of the owner of that copyright. For more information see YouTube terms and conditions. For further information and guidance on how to create something original, which does not infringe other people's copyright, see the use and re-use section within Copyrightuser.org

However, you do not always need to get permission in order to re-use a creative work. Permission is not required if you are using the work for reasons covered by "copyright exceptions", which involve uses such as non-commercial research and private study, quotation, news reporting, parody, and education, amongst others. These exceptions are explained accurately in user-friendly language on Copyrightuser.org.

Once you have created something original, that work is your own and you can license its use in different ways. These include:

1) Signing a private agreement with the person or organisation that wants to use it (e.g. a company that wants to produce a film based on your novel);

2) Joining a collecting society, such as PRS for Music or DACS, that will license your work and collect royalties on your behalf; or

3) Permitting everyone to freely re-use your work under certain conditions by distributing it with a Creative Commons licence.

3. How has the Internet transformed copyright?

There is a very close relationship between copyright and technology. Technologies such as the printing press, fax machine and the photocopying machine have made copying easier. However, none of these technologies has had an impact as significant as the Internet. The Internet has enabled more creation, use and re-use of copyright works. However, the Internet has also enabled mass-scale copying which has challenged copyright law in recent years.

Copyright regulation responded to these developments by extending the scope of copyright protection. The first copyright law only protected printed books and written materials for a period of 14 years. Today, copyright law covers almost every kind of creative work for a much longer period of time (i.e. lifetime of the author plus 70 years after their death).

The Internet and many new online technologies make copying and sharing extremely easy; it is quicker, cheaper and more accurate than ever before. These developments are challenging and copyright regulation must continue to adapt.

One of the new challenges that copyright faces today is the notion of the creator. Previously, the creator of the work was very easy to identify - it was the author of the book for example. However, the nature of creativity has changed. Media and technology is becoming more interactive and often invites audiences to creatively participate, making them users and creators at the same time. Media production is not only for professionals anymore. New technologies enable everyone to express their creativity and have inspired new ways of using creative works, such as fan fiction and remix.
"The concept of authorship still seems to be based on the notion of individual creation, when the reality in the digital context seems to involve collaboration, rather than the 'individual genius', as a core underpinning of the creative process." (Academic)
However, many of these new creative activities are restricted by current copyright regulation. The tension between what the law says and what people do online raises several interesting questions about contemporary copyright regulation, which will be explored in the remaining three prompt questions of this resource.

Case Study: Harry Potter

J.K. Rowling famously began writing the first Harry Potter book in a café in Edinburgh, as a single mum surviving on state benefits. In a newspaper interview she told her story:
"I was as poor as it's possible to be in this country. I was a single parent. I remember 20 years ago not eating so my daughter would eat. I remember nights when there was literally no money." (J. K. Rowling)
J. K. Rowling, whilst inspired by other authors, created the story of Harry Potter and The Philosopher's Stone. She was then able to license her copyright to Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, who published the book and rewarded her financially. Thereafter she was paid an advance to write more and continue the story of Harry Potter and complete the seven-book sequence, collectively selling over 400 million copies!
"It happened very suddenly and it was marvellous on one level. I had security. I could buy a house. I could look at my daughter and think, "Wow, I can buy you some stuff!" ... The big moment was a large advance from America in 1997. We stopped renting and I could buy a house... Next it was not just advances, it was royalties coming in." (J. K. Rowling)
J. K. Rowling was able to do this because copyright gave her the exclusive rights to protect her story. She licensed that right to Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, giving them permission to print and distribute her work in return for royalty payments.

J. K. Rowling and Bloomsbury were then able to sub-license the Harry Potter story in order to make more creations. For example, Warner Bros Entertainment Inc. had to pay for a licence to use J. K. Rowling's story to create the Harry Potter film series. This is known as a derivative work.

Other derivative creations of Harry Potter include the translation of the books into 67 different languages, audio books, computer games, an amusement park and more. In order to create these works a licence had to be obtained from the copyright holders. This means as well as Warner Bros and the other creators of the derivative works, J. K. Rowling and Bloomsbury can continue to benefit from royalty payments.

For example, Warner Bros owns the copyright in the Harry Potter films, so when Electronic Arts wanted to create Harry Potter the video game using the characters and setting from the film, they had to obtain a licence from Warner Bros, who then earns royalties from the sales of the games.

Another way in which the Harry Potter stories have been used is to make parodies. For example, the Potter Puppet Pals is a YouTube series using the characters from Harry Potter to tell stories. The creator has spent his time and effort making the puppets, the storylines, the songs and music to produce 16 different parody videos. Until 1 October 2014, the use of the original work would have been copyright infringement. However with the introduction of the new parody exception within the scope of fair dealing, the original work can be parodied in certain circumstances.

One of these videos, Potter Puppet Pals: The Mysterious Ticking Noise, has received over 157,703,236 views. At the beginning of this video is an advertisement. This usually means that the rightsholder is receiving a payment every time that the video is watched.

Source: J. K. Rowling quotes have been taken from www.jkrowling.com

Task: Creating and licensing your own work
Copyright subsists in an original creative work. Copyright gives you the exclusive right to copy, issue, rent, lend, perform, show, communicate and adapt your work. Below are a list of scenarios to consider when creating your own work and licensing it.
1. You want to write an original story about a wizard and his adventures at wizardry school. How do you do this without infringing copyright law?

2. Having created your own original story, how would you disseminate it?

3. Your story is very successful. Someone approaches you and they want to use one of your characters in their video game. What permission do you give them?

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Illustration: Davide Bonazzi To answer this question, we have broken it into three bite-sized sections. The answers have been drawn from Copyrightuser.org, an online resource which aims to make UK copyright law accessible to creators and members of the public.

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Mise-en-scene project- research using film product

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here is the best scene from any Harry Potter movie.

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These camera movements revolutionized the art of filmmaking.
Cover image via Vintage Everyday.
While it may be something most filmmakers take for granted, the concept of camera movement is really the apex of centuries of image-capturing technology. Movement, whether it is from a stationary location or freely across three-dimensional space, is a powerful cinematic technique. So, as a filmmaker or video producer, it's important for you to understand what movement is and how it works.

Let's explore the five most powerful camera movements in cinema history.

The Pan

Let's start with the basics. One of the first camera moves to appear in cinema was perhaps the simplest. If your camera is on a tripod, moving the camera head to the left or to the right is called a "pan." You can see an example of it in the 1903 film The Great Train Robbery below.

The Tilt

A camera tilt is similar to a pan, but instead of turning left or right, it moves up or down. The physical camera stays in the same stationary place, but the field of view, like the pan, changes. Here's a YouTube example of a proper tilt by Frank Healz.

The Crane

Image via Hague Camera Supports.
Also called a pedestal or jib shot, this technique requires moving the actual camera body up or down in space. The term jib comes from the arm used in a camera craning device. For longer crane movements, you need longer and longer jibs (as you can see in the photo above). Here's an example of a famous crane shot.

Image via PetaPixel.
The Zoom

Image via Wikipedia.
A zoom is a camera move that does not require any camera "movement" at all - so to speak. A zoom involves a camera increasing or decreasing its focal length to magnify an image. Not all camera lenses are capable of this, but here's a breakdown of how a zoom lens works. For our purposes, zooming in or out can change the composition, scene, or even the story.

The Tracking Shot

A tracking shot - or dolly shot - involves moving a camera forward, backward, left, or right (or any combination thereof) in real space. Often, this requires a dolly track to keep the camera steady. Usually, this movement covers short, controlled distances; however, in cinema, it's often combined with pans, tilts, pedestals, and zooms - as you can see in the example below.

These are just the basic camera movements, if you're interested in learning more about some more advanced moves and general filmmaking knowledge, check out some of these resources.

Which is your favorite camera movement? Let us know in the comments.

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The 5 Most Powerful Camera Movements in Cinema History - The Beat: A Blog by PremiumBeat

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Cover image via Vintage Everyday. While it may be something most filmmakers take for granted, the concept of camera movement is really the apex of centuries of image-capturing technology. Movement, whether it is from a stationary location or freely across three-dimensional space, is a powerful cinematic technique.

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Mise-en-scene project- research using film product

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Cover work- knowledge check self assessment 

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Cover work- knowledge check self assessment 

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Remember to leave your essay books in the box

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Harry Potter is a series of seven fantasy novels written by British author J. K. Rowling. The novels chronicle the lives of a young wizard, Harry Potter, and his friends Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley, all of whom are students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The main story arc concerns Harry’s conflict with Lord Voldemort, a dark wizard who intends to become immortal, overthrow the wizard governing body known as the Ministry of Magic, and subjugate all wizards and Muggles (non-magical people).

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Ofcom has announced a total ban on junk food advertising around all children's programming, on all children's channels and around all programmes that have a "particular appeal" to under 16-year-olds.

The restrictions are much harsher than the TV and advertising industry had been hoping for but fell short of a complete pre-watershed ban that health campaigners were seeking.

The surprise is that Ofcom has chosen to extend the restrictions to any programme any time of the day that has an "above-average" audience of under 16-year-olds.

It had previously been focusing on a range of options for restrictions on advertising to under 9-year-olds and during particular time periods.

This brings into the ban a range of programmes previously considered to be unaffected by the likely proposals such as music channels and shows, many awards ceremonies and early evening general entertainment programmes.

The age bracket concerned is defined as any programme that has a 20% higher proportion of under 16-year-old viewers than the UK average.

Ofcom has estimated that the restrictions will cost £39m in TV ad revenue.

The media watchdog has based its definition of "junk food" on the Food Standards Authority's nutrient profiling system.

As a result of Ofcom's decision to target regulation to ensure the protection of the under 16-year-old group - the original proposals looked only at the under 9-year-old group - there will be a "short and focussed" consultation to seek views on extending the restrictions.

This will close before Christmas with an announcement planned in January.

Ofcom has set a deadline of March next year for advertisers to alter their marketing campaigns in line with the new restrictions on junk food advertising to children under-16s.

However, advertising restrictions will be phased in over 24 months up until the end of 2008 for dedicated children's channels where the "ability to substitute revenues from food and drink advertising would be more difficult to achieve quickly".

The media regulator is introducing the measures with the goal of reducing the amount of advertising of foods high in fat, salt and sugar to children by 50%.

It claims that the new regulations will reduce the number junk food ads seen by under-16s by 41% and the key group of under-9s 51%.

Ofcom estimates that the restrictions will affect only 0.7% of the ad revenues of terrestrial broadcasters such as ITV, GMTV, Channel 4 and Channel Five.

Cable and satellite channels will see a loss of around 8.8% of total ad revenues.

However, the hardest hit will be dedicated children's channels, such as Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon, which will see an estimated 15% hit in ad revenues.

Ofcom believes that the total impact on TV advertising will be a loss of £39m.

However, if broadcasters introduce "mitigating" strategies - such as running more repeats or using more cheaper, imported shows, the drop in advertising revenue could be just £23m.

The chancellor, Gordon Brown, has welcomed Ofcom's ban on junk food ads around children's shows, saying he would host a seminar with broadcasters and other groups to see what more could be done.

"The chancellor welcomes Ofcom's report and their proposals to tighten the restrictions on the advertising of unhealthy foods during programmes that children watch," a spokesman said.

The National Consumer Council said it was "very disappointed" by the junk food ad ban proposals as they didn't go far enough in covering shows such as Coronation Street.

The chief executive, Philip Cullum, said: "This doesn't really get to the heart of the issue. They say they have taken a focus on children, but the proposals actually don't deliver that."

TV shows such as The Simpsons, Hollyoaks, The X Factor, Lost and Friends will be affected by new restrictions that aim to block junk food ads from shows that have a "particular appeal" to under-16s.

Other shows that are likely to fall within Ofcom's new junk food ad ban, based on historical viewing data, include early evening mass-entertainment shows, especially those involving musical elements.

According to media agency Carat, based on viewing figures for October, other shows that would be affected include Make Me a Supermodel, Two and a Half Men, Pimp My Ride and Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway.

Beyond a ban on advertising of junk food on children's channels and programmes, Ofcom intends to introduce a mechanism, called "Index 120", to assess which shows have an "above average" appeal to under-16s and therefore cannot run any junk food ads.

Broadcasters are familiar with this type of system because variations of it have been used for assessing where alcohol advertising can run, for example, but it has not been used on such a wide scale before.

The definition that Ofcom is using is for shows with a "particular appeal" to under-16s is any show that has a 20% higher proportion of viewers below 16 years old the UK average.

Ofcom's predecessor, the Broadcasting Standards Commission, revealed in 2003 that children spent more time watching "grown up" programmes such as EastEnders, Only Fools and Horses and Pop Idol than shows aimed specifically at young people.

Channel Five and Turner Broadcasting criticised Ofcom's decision on junk food advertising, calling it "draconian" and a "missed opportunity".

However, Channel 4 has called Ofcom's decision a "proportionate response to a complex social issue" but warned it will cause the channel "financial difficulties".

The future of UK children's programmes on commercial television now looks "bleak", according to the Five chief executive, Jane Lighting.

Ms Lighting re-iterated her channel's commitment to well-regarded pre-school brand Milkshake! but said the future looks difficult for Five.

She said: "This is a tough decision and we are disappointed it is even more draconian than the stringent measures that Ofcom originally proposed.

"Five has a continuing commitment to broadcasting children's programmes both for our Milkshake! pre-school audience and for older children."

She added: "However, these restrictions will deny us substantial revenue and make the economics of producing children's programmes a lot more difficult in the future.

"The long-term future of UK-produced children's programming outside the BBC is bleak."

Five's children's output includes such favourites as Make Way for Noddy and Thomas & Friends.

Its non-children's shows that may be affected include Australian soap Home and Away and Make Me a Supermodel.

Turner Broadcasting, which owns kids channels Cartoon Network, Toonami and Boomerang, has also criticised Ofcom's proposals, saying its plan to use characters like Scooby-Doo to promote healthy eating would now be barred.

The company described the junk food ban as a "missed opportunity for a creative and considered solution" to the problem of childhood obesity and said it had been looking at ways it could use its cartoon characters.

"Turner, like other media companies, had been looking at ways in which we could harness our characters, such as Scooby-Doo and Dexter, for the power of good, aligning them with the promotion of healthier food products, such as water, fruit and vegetables," the Turner senior vice-president, Dee Forbes, said.

"Sadly, the new restrictions will deny us this potentially exciting route to complement other forms of health promotion."

However, Channel 4 has called Ofcom's decision a "proportionate response to a complex social issue".

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Topics

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Total ban for junk food ads around kids' shows

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Ofcom has announced a total ban on junk food advertising around all children's programming, on all children's channels and around all programmes that have a "particular appeal" to under 16-year-olds. The restrictions are much harsher than the TV and advertising industry had been hoping for but fell short of a complete pre-watershed ban that health campaigners were seeking.

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As a film that centres on a battle to the death between 24 teenagers until only one is left standing, you might think box-office smash The Hunger Games spells out its own warning to parents of young teenagers. But Gary Ross's dystopian science-fiction thriller has been criticised by the Daily Mail over its 12A rating, which means children above the age of 12 can see it in British cinemas without an adult.

At the prompting of UK censors, studio Lionsgate excised a number of gory shots from the final cut of the film, the weekend debut of which achieved the year's highest global gross. The British Board of Film Classification had intended to give the movie a 15 rating, but agreed to a 12A following the removal of seven seconds of brutality and bloodshed.

Nevertheless, parents have complained on online forums that the film's focus on extreme, government-sponsored violence makes it unsuitable for preteens. One blogger argued the removal of gory moments contributes to a "Bambi effect" that only adds to the movie's ability to shock.

"It is really good, but I thought it was really stretching the 12 rating. [My 12-year-old] was so distressed at one particular part, not long before the end, that we had to leave the cinema," wrote a contributor to a thread about the film on the Mumsnet website.

Another said: "You don't see much gore but it's implied and some death scenes are quite shocking. You see a lot of dead faces and it's very realistic. There's one bit where the whole cinema rocked back in its seats and went "aaargh" together." However, the same poster added: "My 12-year-old daughter and her 11-year-old mate loved it."

Critics have pointed out that Lionsgate chose to ignore the fight scenes in trailers for the film, focusing instead on heroine Katniss Everdeen's pre-Hunger Games preparation in the Capitol, the sprawling, ornate capital of Panem, (post-apocalyptic north America). That, coupled with the film's rating, gave filmgoers little warning of the intense nature of the movie, it has been claimed.

The film features scenes in which contestants as young as 12 are stung to death, impaled by spears, ripped apart by mutant dogs and battered to death with bricks.

"I can't help but think that there's a little dose of Bambi medicine here," wrote Simon Brew of the Den of Geek blog. "The shooting of Bambi's mother, infamously, was in the original plan for the Bambi film, but was removed because it was considered too much. As a result, the sequences in and around it became all the more shocking.

"[In The Hunger Games] pretty much any vestige of blood is absent from the movie. Knives going into bodies? You don't see those. Basically, instead of focusing on the kills themselves, the film ends up being more focused on what happens before, and what happens afterwards. I'd argue it makes it all the more shocking."

Star Jennifer Lawrence, who plays Everdeen, has defended the film as a fair adaptation of Suzanne Collins' gory young adult novel. "We weren't going to make a watered-down version of what we love," she said. "If you take the violence and brutality out of the movie, you take the entire heart out of it."
Topics

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The Hunger Games' 12A classification not to the taste of concerned parents

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As a film that centres on a battle to the death between 24 teenagers until only one is left standing, you might think box-office smash The Hunger Games spells out its own warning to parents of young teenagers.

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This will help your reading for Media. It is a long document- but you need to skim read the key facts.
What is going on with UK media?
Who owns the major companies?

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10 things wrong with the media effects model

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10 things wrong with the media effects model

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Hello! You have landed on this page because you were heading for one of the old websites made by me, David Gauntlett, in the distant past.

Most of the stuff on sites like 'theory.org.uk' and 'newmediastudies.com' was 12-20 years old, and I kept it all on the internet for a long long time in case anybody really needed it, but I think that time has now gone.

However you might find what you were looking for - or something newer and better - by taking a look at:

→ This whole site! Full of many things. Take a look around!
→ Latest book is the Second Expanded Edition of Making is Connecting!
→ The complete list of my publications, some of which are available online
→ This ' open access' page, highlighting recent items that you can read free
→ The complete list of blog posts

I hope this helps! If you are especially upset that something in particular has vanished, contact me and if other people feel the same way about the same thing, I might create a new place for it on this site. Thank you!

[12 hours later:] So I almost immediately heard from someone who was sad that they couldn't get the Theory Trading Cards any more. Don't worry, here's the PDFs, from 18 years ago:

→ Theory Trading Cards sheet 1 (cards #1-#9)
→ Theory Trading Cards sheet 2 (cards #10-#12)

[A further 6 hours later:] OK, and people are also looking for this old article:

→ ' Ten Things Wrong With Media Effects Studies ' (2006 version)

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Hello! You have landed on this page because you were heading for one of the old websites made by me, David Gauntlett, in the distant past. Most of the stuff on sites like 'theory.org.uk' and 'newmediastudies.com' was 12-20 years old, and I kept it all on the internet for a long long time in case anybody really needed it, but I think that time has now gone.

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Illustration: Davide Bonazzi

What is the nature of contemporary copyright regulation compared with previous practices?

To answer this question, we have broken it into three bite-sized sections. The answers have been drawn from Copyrightuser.org, an online resource which aims to make UK copyright law accessible to creators and members of the public. The material made available on Copyrightuser.org is free to use, share and adapt according to the Creative Commons Licence as long as you acknowledge Copyrightuser.org. Acknowledging the creator is also a very important requirement under copyright law, as outlined below. Accordingly we request that you please acknowledge and reference Copyrightuser.org in answering this question.

1. How does copyright work and why is it important?

How does copyright work?

In Copyrightuser.org under the section protecting we explain the types of works protected under copyright, such as books, songs, films and video games amongst others. Copyright protection is provided for the expression of ideas and not the ideas themselves. Therefore, although a creator can take inspiration from other people's ideas, to obtain copyright in their own work the creator must express those ideas in their own individual way. This means that it is important that the work you create is your own intellectual creation according to the test established by a recent European ruling or, as the UK law puts it, you have used your own "skill, labour, effort and judgement". If you meet these criteria your work will be considered "original" and you will have copyright in your work.

Copyright is a set of rights through which writers, visual artists, filmmakers, musicians and other types of creators can control the use of their work and get paid for it. Copyright grants the owner the exclusive right to copy, issue, rent, lend, perform, show, communicate and adapt their work. How you go about getting permission to use other people's copyright works is explained in Copyrightuser.org. For example, if you want to produce a film based on a novel, you need to get permission from the author and others who may have rights in that novel (e.g. the publisher). Once you have obtained all the relevant permissions you can produce your film, which will also be protected by copyright.

You may wonder how books, films and other creative works actually receive copyright protection. This is not as difficult as it may seem: copyright is granted automatically, so there is no need for registration. As long as your work is original and in permanent or fixed form, you have copyright. For example, if you take a photo or write a short story, you will automatically have copyright in your work. Marking your work with the © followed by your name and the year of publication can be a useful way of asserting your ownership, but it is not essential in order for copyright to arise.

Infringement of copyright occurs if someone uses a whole, or a substantial part of, a copyright work without permission. The precise meaning of "substantial part" is unclear as this is decided on a case-by-case basis. However, we do know that the court considers it to be a matter of quality and not quantity.

Copyright does not last forever: in the UK copyright generally lasts for the lifetime of the author plus 70 years after their death. After that, the work is in the public domain and everyone can use it without having to seek permission from the copyright owner. For more information about how to deal with public domain works, see, the public domain section on Copyrightuser.org

Why is copyright important?
"The objective of copyright is to promote and spread creativity as well as balancing the interests of the copyright owners and the users." (Internet Service Provider)
As such, the ultimate goal of copyright is the creation and spread of knowledge. Indeed one of the main purposes of copyright regulation is to strike a balance between production and dissemination of knowledge. In other words, copyright regulation has to reward and incentivise creators to produce new works, whilst allowing the public to access and use these works.

Copyright enables creators to make a living from their work by selling or licensing their material. By rewarding creators' efforts and ensuring an income for them, copyright encourages creativity leading to the creation of new material, which in turn leads to the development of a society rich in innovative content.

At the same time, in order to be beneficial, knowledge needs to be spread and shared. As explained on Copyrightuser.org it is important to give access to creative works in order to take inspiration from ideas and develop more creations. Similarly, there has to be a mechanism in place for the use and re-use of copyright works. Copyright law provides for this important balance by rewarding and incentivising creators on the one hand, whilst providing for the spread of knowledge on the other.
"The purpose of copyright is to provide a balance between the need to encourage the continued production/creation of new knowledge by enabling the control of the exploitation of that work for a period of time, after which it enters the public domain." (Television Industry Expert)
2. How does copyright regulate Media?

Copyright regulates the use of media in creative productions. We explain this concept in further detail in the 'Copyright and Creativity' section of Copyrightuser.org. For example, if you are producing a video, copyright law says what you can or cannot do with other people's work in creating the video (e.g. including film footage or music), and protects the work which you have created. As such, it enables creators to control how other people use their work so that they can be rewarded for their creation.
"One of the roles of copyright regulation is to ensure that creators are fairly rewarded for the exploitation of their works and to facilitate the exploitation of such works, in particular through the mechanisms of assignment and licensing." (Judge)
In general, if you want to re-use the whole or a substantial part of a copyright protected work - e.g. you want to create a mash-up of your favourite TV series using your favourite song - you need to get permission from all the copyright owners involved. This can be a difficult (and expensive) process, because works like TV programmes have several rights attached to them and each of these rights may have more than one owner. However, many creators are members of collecting societies (e.g. PRS for Music or DACS) that license work on their behalf. This often simplifies the process of obtaining a licence.

There are also cases where it is not possible to identify the owner of a specific work because he or she is unknown or cannot be found. These works are called 'orphan works' and you can find more information about this in the orphan works section within Copyrightuser.org

You need permission of the copyright owners not only to reproduce their work, which includes adapting or editing it, but also to share it. This means that if you want to upload your mash-up to YouTube for example, you should make sure that your video is not infringing copyright law. It is the users who are responsible for complying with copyright law, not YouTube; and if you are uploading your video in the UK, then UK copyright law applies. YouTube can take down a video that is infringing someone's copyright on request of the owner of that copyright. For more information see YouTube terms and conditions. For further information and guidance on how to create something original, which does not infringe other people's copyright, see the use and re-use section within Copyrightuser.org

However, you do not always need to get permission in order to re-use a creative work. Permission is not required if you are using the work for reasons covered by "copyright exceptions", which involve uses such as non-commercial research and private study, quotation, news reporting, parody, and education, amongst others. These exceptions are explained accurately in user-friendly language on Copyrightuser.org.

Once you have created something original, that work is your own and you can license its use in different ways. These include:

1) Signing a private agreement with the person or organisation that wants to use it (e.g. a company that wants to produce a film based on your novel);

2) Joining a collecting society, such as PRS for Music or DACS, that will license your work and collect royalties on your behalf; or

3) Permitting everyone to freely re-use your work under certain conditions by distributing it with a Creative Commons licence.

3. How has the Internet transformed copyright?

There is a very close relationship between copyright and technology. Technologies such as the printing press, fax machine and the photocopying machine have made copying easier. However, none of these technologies has had an impact as significant as the Internet. The Internet has enabled more creation, use and re-use of copyright works. However, the Internet has also enabled mass-scale copying which has challenged copyright law in recent years.

Copyright regulation responded to these developments by extending the scope of copyright protection. The first copyright law only protected printed books and written materials for a period of 14 years. Today, copyright law covers almost every kind of creative work for a much longer period of time (i.e. lifetime of the author plus 70 years after their death).

The Internet and many new online technologies make copying and sharing extremely easy; it is quicker, cheaper and more accurate than ever before. These developments are challenging and copyright regulation must continue to adapt.

One of the new challenges that copyright faces today is the notion of the creator. Previously, the creator of the work was very easy to identify - it was the author of the book for example. However, the nature of creativity has changed. Media and technology is becoming more interactive and often invites audiences to creatively participate, making them users and creators at the same time. Media production is not only for professionals anymore. New technologies enable everyone to express their creativity and have inspired new ways of using creative works, such as fan fiction and remix.
"The concept of authorship still seems to be based on the notion of individual creation, when the reality in the digital context seems to involve collaboration, rather than the 'individual genius', as a core underpinning of the creative process." (Academic)
However, many of these new creative activities are restricted by current copyright regulation. The tension between what the law says and what people do online raises several interesting questions about contemporary copyright regulation, which will be explored in the remaining three prompt questions of this resource.

Case Study: Harry Potter

J.K. Rowling famously began writing the first Harry Potter book in a café in Edinburgh, as a single mum surviving on state benefits. In a newspaper interview she told her story:
"I was as poor as it's possible to be in this country. I was a single parent. I remember 20 years ago not eating so my daughter would eat. I remember nights when there was literally no money." (J. K. Rowling)
J. K. Rowling, whilst inspired by other authors, created the story of Harry Potter and The Philosopher's Stone. She was then able to license her copyright to Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, who published the book and rewarded her financially. Thereafter she was paid an advance to write more and continue the story of Harry Potter and complete the seven-book sequence, collectively selling over 400 million copies!
"It happened very suddenly and it was marvellous on one level. I had security. I could buy a house. I could look at my daughter and think, "Wow, I can buy you some stuff!" ... The big moment was a large advance from America in 1997. We stopped renting and I could buy a house... Next it was not just advances, it was royalties coming in." (J. K. Rowling)
J. K. Rowling was able to do this because copyright gave her the exclusive rights to protect her story. She licensed that right to Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, giving them permission to print and distribute her work in return for royalty payments.

J. K. Rowling and Bloomsbury were then able to sub-license the Harry Potter story in order to make more creations. For example, Warner Bros Entertainment Inc. had to pay for a licence to use J. K. Rowling's story to create the Harry Potter film series. This is known as a derivative work.

Other derivative creations of Harry Potter include the translation of the books into 67 different languages, audio books, computer games, an amusement park and more. In order to create these works a licence had to be obtained from the copyright holders. This means as well as Warner Bros and the other creators of the derivative works, J. K. Rowling and Bloomsbury can continue to benefit from royalty payments.

For example, Warner Bros owns the copyright in the Harry Potter films, so when Electronic Arts wanted to create Harry Potter the video game using the characters and setting from the film, they had to obtain a licence from Warner Bros, who then earns royalties from the sales of the games.

Another way in which the Harry Potter stories have been used is to make parodies. For example, the Potter Puppet Pals is a YouTube series using the characters from Harry Potter to tell stories. The creator has spent his time and effort making the puppets, the storylines, the songs and music to produce 16 different parody videos. Until 1 October 2014, the use of the original work would have been copyright infringement. However with the introduction of the new parody exception within the scope of fair dealing, the original work can be parodied in certain circumstances.

One of these videos, Potter Puppet Pals: The Mysterious Ticking Noise, has received over 157,703,236 views. At the beginning of this video is an advertisement. This usually means that the rightsholder is receiving a payment every time that the video is watched.

Source: J. K. Rowling quotes have been taken from www.jkrowling.com

Task: Creating and licensing your own work
Copyright subsists in an original creative work. Copyright gives you the exclusive right to copy, issue, rent, lend, perform, show, communicate and adapt your work. Below are a list of scenarios to consider when creating your own work and licensing it.
1. You want to write an original story about a wizard and his adventures at wizardry school. How do you do this without infringing copyright law?

2. Having created your own original story, how would you disseminate it?

3. Your story is very successful. Someone approaches you and they want to use one of your characters in their video game. What permission do you give them?

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Illustration: Davide Bonazzi To answer this question, we have broken it into three bite-sized sections. The answers have been drawn from Copyrightuser.org, an online resource which aims to make UK copyright law accessible to creators and members of the public.

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The Dark Knight | British Board of Film Classification

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The BBFC recognised that the film was potentially a fairly intense experience at times; director Christopher Nolan elected to give his Batman films a brooding and gritty edge, compared to earlier Batman films, which contained more clearly comedic elements.

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Fifty years ago this month, on the Whitsun weekend of the 16-18 May 1964, the youth of Britain went mad. If you believed the newspapers, that is, who went with screaming headlines like 'Battle of Brighton', and 'Wild Ones 'Beat Up' Margate' . Editorials fulminated with predictions of national collapse, referring to the youths as 'those vermin' and 'mutated locusts wreaking untold havoc on the land'.

Whitsun 1964 has become famous as the peak of the Mods and Rockers riots, as large groups of teenagers committed mayhem on the rain-swept streets of southern resorts like Margate, Brighton, Clacton and Bournemouth. Extensively photographed and publicised at the time, these disturbances have entered pop folklore: proudly emblazoned on sites about Mod culture and expensively recreated in the 1979 film Quadrophenia.

Yet, as ever when you're dealing with tabloid newspapers, things are not quite what they seemed. What was trumpeted as a vicious exercise in national degeneration was to some extent, pre-hyped by the press. It was also not as all-encompassing as the headlines suggested: although an estimated 1,000 youths were involved in the Brighton disturbances, there were only 76 arrests. In Margate, there were an estimated 400 youths involved, with 64 arrests. While unpleasant and oppressive, this was hardly a teen take-over.

The cycle had begun six weeks or so earlier, during a dull and unseasonably cold Easter weekend. Up to 1,000 or so young Londoners had descended on Clacton, a smallish resort on England's eastern coast. Bored with the bad weather and limited facilities, groups had separated according to their tribe: there were scuffles and stone-throwing, and the generally threatening appearance of teenagers en masse, barely restrained by an underwhelming police presence.

On Easter Monday, the press went big with the story: 'Day of Terror by Scooter Groups' (Daily Telegraph), 'Youngsters Beat Up Town - 97 Leather Jacket Arrests' (Daily Express), and 'Wild Ones Invade Seaside - 97 Arrests' (Daily Mirror). Citing "fighting, drinking, roaring, rampaging teenagers on scooters and motorcycles", the Mirror referenced the notorious 1953 Marlon Brando film, The Wild One, which in mid-sixties Britain was still banned by the British Board of Film Censors, as likely to incite juvenile delinquency.

After that sensational write-up, the pattern was prepared for the next public holiday, andsouthern seaside resorts became the theatre. Contrasted with the anomie of Clacton, it became split along stylistic and tribal lines: between smart, scooter-riding, of-the-minute Mods, and leather-jacketed, scruffy Rockers − the younger siblings of the early 60s Ton Up Boys. 'Grease' they were called, and, although they had long hair − longer than many Mods − they were seen as throwbacks to Marlon Brando and 1950s Teddy Boys.
Generation X
The relationship between the rioters and the press was examined in Generation X, an influential piece of youth sociology by Charles Hamblett and Jane Deverson − published in 1964 to capitalise on the apparent turmoil of contemporary youth. The cover simulated a variety of lurid headlines or phrases ̶ "RIGHT OLD MESS', 'PUNCH UP', 'QUEER ̶ but the book gave room to the voices of real teens, allowing them to speak freely. It remains a valuable document.

It began with a quote from "John Braden, 18, a London mechanic": "yes, I am a Mod and I was at Margate. I'm not ashamed of it − I wasn't the only one. I joined in a few of the fights. It was a laugh, I haven't enjoyed myself so much for a long time. It was great − the beach was like a battlefield. It was like we were taking over the country. You want to hit back at all the old geezers who try to tell us what to do. We just want to show them we're not going to take it."

The Whitsun 1964 disturbances announced the fact that a new generation was claiming its space and its time. As evidenced by the interviews in Generation X, the early baby-boomers were more confident, better educated, and even more restless than their 1950s counterparts: the Edwardians, later Teddy Boys, who had become notorious for their combination of strange, exaggerated clothes and tendency towards extreme violence.

Generation X captured, for the first time from within, a separate youth world that took its cues from music and fashion. As one interviewee observed: "a lot of today's teenagers have ambitions to be the top dresser in his district. Another ambition is to play in a beat group that's going to have some sort of fame". Films were still important as fantasy vehicles but the public life of 1960s teenagers was acted out in terms of Mod clothes, Bluebeat music and Soho clubs.
'Moral panic'
The Mod/Rocker disturbances soon faded as other styles came into youth culture prominence, but they set a pattern of tribal violence that would continue on and off throughout the rest of the 1960s (Skinheads v Hippies), the 1970s (Punks v Teds), and the 1980s − when the front cover of Time's European edition for 24 October 1983 showed a scary-looking Mohawk punk with the cover strap The Tribes of Britain. Inside, the lurid copy presented a country riven by inter-youth culture battles.

The events of 1964 were also a textbook example of what the sociologist Jock Young termed "a moral panic". This idea was explored by Stanley Cohen in his ground-breaking study of the Mod/Rocker riots, Folk Devils and Moral Panics: "a condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges to become a threat to societal values and interests; its nature is presented in a stylised and stereotypical fashion by the mass media". Moral barricades are manned, solutions are devised by 'experts', and the episode fades or is successfully 'dealt with'.

Cohen observed how "one of the most recurrent types of moral panic in Britain since the war has been associated with the emergence of various forms of youth culture"'. What to the young seemed quite natural − the announcement of their generation's arrival, a claiming of public space within a country that catered little for their needs − to adults seemed threatening and a symptom of national decay. There was violence, to be sure, but some of this was simply adult projection: a dark vision of a nightmare future symbolised by alien youth.

Folk Devils and Moral Panics was published in 1973, and coincided with the pioneering work undertaken at Birmingham's Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies: during the next few years, books like Resistance Through Rituals by Stuart Hall and Tony Jefferson, and Dick Hebdige's Subculture: the Meaning of Style developed subcultural theory − in short, the mapping of youth tribes as both a commercial creation and a way of resistance − as a method of analysing mass youth culture.
Retromania
It also fed back into popular culture. The early to mid 1970s saw all manner of nostalgic elements enter the pop mainstream, as the modernism of the '60s was replaced with an awareness of the past: the early 1960s retro of the vastly influential George Lucas film, American Graffiti, the Pop Art references in Roxy Music's Virginia Plain, the Mod pop retro of David Bowie's 1973 covers album, Pin Ups, the harking back to the 1964 heyday of the Mods and Rockers in the Who's 1973 album, Quadrophenia.

At the same time, the various incarnations of the shop run by Malcolm McLaren and Vivienne Westwood at 430 Kings Road passed through historical subcultures: in Let It Rock (1972-3), the Edwardian clothes of the Teddy Boys, in Too Fast To Live, Too Young To Die (1974) '40s zoot suits and '50s rocker leathers. In Sex (1974-6) they sourced fetish clothing along with their own original designs, usually festooned in slogans and extreme imagery.

In May 1976, McLaren told the magazine Street Life, "I think now kids have a hankering to be part of a movement... They want to associate with a movement that's hard and tough and in the open like the clothes we're selling here." Early punk audiences mixed handmade designs with clothes sourced from the 1940s and 1950s − in a dizzying, living collage.

Punk in turn kick-started an explosion of subcultural research, as all the strands that had been packed into the original movement unravelled into individual styles. The punks v Teds battles of 1977 − a self-conscious reprise of the Mods v Rockers disturbances − were followed by the reappearance of Skinheads, the Mod Revival of 1979, the Ska revival, and the onset of the New Romantics, who freely and gleefully plundered styles going right back to the 19th Century. Clothes became more than individual adornment: a matter of deep, tribal identification.

In the early '90s, just as Britain's style wars were abating − thanks to rave culture and the onset of sportswear as a youth cult staple − the phrase Generation X was given a new lease of life. Douglas Coupland's 1991 novel Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture examined the early adulthood of another generation: coinciding with the success of Nirvana's Nevermind and the consequent obsession with Grunge, it caught the emergence of the cohort born in the mid to late 1960s, just after the baby boomer bulge.

Since then, the phrase has been adapted for successive waves of young adults: Generation Y, Generation Z, Generation Rent etc − so much so that it has become almost meaningless. Most of the stories using these generational tropes follow the time-honoured media template: either positive − celebrating the young in consumerist terms as early adopters and trend-spotters − or condemnatory, usually in terms of violence orapathy.

Whether it be Generation X, Y or Z, adults continue to project their hopes and fears onto adolescents. Talking about a generation marks the arrival of a fresh cohort who will respond to the world in their own way. Whether adults like it or not, teenagers embody the future, and many of them will respond to the challenges they face in constructive and creative ways.
If you would like to comment on this story or anything else you have seen on BBC Culture, head over to our page or message us on .

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Fifty years ago this month, on the Whitsun weekend of the 16-18 May 1964, the youth of Britain went mad. If you believed the newspapers, that is, who went with screaming headlines like 'Battle of Brighton', and 'Wild Ones 'Beat Up' Margate' .

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No more Mark Strong doing the voiceoever. Shame. He has such a wonderful, soothing voice. But I quite like Cheri Lunghi. Una Stubbs is delightful.

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No more Mark Strong doing the voiceoever. Shame. He has such a wonderful, soothing voice. But I quite like Cheri Lunghi. Una Stubbs is delightful.

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How successful was Eastenders E20 spin off?

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How successful was Eastenders E20 spin off?

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They are young and vital in a way that Ian Beale sadly never was. Zsa Zsa Carter, Fatboy, Leon Small and Mercy Olubunmi are the new EastEnders faces to watch - and they have already marked their turf in Albert Square despite only appearing a handful of times so far in the soap.

The teenage characters star in an online spinoff called EastEnders: E20, produced to celebrate the show's 25th anniversary, that has proved a huge hit with young audiences: since its launch on 8 January, the 12 short episodes have attracted 2.8m hits on its website and iPlayer, with behind-the-scenes clips and interviews pushing the total to 3.3m views.

Shot on the soap's Elstree set, the series follows their adventures in a shared squat as they try to break away from their troubled families. Their stories overlap with the regular cast of the TV show, who appear in the website stories. The new characters will continue to feature regularly in the original soap.

The episodes - which vary in length from three to 16 minutes - were written by a team of 13 writers aged between 17 and 22. Recruited from London theatre companies in a talent drive last year, none of them knew they would be writing future EastEnders episodes until their first day of a "summer camp" at Theatre Royal Stratford East.

"They looked so shocked, it was really thrilling," said producer Deborah Sathe. They developed scripts by listening to conversations on buses and in the shopping centre. "Once you start pricking up your ears, there's nothing more dramatic than listening to people talk. We created some brilliant scenes from the eavesdropping stuff."

She considers the writers' use of youth slang to be the project's highlight. "As people turn 25 or 26, that language becomes defunct for them but hearing that on Albert Square was my proudest moment."

"What I like is that mask that young people have. It's all 'wagwan?', 'what's happening?', but actually when you see them at home with their mums they're terribly polite and sweet. I wanted to celebrate what they are like on the streets and what they're like at home."

Emer Kenny, 20, was picked first as a writer, then was cast as moody trouble-maker Zsa Zsa, niece of Shirley Carter: "The moment I felt most proud was when I watched the episode I had written and people started quoting lines that Fatboy said from it. He calls Mercy's grandma 'sugar batty'. You really put yourself out there when you start writing."

The web shows have a different feel from the TV series - the theme tune has been remixed, there is backing music, faster editing and more humour. The first episode features Fatboy, a clownish wheeler-dealer played by Ricky Norwood, explaining to a church group how he proposes to redesign their website as godlypodly.co.uk: "The Son of God is less JC, more Jay-Z. You can dress him up in the sickest kicks and get him busting some moves. Here's Peter - he spouts parables. Click here and you get weather updates."

The show is not the first experiment in online youth drama. Hollyoaks has also done web mini-episodes, while KateModern and The Secret World of Sam King were created for the web. But Sathe maintains that there are few dramas for the Skins generation and was astonished at how quickly E20's fanbase on Facebook grew. "It went from 100 to 5,000 in a couple of hours, which was pretty phenomenal." The show's page now has over 16,000 fans - although that is still a long way off the 220,000-strong group named Why does no one on Eastenders have their own washing machine?

Jenny, however, points out that most drama revolves round the common themes of friendship, love and family. "I think teenage stories are exactly the same as adult stories but teenagers are doing it for the first time." A brief appearance in tonight's live anniversary episode is her latest 'first'. "I'm not nervous because all I have to do is drink champagne in the background."
Topics

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They are young and vital in a way that Ian Beale sadly never was. Zsa Zsa Carter, Fatboy, Leon Small and Mercy Olubunmi are the new EastEnders faces to watch - and they have already marked their turf in Albert Square despite only appearing a handful of times so far in the soap.

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Marvel Films- audience feedback- non web based

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Marvel Films- audience feedback- non web based

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A sequel to second-biggest comic book movie ever and fifth biggest film of all time Iron Man 3 will happen, that is in no doubt. When and with whom in the starring role however, are two questions begging for answers.

Robert Downey Jr, whose performance in the original Iron Man is ,one of the key reasons for Marvel Studio's continued and enormous success, will return as tech supremo in the next two Avengers sequels after signing a new contract last year. However that contract made no mention of an Iron Man 4.

With that in mind it seems unlikely that there will be an Iron Man 4 before Avengers 3 - probably in 2018 - which makes Marvel asking fans about their interest in a sequel quite interesting.

Cinema Blend's Kristy Puckho attended a Captain America: The Winter Soldier screening and was handed, along with everyone else in attendance, a questionnaire by representatives of Marvel.

As well as the usual questions about which demographic the viewers fall into, there was also a question about future Marvel films: "Which movies are you interested in seeing?"

It lists five answers below - Avengers 2: Age of Ultron, Ant-Man, Thor 3, Captain America 3 and Iron Man 4. What makes this interesting is that all the films are already known to be in the works apart from Iron Man 4.

What does this mean? In my opinion probably a certainly amount of nervousness at Marvel, which, being a business, is keen to milk its cashcow again, but which is hamstrung by its star's contract. If the overwhelming response to this questionnaire is that people want Iron Man 4, might it mean we see one sooner than Avengers 3?

Things change in the movie business so Robert Downey Jr could be convinced to return for another outing after or before the end of his current contract. Another possibility is that Avengers 3 is substituted for a fourth Iron Man.

Studio boss man Kevin Feige has said however that Iron Man could be recast, likening the franchise to the James Bond films. It's the latter that seems the most likely. Sadly Robert Downey Jr can't play the part forever and has described his desire to not "outstay his welcome" in the role.

He will be back twice more however, starting with Avengers: Age of Ultron next year.

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Marvel Survey Asks Captain America Viewers About Iron Man 4 Interest

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A sequel to second-biggest comic book movie ever and fifth biggest film of all time Iron Man 3 will happen, that is in no doubt. When and with whom in the starring role however, are two questions begging for answers.

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Advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary methods

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Advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary methods

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Primary and secondary research - Media research Unit 1

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One disadvantage form using secondary research is some of the information that you obtain maybe outdated or the information may be false or maybe inaccurate. This can quite easily be spotted when searching from different sources of information, if the information that you find in both sources are both different or say something completely different then you know that some infomration is unreliable.

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Also use the videos on padlet :)

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Main Idea EQUILIBRIUM ATTEMPTS TO REPAIR DISCRUPTION Tzvetan Todorov's narrative theory suggests that all narratives follow a three part structure where they begin with equilibrium, where everything is balanced, progress as something comes along to disrupt that equilibrium, and

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Created using Wideo.co. This animation explains the basics of Claude Levi-Strauss' narrative theory. It is all about binary opposition which is basically just the idea that one word has no meaning without it's opposite. East = Not West West= Not East TRANSCRIPT Strauss' Narrative Theory - Binary Opposition 1 - Claude Levi- Strauss studied hundreds of myths and legends from around the world.

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Click onto level 3- digital media
Opens up a new website- click onto unit 1: media products and audiences

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Oxford Cambridge and RSA Examinations ("OCR") offers and provides teaching and examination services and related information. We are committed to protecting the privacy and confidentiality of information provided by those parties ("Users") who access our web site at www.ocr.org.uk and we uphold the relevant data protection principles and process all personal data in accordance with the Data Protection Act 1998. Your use of the OCR web site is at your sole risk.

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Oxford Cambridge and RSA Examinations ("OCR") offers and provides teaching and examination services and related information. We are committed to protecting the privacy and confidentiality of information provided by those parties ("Users") who access our web site at www.ocr.org.uk and we uphold the relevant data protection principles and process all personal data in accordance with the Data Protection Act 1998.

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1. ALL the key terms
2. Ownership models within the media
3. Recap your case study ownership models for conglomerate and independent companies
4. Vertical and horizontal integration (with examples)
5. Synergy and cross media ownership, how do the two work together?
6. Different methods of advertising, alongside the studies on web 2.0
7. Mise-en-scene
8. Camera techniques
9. Editing techniques
10. Sound

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Camera angles, shot lengths, camera movement, with examples.

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Harry Potter kills Voldemort | Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part 2 [HD]

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DEPTH of FIELD Explained! - Film Basics EP3

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Depth of Field explained - FILM BASICS EP3 Welcome to the third episode of Film Basics, a 12 episode series that shows you how to work around your budget limitations with simple yet effective creative ideas. Today we explore and understand depth of field.

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Learning how to Frame a shot. "The Rule of Thirds" is a Basic composition technique used in film, animation, design, painting, photography and just about anything visual.

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Technological convergence is the process by which existing technologies merge into new forms that bring together different types of media and applications. New devices and technology usually handle one medium or accomplish some basic tasks; through technological convergence, devices can interact with a wider array of media types. For example, a new type of media storage often require new players that only play that format. As the technology advances, however, new models might include additional features like the ability to interface with more devices or play other types of media.

Developments in Media

In the past, each entertainment medium had to be played on a specific device. Video displayed on a television through some type of video player, music came through a tape deck or Compact Disc (CD) player, and video games were played through a console of some sort. Technological convergence has resulted in devices that not only interact with the media they are primarily designed to handle, but also with a number of other formats.

For example, modern video game developers may create consoles primarily for playing games, but they also design them to play back video and music and to connect to the Internet. Similarly, new media players are capable of not only playing video or audio from a physical medium, but can also stream data over the Internet, display photographs on a disc, and view websites online. Where multiple pieces of home entertainment equipment were once necessary, a single device may provide all of the functionality required.

Telecommunications Advances

Different forms of communication media previously used their own technologies. Voice conversations used a telephone, video communication briefly used high-end video phones, and e-mail required a computer. Technological convergence has resulted in computers and handheld devices like mobile smartphones and tablets that can provide all of this functionality with a single electronic piece of equipment.

Changes in Hardware

Such technological convergence also leads to devices that are designed specifically to replace a number of different items. Mobile phones, for example, have moved far beyond their beginnings as simple voice communication devices and now offer the functionality of personal music players, digital cameras, and text messenger systems. New devices, such as tablet computers, have been developed simply as a format for convergence, with a single item functioning in the place of numerous earlier electronics.

Importance of the Internet

The Internet is perhaps the most widespread example of technological convergence. Virtually all entertainment technologies, from radio and television to books and games, can be viewed and played online. Many computers with Internet access offer greater functionality than primary devices like media players or eReaders for digital books. All of these different types of media have become digitized and made more readily available than ever before.

Advantages and Criticisms

While technological convergence gives consumers the convenience of having many devices all in one, saving on both size and cost, there is an initial tradeoff in quality. When companies introduce new multi-technology formats, the various technologies it is comprised of are usually at a slightly lower standard than on independent devices. Usually within a year or two, however, this disparate quality is reduced and dedicated devices may become obsolete. Some technology does remain specialized, however; digital cameras, for example, often remain preferable to phone cameras in terms of image quality and features, especially for professional photographers.

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Technological convergence is the process by which existing technologies merge into new forms that bring together different types of media and applications. New devices and technology usually handle one medium or accomplish some basic tasks; through technological convergence, devices can interact with a wider array of media types.

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Social media advertising has come a long way in a relatively short period of time. When Facebook launched its first advertising option in May 2005, no one could have predicted that social media advertising revenue would be estimated to reach $8.4 billion in 2015, just ten years later.

Online advertising is a natural choice for modern businesses, but after the decline of the banner ad, businesses began searching for alternatives. Paid search is a great online advertising medium for driving visitors to your website based on user intent (i.e. their search query). But what if there are no identifiable (or affordable) keywords you can bid on to drive traffic? And what about those businesses that want to create brand awareness rather than capturing user intent?

Social media advertising helps businesses find new potential clients by using users' own shared information to identify interest. Rather than reactively targeting users who search a certain term, social media advertising proactively targets relevant users before they even begin their search.

Social networks are a good option for advertisers because of the advanced targeting options, reliable conversion tracking, and prevalence on mobile devices.

Advanced Targeting Options

Because social networks gather such a larger amount of user information, social media advertising is able to target your audience in a wider variety of ways than other online platforms. Stretching beyond general demographic and geographic data, social media advertising has opened the door to deeper interest, behavioral and connection-based targeting methods.

These advanced targeting options increase your ad's relevance to your users and provide a level of personalization that is not achievable on other advertising channels. Here are four such advanced targeting options:

Interest targeting: Reach specific audiences by looking at their self-reported interests, activities, skills, pages/users they have engaged with, etc. Interest targeting is often related to keyword targeting, so some platforms will allow you to enter both. Interests can be as general as an industry (e.g. automotive industry) or as specific as a product (e.g. convertibles). Offered by: Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn (under "Skill"), Pinterest.

Behavioral/Connection targeting: With behavioral targeting, you can reach people based on purchase behaviors or intents and/or device usage. With connection targeting, you can reach people who have a specific kind of connection to your page, app, group, or event. Both types of targeting take past behavior into account to help you determine intent. Offered by: Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn.

Custom targeting: Reach audiences by uploading a list of email addresses, phone numbers, users IDs, or usernames. Facebook calls its custom targeting Custom Audiences, while Twitter calls its own Tailored Audiences. They're largely based on the same concept: if you have a known group of people you'd like to target, you can simply upload them and target them directly (provided that the social network can match the data you're uploading with real profiles). Offered by: Facebook, Twitter.

Lookalike targeting: Reach new people who are similar to an audience you care about. Lookalike targeting helps businesses extend their custom audiences to reach new, similar users. For those businesses looking to acquire new customers through social media advertising, lookalike targeting can be a fantastic acquisition tool. Offered by: Facebook, LinkedIn.

Improved Conversion Tracking

With all the new options for targeting users, tracking the performance of your social media advertising campaign is even more important for justifying your spend and requesting a budget. While you can still pay-per-click to your website or choose other metrics to measure the success of your ad, most social networks now offer website conversion tracking.

Social media ads that drive the user to take some measurable action, like buying your product or registering for an event, can actually report on how effective the ad was in driving those conversions - as long as you configure it properly. Conversion tracking requires that you add a snippet of code to the page on your website where the conversion will take place, so it does require a bit of technical ability and extra effort, but you'll then be able to attribute any conversions on that page to the ads you're running.

Conversion tracking helps your business be smarter about your ad spend and strategy. If your ad is receiving a lot of clicks (which you are paying for) but no conversions, it's a wasted investment. This information will allow you to better optimize your ad copy and targeting.

Mobile Dominance

With total activity on smartphones and tablets accounting for 60% of digital media time spent in the U.S., there's no denying that reaching users while on mobile devices is the next big wave in advertising - and social media advertising is the best native option. Mobile users are already checking Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and/or Pinterest multiple times a day, so advertising to them while they're within those apps is the best way to reach them without being disruptive.

The data back this up: mobile advertising was on course to comprise 68% of Facebook's revenue and 84% of Twitter's in 2014, and two-thirds of social media advertising spend is forecasted to go towards mobile ads in 2018, creating a $9.1 billion market on mobile. This, coupled with the fact that over half of mobile phone users globally will have smartphones in 2018, means that social media advertising on mobile is a huge growth market in the next three years.

When deciding which channels to use to grow your business in 2015 and beyond, try social media advertising as a supplement to your existing growth strategies.
Opinions expressed in this article are those of the guest author and not necessarily Marketing Land. Staff authors are listed here.
About The Author

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Why Social Media Advertising Is Set To Explode In The Next 3 Years - Marketing Land

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Social media advertising has come a long way in a relatively short period of time. When Facebook launched its first advertising option in May 2005, no one could have predicted that social media advertising revenue would be estimated to reach $8.4 billion in 2015, just ten years later.

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The BBC is the world's leading public service broadcaster. Its mission is to enrich people's lives with programmes that inform, educate and entertain

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All3Media has taken the top spot for the fifth year in a row in the Production 100, Televisual's annual survey and ranking of the independent TV production sector.

The superindie behind Fresh Meat, Embarrassing Bodies, TOWIE, Midsomer Murders and Peep Show comprises 20 companies in the UK and abroad, and achieved UK revenues of £286m, up from £261m last year.

Elisabeth Murdoch's Shine Group climbed from fifth to second place this year on revenues of £190.7m, while Endemol dropped one place to third with revenues of £187m.

Elsewhere, there's been plenty of movement in the Production 100 rankings among medium to small sized indies. Many have had a very good year indeed.

Drama and comedy indies have done well, reflecting an upturn in commissioning by broadcasters in these genres. Baby Cow, for example, has almost doubled its turnover, while Sherlock producer Hartswood Films has trebled its revenues. Big Talk and Red have also posted solid gains on the year. Higher up the list, NBC Universal (owner of Downton Abbey producer Carnival Films), Hat Trick, Left Bank and Impossible have also seen impressive rises in turnover.

My Big Fat Gypsy Wedding producer Firecracker is clearly riding a wave with revenues up from £8.9m to £13.4m year on year. Other factual indies to do well include Raw TV, Jamie Oliver's indie Fresh One, Love Productions, Betty, Keo Films, Blast Films and Minnow Films.

Fallers this year include the Ten Alps group, where turnover has halved to £9.5m, and Endemol where turnover has fallen by over £50m to £187m. Absent from 2012's list is last year's fourth biggest company Hit Entertainment, which was swallowed by US toy firm Mattel last October.

The highest new entrant this year is Call The Midwife producer Neal Street Productions. Fellow drama producers Warp Films and Ruby Films, who have diversified into TV from film production, are also new entrants. 24 Hours in A&E producer The Garden makes its first entry this year at number 50, less than two years since launching. Other new names to the Production 100 this year include Wide-Eyed Entertainment, Bigger Pictures, Rise, ClearStory and Airborne.

For the second year in a row, the indie business seems to be in distinctly better shape than the wider economy. Many of the indies surveyed say that business is good, and they expect it to continue being so next year. Although programme budgets remain under pressure and margins are being squeezed, producers say that they are winning commissions from a wider range of broadcasters both in the UK and abroad.

Since the list below was published, Sony has acquired Left Bank and ITV Studios has acquired So Television.

See Televisual's September issue for the full Production 100 report. Note: the individual brands of superindies are listed in brackets.

The top 100 TV indies (ranked on turnover):
1 All3Media (inc Bentley, Company, Lime, Lion, Maverick, North One, Objective, One Potato, Two Potato, Optomen, Studio Lambert)
2 Shine Group (inc Kudos, Princess, Dragonfly, Shine TV)
3 Endemol UK (inc Remarkable, Initial, Tiger Aspect, Zepportron, Darlow Smithson, Tigress)
4 Zodiak UK (inc RDF, Bwark, IWC, Bullseye, Lucky Day, Comedy Unit, Touchpaper, Presentable, The Foundation, Red House, Mast Media)
5 IMG Sports Media
6 FremantleMedia UK (inc Thames, Boundless, Retort, Talkback, Newman Street)
7 Shed Media (inc Shed Productions, Wall to Wall, Ricochet, Twenty Twenty, Yalli, Renegade, Watershed)
8 Tinopolis (inc Mentorn, Daybreak, Pioneer, Sunset+Vine)
9 Avalon (inc Avalon TV, Liberty Bell, Tinderbox, Topical, Flame)
10 NBC Universal (inc Carnival Film & TV, Monkey)
11 Left Bank
12 Twofour
13 Hat Trick
14 DCD Media (inc Prospect, September, Rize USA (jv), Matchlight (jv)
15 Boom (inc Oxford Scientific, Boomerang, Indus)
16 Argonon (inc Leopard Films, Remedy)
1 7 Impossible Pictures
18 Raw TV
19 Sony (inc Silver River, Victory, Gogglebox)
20 Nutopia
21 Neal Street
22 Pulse Films
23 Aardman
24 Rondo
25 Firecracker
26 Fresh One
27 Red
28= Big Talk
28= Parthenon
30 Zig Zag
31 So Television
32 Mammoth Screen
33 Input Media
34 CPL
35 Baby Cow
36 Atlantic
37 Love Productions
38 Off the Fence
39 Ten Alps (inc Blakeway, Films of Record, Brook Lapping)
40 Hartswood
41 Betty
42 Spun Gold
43 Ruby Films
44 Somethin' Else
45 Keo Films
46 Wag TV
47 Windfall
48 Icon
49 Oxford Film & TV
50 The Garden
51 Blast Films
53 Electric Sky
54 Outline
55= Blink
55=touch/can
56 True North
57 Splash
58= Blue Zoo
58= Tern TV
60 DLT
61 Wide Eyed
62 Telesgop
63 Green Inc
64 Sixteen South
65 Thumbs Up
66 Kindle
67 Rival
68 3DD
69 Magnum Media
70 Walsh Bros.
71 Pacific
72 Reef
73 Quicksilver
74 Pilot
75 Wild Pictures
76 Matchlight
77 Attaboy
78=First Look
78= Minnow
80= Testimony
80= True Vision
82 Airborne
83 Illuminations
84 Warp
85 CTVC Ltd
86= Back2Back
86= Fulcrum
88 Bigger pictures
89 HCA Entertainment
90 Lambent
91 Seventh Art
92 Modern TV
93 Hardcash
94 Coolabi
95 Skyworks
96 Rise
97 Red Planet
98 ClearStory Ltd
99 Lupus
100 Bungalow Town

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film television tv broadcast commercials corporate video production and post-production business community and sector

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film television tv commercials broadcast corporate producers production companies filmmakers producers and directors

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film television tv commercials broadcast corporate video post production studios companies production managers and production management

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film television tv commercials broadcast post houses camera hire and rental companies

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outside broadcast and film and television tv studios

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file-based film television tv commercials broadcast production location shooting and editing

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television tv broadcast co-production finance

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film tv broadcast archive and music libraries and film footage

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music composition for film tv broadcast commercials and corporate production

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broadcast tv television commissioning editors

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film television tv broadcast corporate production companies

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television tv broadcast light entertainment

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television tv broadcast factual entertainment

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television tv broadcast rights management

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All3Media has taken the top spot for the fifth year in a row in the Production 100, Televisual's annual survey and ranking of the independent TV production sector. The superindie behind Fresh Meat, Embarrassing Bodies, TOWIE, Midsomer Murders and Peep Show comprises 20 companies in the UK and abroad, and achieved UK revenues of £286m, up from £261m last year.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Independent Companies 

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Independent Companies 

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They can control and have responsibility for their media outlet, that being they have control over what they produce, rather than larger companies producing what is 'financially interesting'.

When they distribute the films* to a mass audience, this can be expensive and difficult. Vickery and Hawkins (2008) suggests that  they will often license the films made to a distribution company on their behalf. Why could this be a disadvan

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Companies that are free from the control of a conglomerate. They usually specialise in one type of media product or service.

Sometimes, an independent company will work on a joint venture (they will work with another media company because it is beneficial for both).

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What you need to know for Independent companies

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Mediaknowall AS&A Level Key Concepts - Institution

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Introduction to Media Theory, A Level Media Studies, AS Level Media Studies, Institutions, Media Organizations, Independent Media, Media Key Concepts

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With media oversight being taken for granted in recent years, media concentration has been a trend that's been rolling along with few signs of stopping. As a result, many of your favorite media entities have been consolidated and all work under the same umbrella corporation. If you think, for example, one channel offers better content than the other, you might be surprised to learn that you've stuck with the same company and are just now loyal to another one of its assets.

Having singular enterprises in the media is a rarity these days. There's isn't just FOX anymore and there isn't just NBC. There's always something behind it and in this list of the world's top 10 media conglomerates, you'll be able find out which companies they are:

Bertelsmann SE & Co. KGaA

German media giant Bertelsmann starts our list off with nearly $21 billion in revenue and over $800 million generated in profit. Die flagship media company in Europe makes its name with assets that include the RTL Group, one of the biggest television broadcasters in Europe; Gruner + Jahr, the biggest magazine publisher in Europe; and Random House, the biggest book publisher in the world. Its multifaceted approach to media ownership and great standing in Europe makes it one of two international selections on this list.

Gannett Company Inc.

Having grossed over $5 billion in 2012, and on track to top that number in 2013, Gannett just makes this list at the no. 9 spot. Gannett makes its name in the newspaper business with ownership of USA Today, the country's second largest publication by circulation, and many other publications: such as, the Detroit Free Press and The Indianapolis Star, which makes it the largest publisher in the United States. Gannett also owns over 20 local television stations with various NBC, CBS and ABC affiliates owned in different states. Online, Gannett maintains ownership of Cars.com and a 50% stake in Career Builder.

CBS Corporation

After spinning off into its own company from Viacom in 2006, CBS has mainly controlled the network television and radio broadcasting side of the business. With the most watched network under its name, CBS of course, the corporation has been able to generate over $14 billion in revenue and $1.3 in profit. CBS owns a 50% stake in the CW network, which it shares with Time Warner, while it fully owns Showtime, CBS Radio and Simon & Schuster, one of the big four of print publishers. CBS also owns its own sports network.

British Sky Broadcasting Group Plc

Hailing from across the pond on the shores of England, this London-based company generates over $10 billion in revenue and over $1.9 billion in profit to make it no. 7 on the list. Sky, which is 40% owned by 21 st Century Fox, has over 10 million subscribers in the U.K., making it the largest satellite broadcasting company in the country.

Sky owes a large portion of its success to the large amounts of revenue it has been able to garner with televising rights for the English Premier League with Sky Sports, having valued those rights at $3.5 billion over two years to air 116 live soccer matches. Sky shows many of the U.S.'s most popular shows on its flagship channel, Sky 1, such as "The Simpsons" and "24," and also offers broadband internet service.

Liberty Media

With a relatively modest $11 billion in revenue and nearly $2 billion in profit, Liberty Media makes the list at no. 6 on our list of the media big boys. Its chairmen, John Malone, counted Starz and Encore, which combined had about 50 million subscribers, amongst his biggest assets in 2012, while most of the money that Liberty has been able to make has been garnered through investment in other companies, such as Barnes & Noble (17%) and Sirius-XM (49%). Liberty Media also owns very minor shares of Time Warner and Viacom, while Malone also owns the Atlanta Braves. Starz has since been spun-off into its own company, Starz Inc.

News Corporation

The apple of Rupert Murdoch's eye, News Corp enters our list at the no. 5 spot. News Corp's counts the Fox Network and 20 th Century Fox amongst its biggest cash cows, while its news division, the fair and balanced Fox News ranks as the no. 1 cable news network in America. News Corp also owns the gold standard of journalism in the U.S. with Wall Street Journal, the largest paper in America, while it also owns The Times of London. Plans to release a new, 24-hour cable sports network will allow the company to compete with ESPN starting in August when Fox Sports 1 & 2 make their way to American households.

It must be mentioned, though, that News Corporation makes this list on a technicality as, after earning nearly $34 billion in revenue and over $1.1 billion in profit in 2012, the company has split into News Corp and 21 st Century Fox, though they are both still owned by Murdoch. News Corporation also owns a 36% stake in Hulu, the biggest piece of the pie that it shares with Comcast/NBA and Disney/ABC, which each owns 32% of the website.

Viacom

Coming in at no. 4 is the company that, quite literally, owns the music television game, with control over MTV, VH1 and BET. With nearly $15 billion in revenue and over $2 billion in profit, Viacom also has its stake in the movie-making business with Paramount Pictures. The company, in its current form, was created when it split from the old Viacom in 2006 along with the CBS Corporation. Viacom also counts Nickelodeon, Spike and Comedy Central among its assets

Time Warner Inc.

Time Warner actually suffered a loss in revenue of nearly $29 billion in 2012, but still come in at no. 3 having earned over $3.5 billion profit. The company has been downsizing in recent years, having seen America On-Line (AOL) and Time Warner Cable spin off into their own distinctly independent companies in recent, while Time Inc., the division of Time Warner that controls it's magazines such as Sports Illustrated, People, and (you guessed it), Time magazine, is expected to become independent by the end of 2013.

Time Warner will, however, be holding onto its biggest assets such as the Turner networks TBS, TNT, HBO, CNN and Warner Brothers studios, while they also own a $50 million stake in the CW Network. Time Warner also owns the DC Comics series, which allowed them to produce their most recent cinematic success, "Man of Steel," and compete in the sports network circuit with ownership of NBA TV.

The Walt Disney Disney Company

With revenue topping $42 billion and profits of over $5.5 million, Disney comes in at second amongst our list of biggest media conglomerates. The House of Mouse includes many of today's big boys in its family, the most notable of which are the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), its movie-making division Walt Disney Pictures, as well as Pixar, and the Entertainment Sports and Programming Network, otherwise known as ESPN. Its ownership of Marvel Comics puts it head to head with Time Warner in the battle of super-hero motion pictures, which it won in 2012 as "The Avengers" grossed over $1 billion in box offices. Disney also has a 50% stake in the A&E Networks.

Comcast Corporation

Comcast is your top dog amongst media conglomerates in 2013, as the only company to reach over $6 billion in profit and with nearly 50% more revenue than nearest competitor Walt Disney in 2012, having earned over $62.5 billion. Comcast received its biggest boost in trying to rise to no. 1 in taking over NBC Universal in 2010, which also gave them a significant advantage over Disney who still have yet ascend its own cable news network (ABC News) to a level where it can compete with the likes of Comcast owned MSNBC.

Comcast also does battle with Disney on the movie and theme park with Universal Studios. Comcast will add a significant asset to its NBC Sports division when it begins broadcasting Barclays Premier League matches live in August, a deal they secured with a three-year $240 million dollar offer.

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The World's 10 Largest Media Conglomerates

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With media oversight being taken for granted in recent years, media concentration has been a trend that's been rolling along with few signs of stopping. As a result, many of your favorite media entities have been consolidated and all work under the s...

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Merger Mania in the Media: Can We Still Get All the News We Need?

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Media concentration and its effect on the information you need to run your life are worth considering from an ethical point of view, especially as such deals proliferate.