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The issue that this political cartoon is about is the Open Door Policy. The cartoonist's message is that while other countries could trade with China, Uncle Sam held the keys to doing so. In the political cartoon, Uncle Sam stands at the doorway to China. He is surrounded by people dressed to represent their countries. Germany, France, England, Russia, Japan, Turkey, and Italy are shown. Others might see this cartoon and think that Uncle Sam was being a good guy by opening the door, but in reality, they have to deal with him. The techniques that the cartoonist used to make it persuasive are symbolism, and exaggeration. The cartoon shows symbolism because each of the countries are wearing clothes that are representative of their native style, and it shows exaggeration because Uncle Sam is towering over everyone else. The cartoon supports my position on American Imperialism because Uncle Sam is making these countries go through him to trade with China.

Cartoon Of The Open Door Policy - The Koller Report - N.Koller." Cartoon Of The Open Door Policy - The Koller Report - N.Koller. Web. 19 Feb. 2016. <https://sites.google.com/a/ncps-k12.org/amhnews-n-koller-2011/economic/hay-unlocks-the-doors-to-china/cartoon-of-the-open-door-policy>.

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American Imperialism Through Political Cartoons

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The issue that this political cartoon is about is the Open Door Policy. The cartoonist's message is that while other countries could trade with China, Uncle Sam held the keys to doing so. In the political cartoon, Uncle Sam stands at the doorway to China. He is surrounded by people dressed to represent their countries.

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The last decades of the 19th century were a period of imperial expansion for the United States. The American story took a different course from that of its European rivals, however, because of the U.S. history of struggle against European empires and its unique democratic development.

The sources of American expansionism in the late 19th century were varied. Internationally, the period was one of imperialist frenzy, as European powers raced to carve up Africa and competed, along with Japan, for influence and trade in Asia. Many Americans, including influential figures such as Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge, and Elihu Root, felt that to safeguard its own interests, the United States had to stake out spheres of economic influence as well.

That view was seconded by a powerful naval lobby, which called for an expanded fleet and network of overseas ports as essential to the economic and political security of the nation. More generally, the doctrine of "manifest destiny," first used to justify America's continental expansion, was now revived to assert that the United States had a right and duty to extend its influence and civilization in the Western Hemisphere and the Caribbean, as well as across the Pacific.

At the same time, voices of anti-imperialism from diverse coalitions of Northern Democrats and reform-minded Republicans remained loud and constant. As a result, the acquisition of a U.S. empire was piecemeal and ambivalent. Colonial-minded administrations were often more concerned with trade and economic issues than political control.

The United States' first venture beyond its continental borders was the purchase of Alaska — sparsely populated by Inuit and other native peoples — from Russia in 1867. Most Americans were either indifferent to or indignant at this action by Secretary of State William Seward, whose critics called Alaska "Seward's Folly" and "Seward's Icebox." But 30 years later, when gold was discovered on Alaska's Klondike River, thousands of Americans headed north, and many of them settled in Alaska permanently. When Alaska became the 49th state in 1959, it replaced Texas as geographically the largest state in the Union.

The Spanish-American War, fought in 1898, marked a turning point in US history. The war with Spain was swift and decisive. It left the United States exercising control or influence over islands in the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific. By the 1890s, Cuba and Puerto Rico were the only remnants of Spain's once vast empire in the New World coveted by Germany, and the Philippine Islands comprised the core of Spanish power in the Pacific, coveted by Germany and Japan. The outbreak of war had three principal sources: popular hostility to autocratic Spanish rule in Cuba; US sympathy with the Cuban fight for independence; and a new spirit of national assertiveness, stimulated in part by a nationalistic and sensationalist press. In a sense, the American seizure of these lands was defensive, pre-empting Germany and Japan.

Officially, U.S. policy encouraged the new territories to move toward democratic self-government, a political system with which none of them had any previous experience. In fact, the United States found itself in a colonial role. It maintained formal administrative control in Puerto Rico and Guam, gave Cuba only nominal independence, and harshly suppressed an armed independence movement in the Philippines.

US involvement in the Pacific area was not limited to the Philippines. The year of the Spanish-American War also saw the beginning of a new relationship with the Hawaiian Islands. When the government of Queen Liliuokalani announced its intention to end foreign influence in 1893, American businessmen joined with influential Hawaiians to depose her. Backed by the American ambassador to Hawaii and U.S. troops stationed there, the new government then asked to be annexed to the United States. President Cleveland, just beginning his second term, rejected annexation, leaving Hawaii nominally independent until the Spanish-American War, when, with the backing of President McKinley, Congress ratified an annexation treaty. In 1959 Hawaii would become the 50th state.

To some extent, in Hawaii especially, economic interests had a role in American expansion, but to influential policy makers such as Roosevelt, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, and Secretary of State John Hay, and to influential strategists such as Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan, the main impetus was geostrategic. For these people, the major dividend of acquiring Hawaii was Pearl Harbor, which would become the major U.S. naval base in the central Pacific. The Philippines and Guam complemented other Pacific bases — Wake Island, Midway, and American Samoa. Puerto Rico was an important foothold in a Caribbean area that was becoming increasingly important as the United States contemplated a Central American canal.

The war with Spain revived U.S. interest in building a canal across the isthmus of Panama, uniting the two great oceans. At the turn of the century, what is now Panama was the rebellious northern province of Colombia. When the Colombian legislature in 1903 refused to ratify a treaty giving the United States the right to build and manage a canal, a group of impatient Panamanians, with the support of US Marines, rose in rebellion and declared Panamanian independence. The completion of the Panama Canal in 1914, directed by Colonel George W. Goethals, was a major triumph of engineering. The simultaneous conquest of malaria and yellow fever made it possible and was one of the 20th century's great feats in preventive medicine.

Elsewhere in Latin America, the United States fell into a pattern of fitful intervention. Between 1900 and 1920, the United States carried out sustained interventions in six Western Hemispheric nations — most notably Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua. Washington offered a variety of justifications for these interventions: to establish political stability and democratic government, to provide a favorable environment for U.S. investment (often called dollar diplomacy), to secure the sea lanes leading to the Panama Canal, and even to prevent European countries from forcibly collecting debts. The United States had pressured the French into removing troops from Mexico in 1867. Half a century later, however, as part of an ill-starred campaign to influence the Mexican revolution and stop raids into American territory, President Woodrow Wilson sent 11,000 troops into the northern part of the country in a futile effort to capture the elusive rebel and outlaw Francisco "Pancho" Villa.

Exercising its role as the most powerful — and most liberal — of Western Hemisphere nations, the United States also worked to establish an institutional basis for cooperation among the nations of the Americas. In 1889 Secretary of State James G. Blaine proposed that the 21 independent nations of the Western Hemisphere join in an organization dedicated to the peaceful settlement of disputes and to closer economic bonds. The result was the PanAmerican Union, founded in 1890 and known today as the Organization of American States (OAS).

Newly established in the Philippines and firmly entrenched in Hawaii at the turn of the century, the United States had high hopes for a vigorous trade with China. However, Japan and various European nations had acquired established spheres of influence there in the form of naval bases, leased territories, monopolistic trade rights, and exclusive concessions for investing in railway construction and mining.

Idealism in American foreign policy existed alongside the desire to compete with Europe's imperial powers in the Far East. The U.S. government thus insisted as a matter of principle upon equality of commercial privileges for all nations. In September 1899, Secretary of State John Hay advocated an "Open Door" for all nations in China — that is, equality of trading opportunities (including equal tariffs, harbor duties, and railway rates) in the areas Europeans controlled. Despite its idealistic component, the Open Door, in essence, was a diplomatic maneuver that sought the advantages of colonialism while avoiding the stigma of its frank practice. It had limited success.

With the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, the Chinese struck out against foreigners. In June, insurgents seized Beijing and attacked the foreign legations there. Hay promptly announced to the European powers and Japan that the United States would oppose any disturbance of Chinese territorial or administrative rights and restated the Open Door policy. Once the rebellion was quelled, Hay protected China from crushing indemnities. Primarily for the sake of American good will, Great Britain, Germany, and lesser colonial powers formally affirmed the Open Door policy and Chinese independence. In practice, they consolidated their privileged positions in the country.

A few years later, President Theodore Roosevelt mediated the deadlocked Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, in many respects a struggle for power and influence in the northern Chinese province of Manchuria. Roosevelt hoped the settlement would provide open-door opportunities for American business, but the former enemies and other imperial powers succeeded in shutting the Americans out. Here as elsewhere, the United States was unwilling to deploy military force in the service of economic imperialism. The president could at least content himself with the award of the Nobel Peace Prize (1906). Despite gains for Japan, moreover, U.S. relations with the proud and newly assertive island nation would be intermittently difficult through the early decades of the 20th century.

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The last decades of the 19th century were a period of imperial expansion for the United States. The American story took a different course from that of its European rivals, however, because of the U.S. history of struggle against European empires and its unique democratic development.

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Whatever its origins, American imperialism experienced its pinnacle from the late 1800s through the years following World War II. During this "Age of Imperialism," the United States exerted political, social, and economic control over countries such as the Philippines, Cuba, Germany, Austria, Korea, and Japan.

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Introduction

In the 18th and 19th century, European countries especially the British and the French were scrambling and partitioning the Asia and Africa continents in order to access cheap source of labor and raw materials. This was accomplished by use of military power and also by establishing investments there.

The United States of America was not involved in the scramble, the American imperialism only started later in 1898 during the Spanish American war where the United States of America saw the opportunity to gain colonies by conquering them from Spain in the Spanish-American war. At that time, many powers thought that they could be super powers only by gaining colonies. However, later, countries (USA included) discovered that colonies were not the only way for a country to gain power.

While the United States of American did not use policy of acquiring extra territories, the country has been using its might to control political and economic decisions almost everywhere in the world through the spread of capitalism (Weber, 1978).

To confirm its might, in the recent past, America has engaged in the gulf war, the NATO forces attacks on Yugoslavia, the invasion of Iraq and the continuous attacks on the Taliban as it tries to spread its imperialistic policies. Several years later especially after the Iraq attacks where the US forces were aiming at removing Saddam Hussein from power, the American soldiers are still there and the casualties from these wars have been increasing.

As a result, many people have started experiencing the negative effects of American imperialism especially the American themselves since the unemployment levels has been rising and the country is still recovering from the 2007-2008 financial crisis which led to many US companies being bailed out or collapsing with many arguing that the army in foreign lands need to be recalled (Karl, 2005).

Imperialism Theories

There exist several theories that either support or criticize imperialism. According to the supporters of the Marxist theory, the trends towards expansion are not necessarily through conquering and alienation of foreign lands as most people especially political scientists like to define it but imperialism rather explains the changes which have been occurring in the political economic and also social activities as they try to advance their capitalist notions everywhere.

These sentiments support the US spread of imperialism where it has been using policies and laws which countries that need to be assisted by the country have to follow. A country which needs aid from the United States of America but does not follow the laid policies is never assisted by the US.

In another theory by Kautsky, a capitalist country such as the United States of America cannot sell all the products within their country and thus they have to look for other countries where they can sell their products especially in the less developed economies. Kautsky observed this as the reason behind colonial expansions and spreading of imperialistic policies.

He claims this was the reason for colonial expansions and spreading of their imperialistic policies. In the case of United States, rather than expanding colonies they use they imperialistic policies to access what ever they need. For example, a country cannot expect America to assist it if it has trade barriers against it even if the intention is to protect home industries.

Conservative theories supports imperialism by indicating that imperialism exists in order to preserve the social orders among the developed economies. The theory further maintains that it is usually necessary for a country to secure trade and also maintain employment levels. The United States of America has achieved this by introducing legislations which protects internal industries from effects of trade liberalization.

Finally, in political theory, imperialism helps a country by decreasing the strategic and political vulnerability of a country and the United States of America has achieved by ensuring there is manifestation of power thereby maintaining its status quo.

Influence of American imperialism on your economy

Social and political self determination from other countries has been challenging the American hegemony in different parts of the world. Other than the challenges above, as the United States of America increase its military supremacy and increase its capability of the army, the country has been accruing large debts especially due to the huge budgets which are allocated for its enormous military expenses.

In return, this has increased America dependence on foreign creditors especially from the oil producing countries. As a result, the disparity or the differences between the American army and its own weak economy has just been increasing (Knauft, 2007).

American imperialism has also affected the economy negatively. For example, the attacks on Iraq an oil producing country led to oil world volumes to decline and as a result the price of oil went up affecting the economy negatively since the high prices reduced the market basket for people all over the world (Americans included).

Positive impact of the US imperialistic policies has been in the increased trade. The US control land over seas where external production takes place, through this, it is able to engage more in international trade exporting more than it is importing thereby being able to earn more through the foreign direct investment as a result improving the economy as a whole (Cunningham, 2010).

American society since the end of the 19th century

Since the end of 19 th century, American imperialism has led to most Americans living in fear of terrorist attacks. The critics of American imperialistic policies in the Arab world especially the Muslim extremists feel that Americans have been interfering with their governments when their soldiers inhabit their land.

As a result, there has been the emergence of terrorist groups targeting both the Americans and their interests in the world. As the US imperialistic policies continue, most people have lost their lives especially most of the US soldiers who went to fight in Iraq. With loss of lives, families have been left widowed and as a result this continues to increase the emotional problems which the Americans go on with suffering.

After September 11 attacks, America has seen the introduction of new regional command for defense which maintains that all the foreign acquisitions of the federal buildings to undergo security reviews in ascertaining their safety.

As the United States of America tries to protect her interests, traffic along international borders has become difficult and the exchange of students and scientific visitors has been hampered and where in the past information was viewed as the cutting edge for profitability and democratization process with the state secrets reaching historic high levels as a result it remains to be observed whether the imperatives of restrictiveness and openness will be modified and remade in a way that will allow the accumulation of capital and other resources (Steinmetz, 2005): No one is no longer safe in what used to be the Promised Land.

The impact of imperialism on people in foreign countries as well as in the US

Changes have been witnessed in the political economic and also social activities as countries try to advance their capitalist notions everywhere. Nations that needs aid from the United States of America but do not follow the laid policies are never assisted by the US.

For example, the Vietnam leader Ho Chi Minh requested US president Truman for humanitarian assistance after floods swept harvests in his country but was denied help. Vietnam was viewed as communist and US wanted to control the country due to availability of resources like iron ore, rice and oil (Zinn, 2010). Thus the people of Vietnam were left to starve.

Perkins (2007), argues that US government uses hit men and jackals to control foreign governments and their action determines who gains economically or military power. He cites nations like Egypt that became friendly to US and has since been receiving development aid.

The United States of America (capitalist country) cannot sell all the merchandises within their country and thus they have to look for other nations where they can sell their products especially in the less developed economies. Rather than mounting colonies the US employ imperialistic policies to access whatever they need.

Those countries facing trade barriers are never assisted by the US even if their main aim is shielding home industries. The US has been introducing legislations that insulate internal ventures from the consequences of trade liberalization.

Imperialism has also been assisting nations by curtailing the strategic and political susceptibility of a country; the United States of America has attained this by making sure there is manifestation of power thus maintaining its status quo.

Conclusion

The American imperialism has faced many challenges especially in the last century where many people have been against the advancement of its imperialistic polices. These imperialistic policies have affected the economy both positively and negatively.

Among the positive effects has been the improved economy of the country through Foreign Direct Investments gained from the excess exports while on the other side, the negative impacts have included the rise in unemployment as most of the budget concentrates on military. Socially which might affect their economic performance; Americans live in fear of terrorist attacks from people who are against their country's policies.

Reference List

Cunningham, D. (2010). Modern Imperialism and its Impact. Web.

Karl, B. (2005). The US, Iraq and the Future of Empire. Historical Materialism. Vol.13. Iss.3, pp163-192.

Knauft, B.M. (2007). Provinicializing America: Imperialism, Capitalism and Counter Hegemony In The 21st Century. Current Anthropology Volume 48, Number 6, pp 781-805.

Perkins, J. (2007). The secret history of the American empire: economic hit men, jackals, and the truth about global corruption. New York, Penguin.

Steinmetz, G. (2005). Return to Empire: The New U.S. Imperialism in Comparative Historical Perspective. Web.

Weber, M. (1978). Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, Volume 2. California: University of California Press. Reprint.

Zinn, H. (2010). A People's History of the United States. New York: HarperCollins.

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The Influence of American Imperialism on Our Economy and American Society since the End of the 19th Century - 1493 Words | Essay Example

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In the 18th and 19th century, European countries especially the British and the French were scrambling and partitioning the Asia and Africa continents in order to access cheap source of labor and raw materials. This was accomplished by use of military power and also by establishing investments there.

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The United States has always had considerable influence on other nations. The US has significant effect on other countries in terms of pop culture, technology, business practices, etc. However, the gravity of how much influence America has on other governments is evidenced by American Imperialism, which is the military, economic and cultural influence of the US on other lands, which usually goes hand in hand with expansion on a grand scale into other territories. This means to say that this influence could the US' first step to creating an empire, which was first popularized at the time of James K. Polk's presidency.

The concept of colonization and imperialism didn't die when colonies turned into independent nations. For quite some time, American Imperialism ruled everything, and continues to exist to this day.

American Imperialism started during the Spanish-American war in the 1790s. One of the things that motivated American Imperialism is economic. During that time, the US was already gaining industrial power, which means that they were trying to find new markets to sell their goods. Another motive that led to imperialism was military power. In that era, the US needed bases where their naval ships could refuel. Imperialism helped them secure these bases, giving the country more power to show the rest of the world they were strong and important. The last of the motives was cultural influence. This was the time when America felt it needed to spread its superior forms of culture, religion and government to those who didn't have much. This was also the time when America was competing for territories with Europe. Nevertheless, American Imperialism was also able to promote nationalism. It became a point of pride to ensure their colonies around the world.

Here are some of the important pros and cons of American Imperialism you can consider:

List of Pros of American Imperialism

1. It paved the way for global modernization.
America has always been a leader in many areas. For one, they created the transistor, which allowed people to listen to live broadcasts of current news and events. It was also in the US that modern robotics was first introduced, as well as the exploration of space. All of which have been brought to other countries through imperialism. As a result, other nations were able to develop faster than what they would have been able to do without the US' help.

2. It helped develop global defense support.
With over 650 military bases in 38 different countries, American Imperialism has helped give the world some level of defensive support, protecting people around the world during conflict. This is by providing training, support, equipment and other resources.

3. It brought about industrialization.
And by extension, imperialism brought about globalization. It paved the way in the advancement of infrastructure and machinery, helping the colonized countries progress. As a result, there was improvement in the standard of living while literacy rate increased exponentially as educational institutes were established. Aside from that, resources were efficiently utilized for manufacturing and trade, improving economies around the world. What's more, there was a significant increase in competition between local and international markets.

4. It resulted in the exchange of traditions, cultural ideologies and customs.
With America bringing influence to other nations, cultural ideas, language, food, religion and other things are exchanged. This led to nations broadening their horizons.

5. It led to a myriad of technological advancements.
Despite nations gaining higher pedestal long after imperialism was dissolved, no one can deny the fact that such concept brought about significant changes to the colonies in several areas, including transportation, infrastructure, roads, educational institutions and more. Aside from that, there were innovations in science, information technology and healthcare.

6. It helped fuel economic growth around the world.
Innovation is the main focus American Imperialism, which should allow the US to gain as much profit as possible. This resulted in the development of new products and services not only in the United States, but also in other countries. This has fueled economic growth.

List of Cons of American Imperialism

1. It can cause political feud.
No country, person or organization wants to be controlled by another entity, which is the reason that there were a few discords among groups or nations that co-existed before imperialism. Because America obtained cheap labor and had easy access to natural resources from their colonies, there was a gap of differentiation between nations. Aside from that, foul play was becoming more obvious, and then got worse while imperialism continued.

2. It leads to discrimination.
Exchange of traditions and cultures is a good thing, but it should come naturally, not forced. Unfortunately, there were countries that suffered this kind of discrimination as they were forced to adapt to foreign ideas and thoughts despite their protests. What's worse is that many people from the colonies were shipped and used without them knowing or agreeing, especially in Africa.

3. It causes exploitation.
Citizens of the colonies who did not accept the beliefs of the superpowers of the colonizers can be exploited and punished for doing so. Aside from that, the colonies' wealth and natural resources were exploited as well.

4. It requires a considerable amount of money to defend more than one nation.
American Imperialism is still present in several countries up to this day. With military bases in numerous places around the world, from Germany to Japan, it will require the US government to support all of these defensive forces.

5. It is seen as unnecessary.
Many opponents of this concept believe that the US government should have spent their own money on developing resources to eliminate dependence from other nations. However, America is spending this money on imported goods. With advancements in technology, the US could have eliminated most imports by producing their own technology.

Now the question is: should America continue to expand to other nations to provide support or should it retract its naval and military bases and give the colonies a chance to stand on their own? By weighing the advantages and disadvantages, you can decide whether you want to support American Imperialism or not.

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11 Main Pros and Cons of American Imperialism

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The United States has always had considerable influence on other nations. The US has significant effect on other countries in terms of pop culture, technology, business practices, etc.

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My timeline is about the events leading up to imperialism in America, events during American imperialism, and the effects of American imperialism on America today. US gained territory from Philippines after they helped rebels fight and gain their freedom from Spain. Claimed that the US would not establish permanent control over Cuba.

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During his farewell address in 1796 President George Washington warned the young republic to "steer clear of permanent alliances with...the foreign world." Fast forward to 1823 - President James Monroe stood before Congress and issued the Monroe Doctrine which advocated extending the nation's reach through the Americas to safeguard national security. "We should consider any [foreign] attempt... to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere," Monroe declared, "as dangerous to our peace and safety."

The Monroe Doctrine inspired a new period in US foreign policy. From the annexation of Texas in 1845 to the Mexican American War of 1846 to 1848, the US aggressively pursued new lands in the name of national interests. America's reign as an imperial force, however, did not begin until 1898 with the Spanish-American War. What began as a mission to liberate Cuba from Spanish rule - and in the process, rid the US of the threat of European invasion - grew into an international war that left the victorious US bigger and richer than when it had started.

This section examines how the age of imperialism began in America as political and economic agendas underpinned campaigns to defend the US. These are the stories of what, as one newspaper reported, "put the taste of Empire in the mouth of the people."

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During his farewell address in 1796 President George Washington warned the young republic to "steer clear of permanent alliances with...the foreign world." Fast forward to 1823 - President James Monroe stood before Congress and issued the Monroe Doctrine which advocated extending the nation's reach through the Americas to safeguard national security.

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Primary Source Set: American Imperialism: The Spanish-American War | PBS LearningMedia

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This collection uses primary sources to explore the Spanish-American War. Digital Public Library of America Primary Source Sets are designed to help students develop their critical thinking skills and draw diverse material from libraries, archives, and museums across the United States. Each set includes an overview, ten to fifteen primary sources, links to related resources, and a teaching guide.

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imperialism, state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas. Because it always involves the use of power, whether military or economic or some subtler form, imperialism has often been considered morally reprehensible, and the term is frequently employed in international propaganda to denounce and discredit an opponent's foreign policy.

Imperialism in ancient times is clear in the history of China and in the history of western Asia and the Mediterranean-an unending succession of empires. The tyrannical empire of the Assyrians was replaced (6th-4th century bce) by that of the Persians, in strong contrast to the Assyrian in its liberal treatment of subjected peoples, assuring it long duration. It eventually gave way to the imperialism of Greece. When Greek imperialism reached an apex under Alexander the Great (356-323 bce), a union of the eastern Mediterranean with western Asia was achieved. But the cosmopolis, in which all citizens of the world would live harmoniously together in equality, remained a dream of Alexander. It was partially realized when the Romans built their empire from Britain to Egypt.

This idea of empire as a unifying force was never again realized after the fall of Rome. The nations arising from the ashes of the Roman Empire in Europe, and in Asia on the common basis of Islamic civilization ( see Islamic world), pursued their individual imperialist policies. Imperialism became a divisive force among the peoples of the world.

Three periods in the modern era witnessed the creation of vast empires, primarily colonial. Between the 15th century and the middle of the 18th, England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain built empires in the Americas, India, and the East Indies. For almost a century thereafter, relative calm in empire building reigned as the result of a strong reaction against imperialism. Then the decades between the middle of the 19th century and World War I (1914-18) were again characterized by intense imperialistic policies.

Russia, Italy, Germany, the United States, and Japan were added as newcomers among the imperialistic states, and indirect, especially financial, control became a preferred form of imperialism. For a decade after World War I the great expectations for a better world inspired by the League of Nations put the problem of imperialism once more in abeyance. Then Japan renewed its empire building with an attack in 1931 upon China. Under the leadership of Japan and the totalitarian states-Italy under the Fascist Party, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union -a new period of imperialism was inaugurated in the 1930s and '40s.

In their modern form, arguments about the causes and value of imperialism can be classified into four main groups. The first group contains economic arguments and often turn around the question of whether or not imperialism pays. Those who argue that it does point to the human and material resources and the outlets for goods, investment capital, and surplus population provided by an empire. Their opponents-among them Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and J.A. Hobson-often assert that imperialism may benefit a small favoured group but never the nation as a whole. Marxist theoreticians interpret imperialism as a late stage of capitalism wherein the national capitalist economy has become monopolistic and is forced to conquer outlets for its overproduction and surplus capital in competition with other capitalist states. This was the view held, for instance, by Vladimir Lenin and N.I. Bukharin, for whom capitalism and imperialism were identical. The weakness in their view is that historical evidence does not support it and that it fails to explain precapitalist imperialism and communist imperialism.

A second group of arguments relates imperialism to the nature of human beings and human groups, such as the state. Such different personalities as Machiavelli, Sir Francis Bacon, and Ludwig Gumplowicz, reasoning on different grounds, nevertheless arrived at similar conclusions-which Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini also endorsed, though not for intellectual reasons. Imperialism for them is part of the natural struggle for survival. Those endowed with superior qualities are destined to rule all others.

The third group of arguments has to do with strategy and security. Nations are urged, proponents of this viewpoint say, to obtain bases, strategic materials, buffer states, "natural" frontiers, and control of communication lines for reasons of security or to prevent other states from obtaining them. Those who deny the value of imperialism for these purposes point out that security is not thereby achieved. Expansion of a state's control over territories and peoples beyond its borders is likely to lead to friction, hence insecurity, because the safety zones and spheres of influence of competing nations are bound to overlap sooner or later. Related to the security argument is the argument that nations are inevitably imperialistic in their natural search for power and prestige.

The fourth group of arguments is based on moral grounds, sometimes with strong missionary implications. Imperialism is excused as the means of liberating peoples from tyrannical rule or of bringing them the blessings of a superior way of life. Imperialism results from a complex of causes in which in varying degrees economic pressures, human aggressiveness and greed, the search for security, the drive for power and prestige, nationalist emotions, humanitarianism, and many other factors are effective. This mixture of motivations makes it difficult to eliminate imperialism but also easy for states considering themselves potential victims to suspect it in policies not intended to be imperialistic. Some states of the developing world have accused the former colonial powers and other nations of neocolonialism. Their fear is that the granting of aid or the supply of skilled personnel for economic and technical development might be an imperialist guise.

Under international organizations, attempts have been made to satisfy by peaceful means the legitimate aspirations of nations and to contain their illegitimate ones. Measures for these purposes have included collective security arrangements, the mandate and the trusteeship system for dependent areas, the stimulation of cultural relations between nations, aid to developing countries, and the improvement of health and welfare everywhere. See also colonialism.

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Imperialism | Definition, History, Examples, & Facts

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Imperialism, state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas. The term is frequently employed in international propaganda to denounce and discredit an opponent's foreign policy.