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1- Attention - Interest and attention are essential for effective learning and memorization.

2- Principle of association - associative memory is defined as the ability to learn and remember the relationship between unrelated items. It is a learning that takes place when two elements are connected in our brain.

3- Use of imagery - Using imagery is an effective way to improve memory and decrease certain types of false memories.
Pegword technique is one in which a word is associated with an image.

4- Mnemonic devices- A mnemonic, also known as a memory aid, is a tool that helps you remember an idea or phrase with a pattern of letters, numbers, or relatable associations. Mnemonic devices include special rhymes and poems, acronyms, images, songs, outlines, and other tools.

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Amnesia-  Amnesia is a form of memory loss. Some people with amnesia have difficulty forming new memories. Others can't recall facts or past experiences. People with amnesia usually retain knowledge of their own identity, as well as motor skills.
2 TYPES :
I- RETROGRADE - Describes amnesia where one can't recall memories that were formed before the event that caused the amnesia.
II- ANTEROGRADE - Describes amnesia where one can't form new memories after the event that caused the amnesia.

ALZHEIMER'S - Alzheimer's disease is a progressive disorder that causes brain cells to waste away (degenerate) and die. Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia — a continuous decline in thinking, behavioral and social skills that disrupts a person's ability to function independently.

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Forgetting introduction, theories and reasons - Psychology lecture 5

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Interference theory states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt one another, in other words forgetting occurs because of interference from other memories

2 TYPES
I-  RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE - Information currently being learned interferes with information already present in the memory.

Information being learned currently (NEW INFO.) INTERFERES with Information learned previously.

II- PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE -  Information learnt previously present in the LTM interferes with information we are learning at present.

Information learned previously (OLD INFO.) INTERFERES with information being learned currently.

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Trace decay theory states that forgetting occurs as a result of the automatic decay or fading of the memory trace. Trace decay theory focuses on time and the limited duration of short term memory.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/forgetting.html#:~:text=Trace%20decay%20theory%20states%20that,seconds%20unless%20it%20is%20rehearsed.

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It refers to apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in the LTM. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled.

Why do we forget?
There are two simple answers to this question.

First, the memory has disappeared - it is no longer available.
Second, the memory is still stored in the memory system but, for some reason, it cannot be retrieved.

These two answers summaries the main theories of forgetting developed by psychologists.

I- Trace Decay Theory - Forgetting in STM.
II- Interference Theory - Forgetting in LTM.

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III- SERIAL POSITION EFFECT - Words presented either early in the list or at the end were more often recalled, but the ones in the middle were more often forgotten. This is known as serial position effect.

IV - PRIMACY EFFECT : The primacy effect is the tendency for individuals without neurological impairment to show enhanced memory for items presented at the beginning of a list relative to items presented in the middle of the list. At test, items presented at the beginning of a list are retrieved from long-term or secondary memory stores. The primacy effect is part of the larger serial position effect.

V- RECENCY EFFECT -  The recency effect is a cognitive bias in which those items, ideas, or arguments that came last are remembered more clearly than those coming first. This is one component of the serial position effect, a phenomenon in which the position of items on a list influences how well those items are recalled.

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I- ICONIC IMAGE : Iconic memory is part of the visual memory system which also includes long-term memory and visual short-term memory. Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory that lasts just milliseconds before fading. The word iconic refers to an icon, which is a pictorial representation or image.

II- FREE RECALL :  The recollection of the members of a list of items without regards to their serial order. In the free recall task, a participant recalls a list of items in any order.  It is a basic paradigm in the psychological study of memory. In this paradigm, participants study a list of items on each trial, and then are prompted to recall the items in any order (hence the name "free" recall).

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ATKINSON & SHIFFRIN MODEL - Multistore Model of Memory

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ATKINSON & SHIFFRIN MODEL - Multistore Model of Memory

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According to this model we first receive information, process them in steps and the produce an output.  The multistore model of memory (also known as the modal model) was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) and is a structural model. They proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).

https://www.simplypsychology.org/multi-store.html#:~:text=The%20multistore%20model%20of%20memory,%2Dterm%20memory%20(LTM).

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Semantic memory is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information about the world.  This includes knowledge about the meaning of words, as well as general knowledge. It is the kind of memory which makes our use of language. It consist knowledge about what words mean, about the ways they are related to one another and about the rules for using them in communication.

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Semantic memory refers to a portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts that are not drawn from personal experience. Semantic memory includes things that are common knowledge, such as the names of colors, the sounds of letters, the capitals of countries and other basic facts acquired over a lifetime.

The concept of semantic memory is fairly new. It was introduced in 1972 as the result of collaboration between Endel Tulving of the University of Toronto and Wayne Donaldson of the University of New Brunswick on the impact of organization in human memory.

Tulving outlined the separate systems of conceptualization of episodic and semantic memory in his book, "Elements of Episodic Memory." He noted that semantic and episodic differ in how they operate and the types of information they process.

Before Tulving, human memory had not undergone many in-depth studies or research. Since then, a number of research projects have investigated the differences between semantic and episodic memory. Some of the most notable experiments relating to semantic memory were conducted by J.F. Kihlstrom in the 1980s to test hypnosis on semantic and episodic memory.

Semantic vs. episodic memory

Semantic memory is the recollection of facts gathered from the time we are young. They are indisputable nuggets of information not associated with emotion or personal experience.

Some examples of semantic memory:

Knowing that grass is green

Recalling that Washington, D.C., is the U.S. capital and Washington is a state

Knowing how to use scissors

Understanding how to put words together to form a sentence

Recognizing the names of colors

Remembering what a dog is

Knowing how to use the phone

Knowing that President John F. Kennedy was shot on Nov. 22, 1963

Episodic memory is specific to the individual. It is the recollection of biographical experiences and specific events in time in a serial form, from which we can reconstruct the actual events that took place at specific points in time in our lives.

Examples of episodic memory:

Recalling where you were when Kennedy was shot

Reminiscing about your first kiss

Recalling your first day of school

Knowing the name and breed of your first dog

Remembering your wedding day

Recalling the guests at your best friend's 30th birthday party

Knowing your lab partner in college chemistry class

Remembering your first day on a new job

Moving from episodic to semantic memory

There is a steady movement of memories from episodic to semantic, especially during childhood when we are continuously learning new things. For example, learning how to use the phone may start out as an episodic memory of dialing a phone number on a toy telephone. That knowledge then becomes cemented in long-term memory.

Semantic memory is generally derived from episodic memory, in that we learn new facts or concepts from our experiences, and episodic memory is considered to reinforce semantic memory. Researchers generally agree that there is typically a gradual transition from episodic to semantic memory, in which episodic memory reduces its sensitivity and association to particular events, so that the information can be stored as general knowledge. For instance, you know how to use a phone, but don't remember the early knowledge you acquired playing with a toy phone. [ Mystery of Memory: Why It's Not Perfect]

But that does not mean that all semantic memories begin as episodic memories, Tulving argued. "If a person possesses some semantic memory information, he obviously must have learned it, either directly or indirectly, at an earlier time, but he need not possess any mnemonic information about the episode of such learning," he wrote.

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Kim Ann Zimmermann - Live Science Contributor

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Semantic memory refers to a portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts that are not drawn from personal experience. Semantic memory includes things that are common knowledge, such as the names of colors, the sounds of letters, the capitals of countries and other basic facts acquired over a lifetime.

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Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory involving how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things.
It does not involve conscious (i.e. it’s unconscious - automatic) thought and is not declarative.

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Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory involving how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things. Riding a bike, tying your shoes, and cooking an omelet are all examples of procedural memories.

A Closer Look at Procedural Memory

Procedural memories start to form very early in life as you begin to learn how to walk, talk, eat, and play. These memories become so ingrained that they are almost automatic. You do not need to consciously think about how to perform these motor skills; you simply do them without much, if any, thought.﻿﻿

While it is easy to demonstrate these actions, explaining how and where you learned them can be much more difficult. In many cases, you learn these skills during early childhood. Learning how to walk is one great example. Once this action is learned, you do not need to consciously remind yourself of how the process works. Your procedural memory takes over and allows you to perform the skill without thinking about it. For activities like learning how to drive or to ride a bike, you simply practice them so often that they become ingrained.

Examples of Procedural Memory

How Procedural Memories Are Formed

Procedural memories form when connections are made between synapses, gaps at the end of a neuron that allows signals to pass. The more frequently an action is performed, the more often signals are sent through those same synapses. Over time, these synaptic routes become stronger and the actions themselves become unconscious and automatic.﻿﻿

A number of brain structures are associated with the formation and maintenance of procedural memories. The cerebellum, for example, is associated with coordinating movements and fine motor skills required for many activities such as drawing, painting, playing a musical instrument, writing, and sculpting. The limbic system, another area of the brain, is also known for coordinating many processes involved in memory and learning.

The Difference Between Procedural Memory and Declarative Memory

Procedural memory is considered a type of implicit memory. Implicit memories are those that form without effort.﻿﻿ When the lyrics to a popular song get stuck in your head, that's an example of implicit memory at work. You haven't expended any effort to learn the lyrics and melody of the song. Simply hearing it in the background as you go about your day leads to the formation of implicit memory.

Declarative memories, on the other hand, are things that you intentionally remember and that require conscious effort to bring into memory.﻿﻿ Also known as explicit memory, this type of memory involves things such as remembering information for a test, that you have a dentist appointment and your home address.

Procedural memories are often difficult to explain. If someone asked you how you drive a car or ride a bike, you might struggle to put it into words. If they asked you how to drive to your house, however, you would probably be able to articulate the route fairly easily. Remembering the physical process of how to do something (like drive a car) is a procedural memory while remembering the route you have to take to get somewhere is a declarative memory.

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Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory involving how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things. Riding a bike, tying your shoes, and cooking an omelet are all examples of procedural memories.

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Episodic memory is a person's memory of a specific event. Memory for factual information that we acquired at a specific time. It is the kind of memory that allows one to go back in time and remember specific thoughts or expereinces.
It involves conscious thought and is declarative.  An example would be a memory of our 1st day at school.

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Episodic memory is a person's memory of a specific event. Because each person has a different perspective and experience of an event, their episodic memory of that event is unique.

Episodic memory is a category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences. Your memories of your first day of school, your first kiss, attending a friend's birthday party, and your brother's graduation are all examples of episodic memories. In addition to your overall recall of the event itself, it also involves your memory of the location and time that the event occurred.

Closely related to this is what researchers refer to as autobiographical memory or your memories of your own personal life history. As you can imagine, episodic and autobiographical memories play an important role in your self-identity.

An Overview of Episodic Memory

Imagine that you get a phone call from an old college friend. You get together for dinner one day and spend the evening reminiscing about numerous amusing moments from your days at university. Your memories of all those specific events and experiences are examples of episodic memory.

These memories provide you with a sense of personal history as well as a shared history with other people in your life.

Episodic Memory vs. Semantic Memory

The term episodic memory was first introduced by Endel Tulving in 1972 to distinguish between knowing factual information (semantic memory) and remembering events from the past (episodic memory).

Episodic memory together with semantic memory is part of the division of memory known as explicit or declarative memory. Semantic memory is focused on general knowledge about the world and includes facts, concepts, and ideas. Episodic memory, on the other hand, involves the recollection of particular life experiences.

Types of Episodic Memories

There are a number of different types of episodic memories that people may have.

Specific Events

These involve memories of particular moments from a person's personal history. Remembering your first kiss is an example of a specific episodic memory.

Personal Facts

Knowing who was president the year that you got married, the make and model of your first car, and the name of your first boss are all examples of personal fact episodic memories.

General Events

Remembering what a kiss feels like is an example of this general type of memory. You do not remember each and every kiss you've ever shared, but you can recall what it feels like based on your personal experiences.

Flashbulb Memories

Flashbulb memories are vivid and detailed "snapshots" related to finding out particularly important news. Sometimes these moments might be highly personal, like the moment you found out that your grandmother had died. In other cases, these memories might be shared by many people in a social group. The moments you found out about the 9/11 attacks or the Paris concert theater attacks are examples of shared flashbulb memories.

Examples of Episodic Memories

Some examples of episodic memories might include:

Your memory of your recent trip to Disneyland

Where you were when you learned that a loved one had died

Your memory of your old cell phone number

Your memory of your first day at your job

Your recollection of your first date with your partner

Remember, each person's episodic memory of an event is entirely unique. Even other people who shared the same experience may have slightly different recollections of what happened.

What Research Suggests

Researchers have found that episodic memory can also be interdependent with semantic memory.﻿﻿ On learning tasks, participants performed better when new information was aligned with prior knowledge, suggesting that semantic knowledge of a task provides a sort of framework for new episodic learning.

Participants were asked to remember the prices of grocery items. Those in the control group were better able to remember these prices when the new information was congruent with their existing episodic memories of grocery prices. Amnesiac participants in the experimental group, however, performed much worse at remembering new information because they did not have access to episodic information from their past.

Conversely, researchers have also found that episodic memories also play a role in the retrieval of semantic memories. In experiments where participants were asked to generate lists of items in particular categories, those who were able to rely on episodic memories performed better than amnesiac participants who did not have access to episodic memories.

Studies also suggest that there are sex differences in episodic memory. Research has found, for example, that women tend to outperform men on tests of episodic memory function, particularly on verbal-based episodic memory.﻿﻿ Studies also show that women are able to access these memories faster and date them more accurately than men.﻿﻿

A Word From Verywell

Consider the episodic memories that you retain and the reasons you likely remember those particular life experiences. Then, consider how you might apply that information to things you want to remember better today, like the names of people you meet.

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How Episodic Memory Helps You Remember Events

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Episodic memory is a person's memory of a specific event. Because each person has a different perspective and experience of an event, their episodic memory of that event is unique. Episodic memory is a category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences.

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LONG TERM MEMORY (day's, months, years or lifetime)

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LONG TERM MEMORY (day's, months, years or lifetime)

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It is that stage where information is held indefinitely. The time span over which information is stored in the LTM cannot be stated precisely and the storage capacity of it is also unknown. It is this memory that helps us to remember a number of things on a relaively permanent basis. LTM contains words, sentences, ideas, concepts  and life experiences.

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Long-term memory refers to the transfer of information from short-term memory into long-term storage in order to create enduring memories. This type of memory is unlimited in capacity and stable-lasting for years or even a lifetime. Short-term memories can become long-term memories through a process known as consolidation.

Long-term memory can be further subdivided into two different types: explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) memory. If you can remember something that happened more than just a few moments ago, whether it occurred just hours ago or decades earlier, it is long-term memory.

Long term memory is important because it helps us recall major events in our lives. We also use long-term memory to access the skills and behaviors that we've learned which contribute to our survival.

Types of Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory is usually divided into two types- explicit and implicit.

Explicit memories, also known as declarative memories, include all of the memories that are available in consciousness. Explicit memory can be further divided into episodic memory (specific events) and semantic memory (knowledge about the world). Examples of this type of long-term memory include being able to recall your high school graduation or remembering the year that the U.S. declared its independence.

Implicit memories are those that are mostly unconscious. This type of memory includes procedural memory, which involves memories of body movement and how to use objects in the environment. Knowing how to drive a car or use a computer are examples of procedural memories.

Long-term memories are often outside of the conscious mind. This information is largely outside of our awareness but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. Some memories are relatively easy to recall, while others are much harder to access.

Recap

Two types of long-term memory are explicit and implicit, which can be further divided into other memory types, such as episodic, semantic, and procedural memories.

Duration of Long-Term Memory

Through the process of association and rehearsal, the content of short-term memory can become long-term memory. Long-term memories can last from a matter of days to as long as many decades.

There are a number of factors that can influence how long information endures in long-term memory:

The way the memory was encoded in the first place can play a significant role. If you were very aware and alert when you had the experience, then the memory will probably be a lot more vivid.

The number of times you access a memory can also play a role in the strength and duration of that memory. Not surprisingly, memories that you recall often tend to stick around and become much stronger.

Not all long-term memories are created equal. While some memories spring to mind quickly, others are weaker and might require prompts or reminders to bring them into focus.

Information that is of greater importance leads to a stronger recall. You can usually remember important events such as your wedding day with much greater clarity and detail than you can more ordinary days.

How Long-Term Memory Forms

The information-processing model of memory characterizes human memory as being like a computer. Information enters short-term memory (a temporary store), then some of this information is transferred into long-term memory (a relatively permanent store), much like information being saved to the hard disk of a computer.

Memories that are frequently accessed become stronger and easier to recall. Accessing these memories over and over again strengthens the neural networks in which the information is encoded, leading to easier recollection of the information.

When information is needed, it is called forth out of this long-term storage using environmental cues, much like accessing a saved folder on your computer. However, these saved memories can be changed or sometimes even lost altogether. Memories that are not recalled often can sometimes weaken or be replaced by other information.

Long-Term Memory Changes

Studies suggest that memories are not saved in a static state, then pulled up with perfect clarity. Instead, researchers have found that memories are transformed or changed every single time they are accessed.

Neurons first encode memories in the cortex and hippocampus. Each time a memory is recalled, it is then re-encoded by a similar, but not identical, set of neurons.

Accessing memories often helps make them stronger, yet the research has found that this re-encoding can have an impact on how the information is remembered. Subtle details may change, and certain aspects of the memory may be strengthened, weakened, or even lost altogether depending on which neurons are activated.

Fragility of Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory can be surprisingly fragile and susceptible to change, misinformation, and interference. Memory expert Elizabeth Loftus has demonstrated how easily false memories can be triggered. In one of her most famous experiments, she was able to get 25% of her participants to believe in a false memory that they had once been lost in a shopping mall as a child.

Why is long-term memory so susceptible to these inaccuracies? In some cases, people miss important details about events. To fill in these missing gaps in information, the brain sometimes fabricates details that seem to make sense.

Older memories can also interfere with the formation of new ones, making it difficult to recall what actually happened.

A Word From Verywell

Long-term memory plays a vital role in daily life, allowing you to build a foundation of information that allows you to live your life. While it is easy to think of memories as something similar to files in a computer, research has shown that long-term memory is both enduring and susceptible to error.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long does short-term memory last?

Information can be kept in short-term memory for around 15 to 30 seconds, but it may stay longer if it is actively rehearsed or maintained.

What type of long-term memory is most resistant to loss?

Implicit memories tend to be the most durable form of long-term memory. While explicit memory declines with age, healthy adults typically maintain strong implicit memories as they grow older.

How can I improve my long-term memory?

Strategies that may help improve your long-term memory include exercising regularly, getting plenty of sleep, and using cognitive training to strengthen your memory skills.

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Long-term memory refers to the lasting storage of information in the brain. Learn about the duration, capacity, and types of long-term memory, and how it forms.

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1: SM-  retention time less than 1 second.
STM - information stored  temporarily for 30-40 seconds.
2: SM- The sensory info. or image decays after a short span of time regardless of learners action.
STM- Rehersal by the learner can keep the info. indefinitely.
3: SM - Span of SM exceeds that of STM. 11-13 items are available for recall for atleast half a second.
STM- 5-9 items are available for recall in STM at any one time.

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STM- It is also known as working memory. It allows recall for a period of several  seconds to a minute without rehersal. It's storage capacity is also very limited and is temprorary.  Modern estimates of the capacity of STM is 4-5 items, however it can be increased by a process of chunking.

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Short-term memory is the capacity to store a small amount of information in the mind and keep it readily available for a short period of time. It is also known as primary or active memory.

Short-term memory is essential for daily functioning, which is why experiencing short-term memory loss can be frustrating and even debilitating.

Short-term memory is very brief. When short-term memories are not rehearsed or actively maintained, they last mere seconds.

Short-term memory is limited. It is commonly suggested that short-term memory can hold only seven items at once, plus or minus two.

How Long Is Short-Term Memory For?

Most of the information kept in short-term memory will be stored for approximately 20 to 30 seconds, or even less. Some information can last in short-term memory for up to a minute, but most information spontaneously decays quite quickly, unless you use rehearsal strategies such as saying the information aloud or mentally repeating it.

However, the information in short-term memory is also highly susceptible to interference. Any new information that enters short-term memory will quickly displace old information. Similar items in the environment can also interfere with short-term memories.

For example, you might have a harder time remembering someone's name if you're in a crowded, noisy room, or if you were thinking of what to say to the person rather than paying attention to their name.

The amount of information that can be stored in short-term memory can vary. In 1956, in an influential paper titled "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two," psychologist George Miller suggested that people can store between five and nine items in short-term memory.

More recent research suggests that people are capable of storing approximately four chunks or pieces of information in short-term memory.

For example, imagine that you are trying to remember a phone number. The other person rattles off the 10-digit phone number, and you make a quick mental note. Moments later you realize that you have already forgotten the number. Without rehearsing or continuing to repeat the number until it is committed to memory, the information is quickly lost from short-term memory.

Short-Term vs. Working Memory

Some researchers argue that working memory and short-term memory significantly overlap, and may even be the same thing. The distinction is that working memory refers to the ability to use, manipulate, and apply memory for a period of time (for example, recalling a set of instructions as you complete a task), while short-term memory refers only to the temporary storage of information in memory.

The Baddeley-Hitch model of working memory suggests that there are two components of working memory: a place where you store visual and spatial information (visuospatial scratchpad), and a place where you record auditory information (phonological loop). In addition, the model suggests there is a "central executive" that controls and mediates these two components as well as processes information, directs attention, sets goals, and makes decisions.

How Short-Term Memory Becomes Long-Term Memory

Memory researchers often use what is referred to as the three-store model to conceptualize human memory. This model suggests that memory consists of three basic stores- sensory, short-term, and long-term-and that each of these can be distinguished based on storage capacity and duration.

While long-term memory has a seemingly unlimited capacity that lasts years, short-term memory is relatively brief and limited. Short-term memory is limited in both capacity and duration. In order for a memory to be retained, it needs to be transferred from short-term stores into long-term memory. The exact mechanisms for how this happens remain controversial and not well understood.

The classic model, known as the Atkinson-Shiffrin model or multi-modal model, suggested that all short-term memories were automatically placed in long-term memory after a certain amount of time.

More recently, researchers have proposed that some mental editing takes place and that only particular memories are selected for long-term retention. Factors such as time and interference can affect how information in encoded in memory.

The information-processing view of memory suggests that human memory works much like a computer. In this model, information first enters short-term memory (a temporary holding store for recent events) and then some of this information is transferred into long-term memory (a relatively permanent store), much like information on a computer being placed on a hard disk.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal (or rehearsal) can help move memories from short-term to long-term memory. For example, you might use this approach when studying materials for an exam. Instead of just reviewing the information once or twice, you might go over your notes repeatedly until the critical information is committed to memory.

Chunking is one memorization technique that can facilitate the transfer of information into long-term memory. This approach involves organizing information into more easily learned groups, phrases, words, or numbers.

For example, it will take a large amount of effort to memorize the following number: 65,495,328,463. However, it will be easier to remember if it is chunked into the following: 6549 532 8463.

Easily remembered mnemonic phrases, abbreviations, or rhymes can help move short-term memories into long-term storage. A few common examples include:

ROY G BIV: An acronym that represents the first letter of each color of the rainbow-red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet

I before E, except after C: A rhyme used to remember the spelling of common words

Thirty days hath September...: A poem used to remember how many days are in each month

Another mnemonic strategy, which dates back to around 500 BCE, is the method of loci. The method of loci involves mentally placing the items you are trying to learn or remember around a room-such as on the sofa, next to a plant, or on the window seat. To trigger your memory, you then visualize yourself going to each location, triggering your recall for that information.

Memory Consolidation

Memory consolidation is the process in which the brain converts short-term memories into long-term ones. Rehearsing or recalling information over and over again creates structural changes in the brain that strengthen neural networks. The repeated firing of two neurons makes it more likely that they will repeat that firing again in the future.

What Is Considered Short-Term Memory Loss?

For most of us, it's pretty common to experience an episode of memory loss occasionally. This can look like missing a monthly payment, forgetting the date, losing our keys, or having trouble finding the right word to use from time to time.

If you feel like you're constantly forgetting things, it can be irritating, frustrating, and frightening. Short-term memory loss may even make you worried that your brain is too reliant on devices like your smartphone rather than your memory to recall information.

What Is Short-Term Memory a Symptom of?

Mild memory loss doesn't always indicate a problem, and certain memory changes are a normal part of aging. Short-term memory loss can also be caused by other, non-permanent factors, including:

If you are concerned about memory lapses or any other brain changes, talk to your healthcare provider. They can give you a thorough exam to determine what might be causing your symptoms and recommend lifestyle changes, strategies, or treatments to improve your short-term memory.

Short-term memory plays a vital role in shaping our ability to function in the world around us, but it is limited in terms of both capacity and duration. Disease and injury as well as increasing reliance on smartphones can also have an influence on the ability to store short-term memories. As researchers continue to learn more about factors that influence memory, new ways of enhancing and protecting short-term memory may emerge.

Frequently Asked Questions

What causes short-term memory loss?

There are many potential causes of short-term memory loss, and many of them are reversible. Memory loss may be a side effect of medication (or a combination of medications). It can occur after a head injury or as a result of vitamin B-12 deficiency. Hypothyroidism (an underactive thyroid gland) can affect memory. So can stress, anxiety, depression, and alcohol use. Or, memory loss could be a symptom of a serious condition, such as dementia or a brain tumor.

What does maintenance rehearsal mean?

Maintenance rehearsal is a way to preserve information in long-term memory. It might mean repeating or otherwise accessing information that is stored in long-term memory to make sure that you retain it.

How can I improve my short-term memory?

Living a healthy lifestyle may help preserve and improve memory. That means getting regular physical activity, eating a healthy diet, limiting alcohol and drug use, and sleeping well.

It's also important to keep your brain active. Regular social interactions, along with cognitive activities like word games and learning new skills, may help keep memory issues at bay.

You can also use techniques like mnemonics, rehearsal, chunking, and organizational strategies (such as taking notes and using phone alarms) to help support your memory.

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Short-term memory is the capacity to store a small amount of information in mind and keep it available for a short time. It is also called active memory.

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SENSORY MEMORY (2-3seconds)- It holds information less than 1 second after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item and remember what it looked liked with just a split second of observation or memorization . Most of the information briefly held in the sensory register is lost, it decays from the register.

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Sensory memory is a very brief memory that allows people to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased. It is often thought of as the first stage of memory that involves registering a tremendous amount of information about the environment, but only for a very brief period.

The purpose of sensory memory is to retain information long enough for it to be recognized.

At a Glance

Sensory memory is a very short-term storage for information from the senses. It persists briefly and allows for processing even after the stimulus has ended. It allows you to retain brief impressions of information so you can interpret and interact with the world around you. In some instances, this information may be transferred to short-term memory, but in most cases, it quickly fades. While sensory memory may be brief, it is crucial to attention and memory.

Types of Sensory Memory

Experts believe that different senses have different types of sensory memory. The different types of sensory memory have also been shown to have slightly different durations.

Iconic Memory

Also known as visual sensory memory, iconic memory involves a very brief image. This type of sensory memory typically lasts for about one-quarter to one-half of a second.

Echoic Memory

Also known as auditory sensory memory, echoic memory involves a very brief memory of sound a bit like an echo. This type of sensory memory can last for up to three to four seconds.

Haptic Memory

Also known as tactile memory, haptic involves the very brief memory of a touch. This type of sensory memory lasts for approximately two seconds.

How Does Sensory Memory Work?

During every moment of your existence, your senses are constantly taking in an enormous amount of information about what you see, feel, smell, hear, and taste. While this information is important, there is simply no way to remember each and every detail about what you experience at every moment.

Instead, your sensory memory creates something of a quick "snapshot" of the world around you, allowing you to briefly focus your attention on relevant details.

So just how brief is a sensory memory? Experts suggest that these memories last for three seconds or less.

While fleeting, sensory memory allows us to briefly retain an impression of an environmental stimulus even after the original information source has vanished. By attending to this information, we can then transfer important details into the next stage of memory, which is known as short-term memory.

Characteristics of Sensory Memory

Sensory memory is an automatic process; it occurs automatically without conscious control:

Sensory memory is limited in duration and capacity. It lasts very briefly and is almost immediately replaced by new information.

Researchers have found that attention to the stimulus has only a weak impact on sensory memory.

The type of memory stored is specific to the sensory modality; in other words, echoic memory stores auditory information, iconic memory stores only visual information, and haptic memory stores only tactile information.

Information stored in sensory memory includes a great deal of detail.

Examples of Sensory Memory

Examples of iconic memory include situations where you briefly have an image in your head after the sight is gone. For instance, after turning off a flashlight, there is a brief image of the light in your memory. Or, after glimpsing an exit sign on the interstate, you can briefly see the image in your mind.

An example of echoic memory would be the brief memory of the blare of a car horn or the sound of an instrument, even after the noise has ended.

Haptic memory examples might include the brief memory of something brushing up against your skin.

In each instance, the very brief lingering memory you experience allows you to recognize and process the experience.

Sperling's Sensory Memory Experiments

The duration of sensory memory was first investigated during the 1960s by psychologist George Sperling. In a classic experiment, participants stared at a screen and rows of letters were flashed very briefly-for just 1/20th of a second. Then, the screen went blank.

The participants then immediately repeated as many of the letters as they could remember seeing. While most of the participants were only able to report about four or five letters, some insisted that they had seen all the letters but that the information faded too quickly as they reported them.

Inspired by this, Sperling then performed a slightly varied version of the same experiment. Participants were shown the three rows of four letters per row letters for 1/20 th of a second, but immediately after the screen went blank, participants heard either a high-pitched, medium-pitched or low-pitched tone.

If subjects heard the high-pitched tone, they were to report the top row, those who heard the medium-pitched were to report the middle row, and those who heard the low-pitched were to report the bottom row.

Sperling found that participants were able to recall the letters as long as the tone was sounded within one-third of a second of the letter display.

When the interval was extended to over one-third of a second, the accuracy of the letter reports declined significantly, and anything over one second made it virtually impossible to recall the letters.

Sperling suggested that because the participants focused on the indicated row before their visual memory faded, they could recall the information. The recall was nearly impossible when the tone was sounded after sensory memory faded.

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Sensory memory helps us make sense of the world, but this type of memory is limited and brief. Learn more about what it is and explore famous experiments.

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I- Learning is the primary condition.
II- Retention is the next step in which we see that the learning experiences are retained properly.
III- Recognition- It is the awareness of an object or situation one has come across in the past.
IV- Recall- The ability to recall every detail about an object, event , person or situation in a detailed manner.

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Memory is the faculty of mind by which information is encoded, stored and retrieved at later time.
Rayburn " The power that we have  'to store' our experiences,  and to bring them into the field of consciousness some time after the experiences have occurred, is termed memory.

"ENGRAMS" they are the memory traces or images left behind by a particular event or object and that helps in retaining of the learned or experienced act.