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A school project. Scott explores the hierarchy of needs. Made with the Sims 3. Song: Consumerism Simplified by Steven Jablonsky

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Self analysis led to the Oedipus complex

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By Dr. Saul McLeod, updated 2018

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.

If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.

If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.

If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant may develop a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation the infant will not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events.
Success and Failure In Stage One
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support.

Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.

Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early experience of attachment can affect relationships with others in later life.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

What Happens During This Stage?
The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy.

For example, during this stage children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.
What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control?
Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.

So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training).

The aim has to be "self control without a loss of self-esteem" (Gross, 1992).

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction.

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child's life. According to Bee (1992), it is a "time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."

During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much.

It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child's questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for "being a nuisance".

Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.

A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve.

Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child's life as they teach the child specific skills.

It is at this stage that the child's peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child's self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.

If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferiour, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.

If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic) then they may develop a sense of Inferiority.

Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.

The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245)

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.

According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is "a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one's appropriate sex role". During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes.

Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and "grow into" the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.

Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.

During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don't know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.

In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities).

Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.

During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.

Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs).

Psychologically, generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. During middle age individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.

We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson's stage theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will experience feelings of bitterness and despair.

Erikson described ego integrity as "the acceptance of one's one and only life cycle as something that had to be" (1950, p. 268) and later as "a sense of coherence and wholeness" (1982, p. 65).

As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become seniour citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as alternating states that need to be balanced.

Critical Evaluation

By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development (McAdams, 2001).

Based on Erikson's ideas, psychology has reconceptualized the way the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now considered active and significant times of personal growth.

Erikson's theory has good face validity. Many people find that they can relate to his theories about various stages of the life cycle through their own experiences.

However, Erikson is rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of experiences must people have to successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and move from one stage to another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism for crisis resolution.

Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this development occurs. For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage.

However, Erikson stressed his work was a 'tool to think with rather than a factual analysis.' Its purpose then is to provide a framework within which development can be considered rather than testable theory.

One of the strengths of Erikson's theory is its ability to tie together important psychosocial development across the entire lifespan.

Although support for Erikson's stages of personality development exists (McAdams, 1999), critics of his theory provide evidence suggesting a lack of discrete stages of personality development (McCrae & Costa, 1997).

APA Style References

Bee, H. L. (1992). The developing child. London: HarperCollins.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
Erickson, E. H. (1958). Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Youth: Change and challenge. New York: Basic books.

Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility. New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.

Erikson E. H . (1982). The life cycle completed. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Erikson, E. H. (1959). Psychological issues. New York, NY: International University Press

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.

Gross, R. D., & Humphreys, P. (1992). Psychology: The science of mind and behavior. London: Hodder & Stoughton.

McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5(2), 100.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa Jr, P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist, 52(5), 509.

How does Maslow's hierarchy of needs differ from Erikson's stages of psychosocial development?

Maslow proposed a series of motivational stages, each building on the previous one (i.e., cannot progress without satisfying the previous stage).

Erikson proposed a series of predetermined stages related to personality development. The stages are time related.

Progression through the stages is based on life circumstances and achievement (i.e., it is flexible).

Progression through the stages is based a person's age (i.e., rigid). During each stage an individual attains personality traits, either beneficial or pathological.

There is only one goal of achievement, although not everyone achieves it.

The goal of achievement vary from stage to stage and involve overcoming a psychosocial crisis.

Individuals move up the motivational stages / pyramid in order to reach self-actualisation. The first four stages are like stepping stones.

Successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths used to resolve subsequent crises.

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Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

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By Dr. Saul McLeod, updated 2018 Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.

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Handout on Carl Gustav Jung"Trust that which gives you meaning and accept it as your guide." Jung believed that a human being is inwardly whole, but that most of us have lost touch with important parts of our selves. Through listening to the messages of our dreams and waking imagination, we can contact and reintegrate our different parts. The goal of life is individuation

, the process of coming to know, giving expression to, and harmonizing the various components of the psyche. If we realize our uniqueness, we can undertake a process of individuation and tap into our true self. Each human being has a specific nature and calling which is uniquely his or her own, and unless these are fulfilled through a union of conscious and unconscious, the person can become sick.

STORY. Jung concluded that every person has a story, and when derangement occurs, it is because the personal story has been denied or rejected. Healing and integration comes when the person discovers or rediscovers his or her own personal story.

NEUROSIS. Jung had a hunch that what passed for normality often was the very force which shattered the personality of the patient. That trying to be "normal", when this violates our inner nature, is itself a form of pathology. In the psychiatric hospital, he wondered why psychiatrists were not interested in what their patients had to say.

MYSTERY. For Jung life was a great mystery. We know and understand very little of it. He never hesitated to say, "I don't know." Always admitted when he came to the end of his understanding.

THE UNCONSCIOUS. A basic tenet: All products of the unconscious are symbolic and can be taken as guiding messages. What is the dream or fantasy leading the person toward? The unconscious will live, and will move us, whether we like it or not.

INDIVIDUATION.

That aspect of the psyche which does not usually inter the individual's awareness and which appears in overt behavior or in dreams. It is the source of new thoughts and creative ideals, and produces meaningful symbols. Personal unconscious.

That aspect of the unconscious which manifests inherited, universal themes which run through all human life. Inwardly, the whole history of the human race, back to the most primitive times, lives on in us. Collective unconscious:

SYMBOL. A name, term, picture which is familiar in daily life, yet has other connotations besides its conventional and obvious meaning. Implies something vague and partially unknown or hidden, and is never precisely defined. Dream symbols carry messages from the unconscious to the rational mind.

ARCHETYPES. These primordial images reflect basic patterns or universal themes common to us all which are present in the unconscious. These symbolic images exist outside space and time. Examples: Shadow, animus, anima, the old wise person, the innocent child. There also seem to be nature archetypes, like fire, ocean, river, mountain.

PERSONA. The "mask" or image we present to the world. Designed to make a particular impression on others, while concealing our true nature.

SHADOW. The side of our personality which we do not conscousnly display in public. May have positive or negative qualities. If it remains unconscious, the shadow is often projected onto other individuals or groups.

ANIMA. Archetype symbolizing the unconscious female component of the male psyche. Tendencies or qualities often thought of as "feminine."
. Archetype symbolizing the unconscious male component of the female psyche. Tendencies or qualities often thought of as "masculine."

DREAMS. Specific expressions of the unconscous which have a definite, purposeful structure indicating an underlying idea or intention. The general function of dreams is to restore one's total psychic equlilibrium. They tend to play a complementary or compensatory role in our psychic makeup.

COMPLEXES: Usually unconscious and repressed emotionally-toned symbolic material that is incompatible with consciousness. "Stuck-together" agglomerations of thoughts, feelings, behavior patterns, and somatic forms of expression. Can cause constant psychological disturbances and symptoms of neurosis. With intervention, can become conscious and greatly reduced in their impact.

WORD ASSOCIATION TEST. A research technique Jung used to explore the complexes in the personal unconscious. Consisted of reading 100 words one at a time and having the person respond quickly with a word of his or her own. Delays in responding can indicate a complex.

SYNCHRONICITY. The meaningful coincidence of a psychic and a physical state or event which have no causal relationship to each other.

SELF. Archetype symbolizing the totality of the personality. It represents the striving for unity, wholeness, and integration.

MANDALA. The Sanskrit word for circle. For Jung, the mandala was a symbol of wholeness, completness, and perfection. Symbolized the self.

AMPLIFICATION. To get a larger sense of a dream, a kind of spreading-out of associations by referring to mythology, art, literature, music. ("Where have we heard this before."

ACTIVE IMAGINATION. A concept embracing a variety of techniques for activating our imaginal processes in waking life in order to tap into the unconscious meanings of our symbols.

PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES. People differ in certain basic ways, even though the instincts which drive us are the same. He distinguished two general attitudes--introversion and extraversion; and four functions--thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting.

Extravert: Outer-directed, need for sociability, chooses people as a source of energy, often action-oriented.

Introvert: Inner-directed, need for privacy and space; chooses solitude to recover energy, often reflective.

Thinking function: Logical, sees cause & effect relations, cool, distant, frank, questioning.

Feeling function: Creative, warm, intimate, a sense of valuing positively or negatively. (Note that this is not the same as emotion)

Sensing function: Sensory, oriented toward the body and senses,

detailed, concrete, present.

Intuitive. Sees many possibilities in situations, goes with hunches, impatient with earthy details, impractical, sometimes not present.

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Handout on Carl Gustav Jung"Trust that which gives you meaning and accept it as your guide." Jung believed that a human being is inwardly whole, but that most of us have lost touch with important parts of our selves. Through listening to the messages of our dreams and waking imagination, we can contact and reintegrate our different parts.

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Adler | Freud Background born on Feb. 7, 1870, in Rudolfsheim, a village near Vienna.
3rd child, 2nd son out of 6 children
developed rickets + pneumonia @ young age
death of his brother - Rudolf
sibling rivalry - older brother Sigmund (not freud)
interest in being physician - turned to psychiatry
1907- invited Freud's home to discuss psychological topics with Rudolf Reitler and Wilhelm Stekel (Vienna Psychoanalytic Society)
theoretical + personal differences between Adler and Freud
Adler left the group and established an opposing theory, individual psychology. Inferiority/Superiority Complex Inferiority Complex: An acute feeling of inferiority, often resulting in shyness or (through compensation) exaggerated aggressiveness. 3 Entrance Gates Oldest Child: The Father of Individual Psychology Alfred Adler reduced all motivation to sex and aggression people motivated by social inﬂuences + striving for superiority/success believed people had little or no choice in shaping their personality believed that people are largely responsible for who they are present behavior is caused by past experiences present behavior is shaped by people's view of the future "Behind everyone who behaves as if he/she were superior to others, we can suspect a feeling of inferiority which calls for very special efforts of concealment. It is as if a man/woman feared that they were too small and walked on their toes to make themselves taller." - Alfred Adler "to be a human being means to feel oneself inferior. The child comes into the world as a helpless little creature surrounded by powerful adults. A child is motivated by feelings of inferiority to strive for greater things. When he has reached one level of development, he begins to feel inferior once more and the striving for something better begins again, which is the great driving force of mankind." - A;fred Adler believed that feelings of inferiority motivate us to be the best we can be; "perfect" those with an inferiority complex will act and feel inferior, living in denial of their chance to better themselves the individual with a superiority complex will take these feelings of denial and behave in an aggressive way to compensate, working towards attaining selfish goals Superiority Complex: An exaggerated feeling of being superior to others. A psychological defense mechanism which allows an individual to overcome or conceal feelings of inferiority.
Because people born small, weak, and inferior, they develop belief system about how to overcome these physical weaknesses and become big, strong, and superior. But even after they gain size, strength, and superiority, they may act as if they are still small, weak, and inferior. Adler was weak and sickly as a child, and his illness moved him to overcome death by becoming a physician and by competing with his older brother and with Sigmund Freud. Adler emphasized that physical weaknesses alone don't cause a particular style of life; they provide present motivation for reaching future goals. Physical Inferiorities likely to have intensified feelings of power and superiority
high anxiety
overprotective tendencies
experience "dethronement" Middle Child: To some extent, the personalities of secondborn children are shaped by their perception of the older child's attitude toward them Youngest Child: most pampered
run a high risk of being problem children
likely to have strong feelings of inferiority and to lack a sense of independence
often highly motivated to exceed older siblings Only Child: no siblings, compete against parents
develop an exaggerated sense of superiority and an inﬂated self-concept
may lack well-developed feelings of cooperation and social interest, possess a parasitic attitude (relying on others), and expect other people to pamper and protect them in every family each position holds a unique set of goals and expectations Alfred Adler:
Ladies and gentlemen, I come to the following conclusion:
I discovered 20 years ago the inferiority complex which had been proved to be a very worthwhile key for understanding human nature and personalities.
As I have explained an individual is a unit from the beginning of life and his style of life cannot be changed without understanding the mistakes made in the roots, and these roots are lying in the family life in which each individual is formed and moulded. So we can find that this great striving to overcome the difficulties of life is striving going on from a feeling of inferiority and leading towards a goal of superiority is always combined with a certain individual degree of social interest.
We find in each expression, in each movement of each individual how he has used his training for social interest and so when he meets later in life the problems which can be solved rightly only if they are really solved in a great social feeling, then it will be decided if he is adjusted rightly or not.
So we find at last that all the failures in life: problem children, neurotic and psychotic persons, delinquents, suicides, drunkards, and so on are always lacking social interest. And it is not only this interest but in the same way they are also lacking courage, understanding and the right training for the solution of the social problems. summary People are born with a natural striving force and physical deﬁciencies, which combine to produce feelings of inferiority. These feelings motivate people to set a goal of overcoming their inferiority Human behavior is shaped by people's personal understanding of a situation Heredity/birth Order + environment = building material of personality, but people's creative power is responsible for their style of life. Alfred's childhood had a large influence in his works works cited http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0073382701/600511/feist7_sample_ch03.pdf

http://web.ebscohost.com/src/detail?sid=662bec58-9850-4ab9-b935-b4cb2bb99c4e%40sessionmgr115&vid=1&hid=104&bdata=JnNpdGU9c3JjLWxpdmU%3d#db=b5h&AN=39042010

http://www.school.eb.com/all/eb/article-9003744?query=alfred%20adler&ct=null

http://www.school.eb.com/all/comptons/article-9272723?query=alfred%20adler&ct=null

http://counsellingcentral.com/alfred-adler-the-inferiority-and-superiority-complex/

http://www.adler.edu/page/about/history/about-alfred-adler Difference between striving for perfection; completeness; full potential to understanding a persons mental life
Birth order:

Early Memories:

Dream Analysis: reflect a persons fundimental view of life reflection of your inner life and goals By Joyce Kim

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Adler | Freud Background born on Feb. 7, 1870, in Rudolfsheim, a village near Vienna.3rd child, 2nd son out of 6 childrendeveloped rickets + pneumonia @ young agedeath of his brother - Rudolf sibling rivalry - older brother Sigmund (not freud)interest in being physician - turned to psychiatry1907- invited Freud's home to discuss psychological topics with Rudolf Reitler and Wilhelm Stekel (Vienna Psychoanalytic Society) theoretical + personal differences between Adler and Freud Adler left the group and established an opposing theory, individual psychology.

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Key Takeaways

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.

The five levels of the hierarchy are physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.

Lower-level basic needs like food, water, and safety must be met first before higher needs can be fulfilled.

Few people are believed to reach the level of self-actualization, but we can all have moments of peak experiences.

The order of the levels is not completely fixed. For some, esteem outweighs love, while others may self-actualize despite poverty. Our behaviors are usually motivated by multiple needs simultaneously.

Applications include workplace motivation, education, counseling, and nursing.

What is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?

According to Maslow (1943, 1954), human needs were arranged in a hierarchy, with physiological (survival) needs at the bottom, and the more creative and intellectually oriented 'self-actualization' needs at the top.

Maslow argued that survival needs must be satisfied before the individual can satisfy the higher needs. The higher up the hierarchy, the more difficult it is to satisfy the needs associated with that stage, because of the interpersonal and environmental barriers that inevitably frustrate us.

Higher needs become increasingly psychological and long-term rather than physiological and short-term, as in the lower survival-related needs.

1. Physiological needs are biological requirements for human survival, e.g., air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, and sleep.

Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled, the next level up is what motivates us, and so on.

The human body cannot function optimally if physiological needs are not satisfied. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met.

Once an individual's physiological needs are satisfied, the need for security and safety becomes salient.

2. Safety needs - people want to experience order, predictability, and control in their lives.

Safety needs can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g., police, schools, business, and medical care).

For example, emotional security, financial security (e.g., employment, social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social stability, property, health, and wellbeing (e.g., safety against accidents and injury).

After physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness.

3. Love and belongingness needs refers to a human emotional need for interpersonal relationships, affiliating, connectedness, and being part of a group.

Examples of belongingness needs include friendship, intimacy, trust, acceptance, receiving and giving affection, and love.

This need is especially strong in childhood and can override the need for safety, as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents.

4. Esteem needs are the fourth level in Maslow's hierarchy and include self-worth, accomplishment, and respect.

Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).

Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People often engage in a profession or hobby to gain recognition. These activities give the person a sense of contribution or value.

Low self-esteem or an inferiority complex may result from imbalances during this level in the hierarchy.

Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.

5. Self-actualization needs are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the realization of a person's potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth, and peak experiences.

This level of need refers to what a person's full potential is and the realization of that potential.

Maslow (1943, 1987, p. 64) describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, and "to become everything one is capable of becoming".

Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For example, one individual may have a strong desire to become an ideal parent.

In another, the desire may be expressed athletically. For others, it may be expressed in paintings, pictures, or inventions.

Although Maslow did not believe that many of us could achieve true self-actualization, he did believe that all of us experience transitory moments (known as 'peak experiences') of self-actualization.

Such moments, associated with personally significant events such as childbirth, sporting achievement and examination success), are difficult to achieve and maintain consistently.

Maslow posited that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy:

"It is quite true that man lives by bread alone - when there is no bread. But what happens to man's desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?

At once other (and "higher") needs emerge and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new (and still "higher") needs emerge and so on. This is what we mean by saying that the basic human needs are organized into a hierarchy of relative prepotency" (Maslow, 1943, p. 375) .

Key Point: Keep in mind that Maslow's hierarchy of needs doesn't follow a strict linear progression. Individuals can feel various needs at the same time or shift between levels.

Maslow continued to refine his theory based on the concept of a hierarchy of needs over several decades (Maslow, 1943, 1962, 1987).

Regarding the structure of his hierarchy, Maslow (1987) proposed that the order in the hierarchy "is not nearly as rigid" (p. 68) as he may have implied in his earlier description.

Maslow noted that the order of needs might be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences. For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs.

Maslow (1987) also pointed out that most behavior is multi-motivated and noted that "any behavior tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather than by only one of them" (p. 71).

Maslow (1954) proposed that human beings possess two sets of needs. This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs ( D-needs ), and the top level is known as growth or being needs ( B-needs ).

Deficiency needs

Deficiency needs are concerned with basic survival and include physiological needs (such as the need for food, sex, and sleep) and safety needs (such as the need for security and freedom from danger).

Behaviors associated with these needs are seen as 'deficiency' motivated, as they are a means to an end.

Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food, the more hungry they will become.

Maslow (1943) initially stated that individuals must satisfy lower-level deficit needs before progressing to meet higher-level growth needs.

However, he later clarified that satisfaction of a need is not an "all-or-none" phenomenon, admitting that his earlier statements may have given "the false impression that a need must be satisfied 100 percent before the next need emerges" (1987, p. 69).

When a deficit need has been "more or less" satisfied, it will go away, and our activities become habitually directed toward meeting the next set of needs we have yet to satisfy. These then become our salient needs. However, growth needs continue to be felt and may even become stronger once engaged.

Growth needs

Growth needs are more psychological and are associated with realizing an individual's full potential and needing to 'self-actualize'. These needs are achieved more through intellectual and creative behaviors.

Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something but rather from a desire to grow as a person. Once these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level, called self-actualization. Growth needs are achieved more through intellectual and creative behaviors.

Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower-level needs.

Life experiences, including divorce and the loss of a job, may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy.

Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a uni-directional manner but may move back and forth between the different types of needs.

The expanded hierarchy of needs

It is important to note that Maslow's (1943, 1954) five-stage model has been expanded to include cognitive and aesthetic needs (Maslow, 1970a) and later transcendence needs (Maslow, 1970b).

Changes to the original five-stage model are highlighted and include a seven-stage model and an eight-stage model; both developed during the 1960s and 1970s.

1. Biological and physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.

2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.

3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).

4. Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the need to be accepted and valued by others (e.g., status, prestige).

5. Cognitive needs - knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and predictability.

Cognitive needs drive our pursuit of knowledge and understanding. For instance, a student's desire to understand complex mathematical theories, a traveler's curiosity about diverse cultures, or an individual's quest for life's deeper meanings all exemplify these needs.

Meeting these needs facilitates personal growth, comprehension, and a deeper understanding of life and its complexities.

6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. Fulfilling these needs leads to a deeper sense of satisfaction and harmony in life, as individuals seek environments and experiences that are pleasing and resonant with their sense of beauty.

This involves the appreciation and pursuit of art, music, nature, and other forms of aesthetic expression.

Fulfilling these needs isn't just about physical beauty but also the emotional and psychological satisfaction derived from experiencing order and elegance.

7. Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth, and peak experiences.

8. Transcendence needs - A person is motivated by values that transcend beyond the personal self. Beyond self-actualization, they represent the human desire to connect with a higher reality, purpose, or the universe.

This level emphasizes altruism, spiritual connection, and helping others achieve their potential.

Individuals seek experiences that move beyond personal concerns, aiming to achieve a deep sense of unity, understanding, and belonging within the vast expanse of existence.

Examples of transcendence needs include mystical experiences and certain experiences with nature, aesthetic experiences, sexual experiences, service to others, the pursuit of science, religious faith, etc.).

Self-Actualization Needs

Instead of focusing on psychopathology and what goes wrong with people, Maslow (1943) formulated a more positive account of human behavior which focused on what goes right. He was interested in human potential, and how we fulfill that potential.

Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that human motivation is based on people seeking fulfillment and change through personal growth. Self-actualized people are those who are fulfilled and doing all they are capable of.

The growth of self-actualization (Maslow, 1962) refers to the need for personal growth and discovery that is present throughout a person's life. For Maslow, a person is always "becoming" and never remains static in these terms. In self-actualization, a person comes to find a meaning in life that is important to them.

As each individual is unique, the motivation for self-actualization leads people in different directions (Kenrick et al., 2010). For some people, self-actualization can be achieved through creating works of art or literature; for others, through sports, in the classroom, or within a corporate setting.

Maslow (1962) believed self-actualization could be measured through the concept of peak experiences. This occurs when a person experiences the world totally for what it is, and there are feelings of euphoria, joy, and wonder.

It is important to note that self-actualization is a continual process of becoming rather than a perfect state one reaches of a "happy ever after" (Hoffman, 1988).

Maslow offers the following description of self-actualization:

"It refers to the person's desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially.

The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures or in inventions" (Maslow, 1943, p. 382-383).

Characteristics of Self-Actualized People

Although we are all, theoretically, capable of self-actualizing, most of us will not do so, or only to a limited degree. Maslow (1970) estimated that only two percent of people would reach the state of self-actualization.

He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their potential as individuals.

By studying 18 people, he considered to be self-actualized (including Abraham Lincoln and Albert Einstein), Maslow (1970) identified 15 characteristics of a self-actualized person.

Characteristics of self-actualizers:

1. They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty;

2. Accept themselves and others for what they are;

3. Spontaneous in thought and action;

4. Problem-centered (not self-centered);

5. Unusual sense of humor;

6. Able to look at life objectively;

7. Highly creative;

8. Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional;

9. Concerned for the welfare of humanity;

10. Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience;

11. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people;

12. Peak experiences;

13. Need for privacy;

14. Democratic attitudes;

15. Strong moral/ethical standards.

Behavior leading to self-actualization:

1. Experiencing life like a child, with full absorption and concentration;

2. Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths;

3. Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of the voice of tradition, authority or the majority;

4. Avoiding pretense ("game playing") and being honest;

5. Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the majority;

6. Taking responsibility and working hard;

7. Trying to identify your defenses and having the courage to give them up.

The characteristics of self-actualizers and the behaviors leading to self-actualization are shown in the list above.

Although people achieve self-actualization in their own unique way, they tend to share certain characteristics. However, self-actualization is a matter of degree, 'There are no perfect human beings' (Maslow, 1970a, p. 176).

It is not necessary to display all 15 characteristics to become self-actualized, and not only self-actualized people will display them.

Maslow did not equate self-actualization with perfection. Self-actualization merely involves achieving one's potential. Thus, someone can be silly, wasteful, vain and impolite, and still self-actualize. Less than two percent of the population achieve self-actualization.

Applications & Examples

Workplace organizations and employee motivation

The theory applies to organizational structures and the motivation of employees. To enhance performance, the organizational culture and HR strategies must address and fulfill the needs of employees.

HR strategies, including compensation, benefits, job design, training, cultural development, and performance evaluations, can be tailored to cater to Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Jerome, 2013).

1. What can managers do to motivate employees with physiological needs?

At the foundational physiological level, organizations should provide wages that sustain a decent standard of living and comprehensive benefits, ensuring employees can comfortably cater to necessities such as food, shelter, and medical care.

Offer comprehensive healthcare benefits - Quality health insurance, dental, vision, mental health coverage, and wellness programs demonstrate you care about employees' overall health and ability to afford care.

Subsidize gym memberships - Some companies offer monthly gym subsidies or onsite fitness centers to support physical health and stress management.

Make the space ergonomic - Ensure workstations, chairs, keyboards, etc. are height adjustable and comfortable to work at for extended periods to prevent bodily strain or injury.

Pay for wellness services - Some companies offer perks like free annual flu shots, smoking cessation programs, or biometric screenings to proactively address health.

2. What can managers do to motivate employees with safety needs?

For the safety tier, offering job stability, secure working conditions, and equitable compensation is essential. Employees are more motivated when they feel both financially stable and physically safe within their workplace.

Establish anti-harassment policies and reporting procedures - Ensure strong systems are in place for reporting issues confidentially and without retaliation.

Cultivate psychological safety - Foster an environment where people feel safe to take risks, make mistakes, and speak up without fear of embarrassment or punishment.

Define and reinforce ethical standards - Clearly establish and model expected conduct to prevent ethical lapses that undermine security.

Promote transparency in pay and promotion practices - Clearly communicate compensation structure, advancement criteria, and salary negotiation options to build trust.

3. What can managers do to motivate employees with social needs?

Addressing social needs involves cultivating an inclusive community within the organization. Team-building exercises, social gatherings, mentorship initiatives, and transparent communication can foster a sense of belonging. Motivation is heightened when employees feel appreciated and integrated within their teams.

Develop mother's rooms - Providing clean, private lactation rooms supports new mothers' needs to pump breast milk during work hours.

Train supervisors in mental health first aid - Equip leaders to recognize signs of depression, anxiety, substance abuse and properly intervene or connect employees with help.

Develop a mentorship program - Allow experienced employees to mentor newer ones to establish interpersonal bonds and a sense of support.

Model inclusive language and behavior - Use words and actions that are welcoming and respectful to all groups.

Share vulnerability and imperfections - Leaders should open up on mistakes, challenges, and lessons learned to humanize the workplace.

4. What can managers do to motivate employees with esteem needs?

To cater to esteem needs, organizations should implement recognition systems, merit-based promotions, and leadership roles.

Leverage unique talents - Properly designated titles that reflect an individual's role and status can also be beneficial.

Make the most of performance reviews - Regular performance evaluations not only offer recognition but also highlight areas for growth, feeding into the employees' need for esteem. Thoroughly highlight strengths, progress made, and areas of influence.

Entrust employees with mentoring roles - Having them share knowledge and coach others recognizes their expertise.

What can managers do to motivate employees with self-actualization needs?

For self-actualization, organizations should ensure that job roles align with employees' talents and passions. By empowering employees, presenting them with challenges, and fostering an environment that encourages innovation, organizations can facilitate their journey toward self-actualization.

Foster innovation - Dedicate time and resources for experimenting with new ideas without pressure.

Sponsor continuing education - Provide tuition reimbursement or subsidies for advanced courses and certificate programs. Offer paid time for relevant reading, online courses, conferences, and seminars.

The hierarchy provides a framework for understanding patients as multifaceted human beings.

Patient care should be holistic, not just medical. Nurses must assess and address the spectrum of patient needs - physical, mental, emotional, and social (Jackson et al., 2014; Toney-Butler & Thayer, 2023). Doing so motivates greater engagement in care, faster healing, and improved outcomes.

1. Physiological needs - Ensure patients have adequate nutrition, hydration, pain control, sleep, and physical comfort. Address pain that hinders sleep and recovery.

2. Safety needs - Maintain a clean, quiet environment with call bells for assistance. Prevent injuries through fall precautions, blood clot prevention, and pressure ulcer avoidance.
Explain tests, treatments, and medications to patients to relieve anxiety. Keep patient info confidential. Foster a climate of trust through compassionate listening. Prevent medication errors.

3. Belongingness - Loneliness impedes healing. Make patients feel welcomed and included. Introduce them to other patients. Allow for family visitation and spiritual practices.

4. Esteem - Show respect through courteous communication and cultural sensitivity. Maintain dignity and privacy. Empower patients in care decisions. Explain care in an easy-to-understand way. Listen attentively to their concerns. Make them feel valued.

5. Self-actualization - Align care with patient values and aspirations. Perhaps share motivational stories of those with similar diagnoses who stayed active. Or provide resources on coping with grief over health changes.

Maslow's (1962) hierarchy of needs theory has made a major contribution to teaching and classroom management in schools. Rather than reducing behavior to a response in the environment, Maslow (1970a) adopts a holistic approach to education and learning.

Maslow looks at the complete physical, emotional, social, and intellectual qualities of an individual and how they impact learning.

Applications of Maslow's hierarchy theory to the work of the classroom teacher are obvious. Before a student's cognitive needs can be met, they must first fulfill their basic physiological needs.

For example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential.

Maslow suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the classroom, and the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with a low self-esteem will not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened.

Maslow's hierarchy provides a humanistic lens for teaching the whole child.

Maslow (1971, p. 195) argued that a humanistic educational approach would develop people who are "stronger, healthier, and would take their own lives into their hands to a greater extent. With increased personal responsibility for one's personal life, and with a rational set of values to guide one's choosing, people would begin to actively change the society in which they lived".

Here are some ways a teacher can apply Maslow's hierarchy of needs in the classroom:

1. Physiological - Ensure students have access to water, food, restroom breaks, and movement. Allow snacks, flexible seating, and adequate breaks.

2. Safety - Maintain an orderly classroom with clear expectations. Prevent bullying. Build trust through consistency and fairness. Allow students to make mistakes safely.

3. Belongingness - Facilitate community and collaboration. Foster teamwork through group projects. Learn student names and backgrounds. Appreciate diversity.

4. Esteem - Recognize student strengths and progress. Display student work. Empower leadership roles like line leader or tech helper. Praise efforts, not just achievement.

5. Self-Actualization - Help students pursue interests creatively. Assign passion projects. Encourage goal-setting. Provide enrichment opportunities. Support challenging oneself.

When these foundational needs are met, students are more motivated to learn and perform well academically. But needs fluctuate. Be observant and nurture needs as they arise.

Critical Evaluation

The most significant limitation of Maslow's theory concerns his methodology. Maslow formulated the characteristics of self-actualized individuals by undertaking a qualitative method called biographical analysis.

He looked at the biographies and writings of 18 people he identified as being self-actualized. From these sources, he developed a list of qualities that seemed characteristic of this specific group of people, as opposed to humanity in general.

From a scientific perspective, there are numerous problems with this particular approach. First, it could be argued that biographical analysis as a method is extremely subjective as it is based entirely on the opinion of the researcher. Personal opinion is always prone to bias, which reduces the validity of any data obtained. Therefore Maslow's operational definition of self-actualization must not be blindly accepted as scientific fact.

Furthermore, Maslow's biographical analysis focused on a biased sample of self-actualized individuals, prominently limited to highly educated white males (such as Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, William James, Aldous Huxley, Beethoven).

Although Maslow (1970) did study self-actualized females, such as Eleanor Roosevelt and Mother Teresa, they comprised a small proportion of his sample. This makes it difficult to generalize his theory to females and individuals from lower social classes or different ethnicity. Thus questioning the population validity of Maslow's findings.

Furthermore, it is extremely difficult to empirically test Maslow's concept of self-actualization in a way that causal relationships can be established. It is difficult to tell in Maslow's theory where the scientific leaves off and the inspiration begins. His theory is seen as more speculative than empirically proven, with a tendency to substitute rhetoric for research.

Another criticism concerns Maslow's assumption that the lower needs must be satisfied before a person can achieve their potential and self-actualize. This is not always the case, and therefore Maslow's hierarchy of needs in some aspects has been falsified.

Through examining cultures in which large numbers of people live in poverty (such as India), it is clear that people are still capable of higher-order needs such as love and belongingness. However, this should not occur, as according to Maslow, people who have difficulty achieving very basic physiological needs (such as food, shelter, etc.) are not capable of meeting higher growth needs.

Also, many creative people, such as authors and artists (e.g., Rembrandt and Van Gogh) lived in poverty throughout their lifetime, yet it could be argued that they achieved self-actualization.

Psychologists now conceptualize motivation as a pluralistic behavior, whereby needs can operate on many levels simultaneously. A person may be motivated by higher growth needs at the same time as lower-level deficiency needs (Wahba & Bridwell, 1973).

Contemporary research by Tay and Diener (2011) has tested Maslow's theory by analyzing the data of 60,865 participants from 123 countries, representing every major region of the world. The survey was conducted from 2005 to 2010.

Respondents answered questions about six needs that closely resemble those in Maslow's model: basic needs (food, shelter); safety; social needs (love, support); respect; mastery; and autonomy.

They also rated their well-being across three discrete measures: life evaluation (a person's view of his or her life as a whole), positive feelings (day-to-day instances of joy or pleasure), and negative feelings (everyday experiences of sorrow, anger, or stress).

The results of the study support the view that universal human needs appear to exist regardless of cultural differences. However, the ordering of the needs within the hierarchy was not correct.

"Although the most basic needs might get the most attention when you don"t have them," Diener explains, "you don"t need to fulfill them in order to get benefits [from the others]."

Even when we are hungry, for instance, we can be happy with our friends. "They"re like vitamins," Diener says about how the needs work independently. "We need them all."

Conclusion

Maslow's theory differs from more purely physiological representations of human motivation because motivation is seen as being not just concerned with tension reduction and survival but also with human growth and development.

While Maslow's work was indeed relatively informal and clinically descriptive, it did provide a rich source of ideas, and as such, a framework for discussing the richness and complexity of human motivation that goes beyond homeostatic models and other biological models.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are some of the weaknesses of Maslow's theory?

How many levels are there in Maslow's pyramid of needs?

Why is Maslow's hierarchy of needs important?

What is at the top of Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

References

Geller, L. (1982). The failure of self-actualization theory: A critique of Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22, 56-73.

Hoffman, E. (1988). The right to be human: A biography of Abraham Maslow. Los Angeles, CA: Jeremy P. Tarcher.

Ivtzan, I. (2008). Self actualisation: For individualistic cultures only? International Journal on
Humanistic Ideology, 1, 113-140.

Jackson, J. C., Santoro, M. J., Ely, T. M., Boehm, L., Kiehl, A. L., Anderson, L. S., & Ely, E. W. (2014). Improving patient care through the prism of psychology: Application of Maslow's hierarchy to sedation, delirium, and early mobility in the intensive care unit. Journal of Critical Care, 29(3), 438-444.

Jerome, N. (2013). Application of the Maslow's hierarchy of need theory; impacts and implications on organizational culture, human resource and employee's performance. International Journal of Business and Management Invention, 2(3), 39-45.

Kenrick, D. T., Neuberg, S. L., Griskevicius, V., Becker, D. V., & Schaller, M. (2010). Goal-driven cognition and functional behavior: The fundamental-motives framework. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19 (1), 63-67.

King-Hill, S. (2015). Critical analysis of Maslow's hierarchy of need. The STeP Journal (Student Teacher Perspectives), 2(4), 54-57.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50 (4), 370-96.

Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper and Row.

Maslow, A. H. (1962). Toward a psychology of being. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Company.

Maslow, A. H. (1970a). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row.

Maslow, A. H. (1970b). Religions, values, and peak experiences. New York: Penguin. (Original work published 1966)

Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). Delhi, India: Pearson Education.

Mittelman, W. (1991). Maslow's study of self-actualization: A reinterpretation. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 31(1), 114-135.

Neher, A. (1991). Maslow's theory of motivation: A critique. Journal of Humanistic Psychology,
31, 89-112.

Tay, L., & Diener, E. (2011). Needs and subjective well-being around the world. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101 (2), 354-356.

Toney-Butler, T.J., & Thayer, J.M. (2023, April 10). Nursing Process. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499937/

Wahba, M. A., & Bridwell, L. G. (1976). Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15 (2), 212-240.

Wulff, D. M., & Maslow, A. H. (1965). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. The Journal of Higher Education, 36 (4), 235.

Further Information

Hierarchy of Needs and Nursing

Hierarchy of Needs in the Workplace

Images

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a pyramid of the needs that motivate people. Individuals most basic needs, at the base of the pyramid, are physiological. Once they have fulfilled these needs, people move on to their safety needs, social well-being, self-esteem then ultimately their need for self-actualization.

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The Oedipus complex is a concept of psychoanalytic theory. Sigmund Freud introduced the concept in his Interpretation of Dreams (1899). The positive Oedipus complex refers to a child's unconscious sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and hatred for the same-sex parent.

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O C: For Freud, the childhood desire to sleep with the mother and to kill the father.