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Can be found in both the cytoplasm and nucleus. Different types of RNA

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Cause a wide variety of disease
Considered to be non-living because they cannot reporoduce or carry out metabolic activities outside a host cell.

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Photosynthetic eucaryotes. Reproduce sexually and asexually. Obtain food by diffusion. Unicellular, multicellular, forming colonies, filaments or even tissues. Photosynthesise and produce oxygen and carbohydrate

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All unicellular. Eucaryote. Live in water and soil. Reproduce both sexually and asexually. Example: Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium. Movement by pseudopods, flagella or cilia

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Eucaryote. Acquire food by absorption. Reproduce both sexually and asexually. Example: Yeast (Unicellular)

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A heterozygote which possesses the recessive alleles may appear just as normal as the homozygous dominant genotype
A heterozygous individual who possesses a "bad" recessive allele hidden from phenotypic expression by the dominant normal allele is called a carrier
A person who inherited a recessive allele for a genetic disease but do not display any symptoms of the disease

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One gene consist of 2 allele.
Genes are found on chromosomes
Each gene has a designated place on every chromosome, called a locus.

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Prevention of microbiral contamination in food.

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Prevention of microbiral contamination in food.

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This can be prevented through good practice of food hygiene, including

hand washing (preferably using soap or ash sanitiser) before and during food preparation, especially after using the lavatory and after handling raw food or waste

not letting raw food and cooked food come into contact.

not preparing food when sick. This can cause a foodborne disease when people eat the food. In crowded or unsanitary living conditions, an outbreak of the disease can happen

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Microbes can spoil food.

Viruses, parasites and fungi contamination can lead to foodborne diseases in humans.

Mainly, the consumption of microbe will lead to food poisoning.

For example, Anthrax is a gram positive bacteria used in biological war (An act of war where harmful bacteria are deliberately released somewhere) Anthrax is very infectious and can infect humans through the skin or air.

Escherichia coli is a gram negative bacteria that commonly cause foodborne disease. People infected by Escherichia coli will experience bloody diarrhoea. The old and the young's kidney may fail which can lead to death. In September 2006, an outbreak occurred in USA due to the consumption of spinach contaminated with the bacteria

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Sources of microbial (or microbiological) contamination

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Sources of microbial (or microbiological) contamination

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Microbial can contaminate many things such as food and water

Food can be contaminated by microbial through food handlers (unhygienic practices such as touching food with dirty hands, sneezing or coughing onto the food) or through dirty utensils and plates.

Microbial contamination can also take place indirectly when food handlers touch doors, tap or clothes contaminated by microbial and touch the food without washing their hands.

Raw food contains high amount of microbial. When raw food comes into contact with cooked food, the microbial can spread to the cooked food.

Microbes present in soil and water can contaminate the plants,  which can lead to food contamination if the microbes on the plant is not removed before eating.

Faeces can contaminate water and plants (if the fertilisers used for the plants come from untreated sewage)

The air contains lots of bacteria which can land on food, contaminating them

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Microbes, also known as micro-organisms are living things that are too small to be seen by the naked eyes. Some microbes will harm human being but some will help us. Types of microbes include bacteria, archae, fungi, protozoa, algae and viruses

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Movement of substance across the cell membrane

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Movement of substance across the cell membrane

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Diffusion

A spontaneous and passive process where molecules move from a region of high concentration to low concentration until it reach equilibrium. The driving force is the concentration gradient.

Osmosis

The movement of water through a semi-permeable membrane from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution

Active Transport

A process whereby a cell uses energy to move substance across its membrane against a concentration. i.e. from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration.

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Facilitated Diffusion & Active Transport

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Active transport. The movement of molecules and ions against their concentration gradient by the use of atp energy.

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A dominant allele is one that is the most prominent
A recessive allele is the opposite of a dominant allele.
A dominant allele is denoted as a capital letter and a recessive allele is denoted as a small letter.
If an individual has two dominant allele, he will have the dominant trait.
If he has one dominant allele and one recessive allele, he will have the dominant trait.
If he has two recessive allele, he will have the recessive trait.
Homozygous is the state of having two identical allele for a particular gene
Heterozygous is the state of having two different allele for a particular gene

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Traits are the characteristics of an individual.
Only some traits are heritable. The heritable traits are under the control of genes.
Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism.
Phenotype is an observable trait.
The Mendelian principle applies to all eukaryotes. Since cross-breeding cannot be controlled in humans, it is difficult to study the inheritance of genetic traits.
Thus, the pedigree analysis is used to analyse genetic traits in human. Pedigree analysis is the examination of the occurrence of a particular trait in a family of individuals who exhibit the trait.
Mendel's first law, the principle of segregation states that a gene pair will split into two to form an allele. In other words, 2 allele form 1 gene. 1 allele is inherited from the mother and another 1 is inherited from the father, forming a gene.

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In human, the DNA molecules are packaged into 46 chromosomes which is 23 pairs.
Chromosomes 1 to 22 are called autosomes (These chromosomes do not determine sex) whereas chromosome 23 is known as sex chromosome. Females have 2 X chromosomes whereas males have 1 X and 1 Y chromosomes
Diploid cells have 2 of each type of chromosomes (Total of 46). Haploid cells have 1 of each type of chromosomes (Total of 23)

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Your genes are part of what makes you the person you are. You are different from everyone alive now and everyone who has ever lived.

DNA

But your genes also mean that you probably look a bit like other members of your family. For example, have you been told that you have 'your mother's eyes' or 'your grandmother's nose'?

Genes influence what we look like on the outside and how we work on the inside. They contain the information our bodies need to make chemicals called proteins. Proteins form the structure of our bodies, as well playing an important role in the processes that keep us alive.

Genes are made of a chemical called DNA, which is short for 'deoxyribonucleic acid'. The DNA molecule is a double helix: that is, two long, thin strands twisted around each other like a spiral staircase.

The DNA double helix showing base pairs
The sides are sugar and phosphate molecules. The rungs are pairs of chemicals called 'nitrogenous bases', or 'bases' for short.

There are four types of base: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). These bases link in a very specific way: A always pairs with T, and C always pairs with G.

The DNA molecule has two important properties.

It can make copies of itself. If you pull the two strands apart, each can be used to make the other one (and a new DNA molecule).

It can carry information. The order of the bases along a strand is a code - a code for making proteins.

Genes

A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a specific protein. So, for example, one gene will code for the protein insulin, which is important role in helping your body to control the amount of sugar in your blood.

Genes are the basic unit of genetics. Human beings have 20,000 to 25,000 genes. These genes account for only about 3 per cent of our DNA. The function of the remaining 97 per cent is still not clear, although scientists think it may have something to do with controlling the genes.

Chromosomes

If you took the DNA from all the cells in your body and lined it up, end to end, it would form a strand 6000 million miles long (but very, very thin)! To store this important material, DNA molecules are tightly packed around proteins called histones to make structures called chromosomes.
The packaging of DNA into chromosomes

Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in every cell, which makes 46 chromosomes in total. A photograph of a person's chromosomes, arranged according to size, is called a karyotype.

The sex chromosomes determine whether you are a boy (XY) or a girl (XX). The other chromosomes are called autosomes.

The karyotype of a male human being
The largest chromosome, chromosome 1, contains about 8000 genes. The smallest chromosome, chromosome 21, contains about 300 genes. (Chromosome 22 should be the smallest, but the scientists made a mistake when they first numbered them!).

The DNA that contains your genes is stored in your cells in a structure called the nucleus.
A diagram of animal cell showing the nucleus

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Licence.

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Your genes are part of what makes you the person you are. You are different from everyone alive now and everyone who has ever lived. But your genes also mean that you probably look a bit like other members of your family. For example, have you been told that you have 'your mother's eyes' or 'your grandmother's nose'?

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A gene is a part of DNA that is translate into protein. It is a part of DNA. Human beings have 20,000 to 25,000 genes, contributing to 3% of our DNA.
DNA molecules are tightly packed around histones (an alkaline protein) to make chromosomes

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Nucleus have a nucleus membrane separating the nucleus from the cytoplasm.

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A cell consist of a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleic acids and ribosomes

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Contains the hereditary material in humans.
The DNA is made up of 2 strands twisted into a spiral that is formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone
A DNA strand is a chain of nucleotides (a compound with a nitrogenous base, a sugar molecule and a phosphate group)
Four types of nitrogenous base exist. They are adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine. Adenine pairs up with thymine and cytosine pairs up with guanine

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A region where energy is obtained from food consumed. The energy is used to support cellular activities.

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It modifies, matures and packages the newly produced proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
The modified proteins will pass through the Golgi stack and is transported to the other organelles or to the cell surface.

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A microscopic series of tunnels used in the transportation and storage of substances.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum is present .
The main difference between the rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum is that the rough endoplasmic reticulum have ribosomes attached to it.
The quantity of endoplasmic reticulum in the cells depends on the function of the cell.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum produce lipids and process toxins.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum produce membranes and proteins

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A molecular machine that produce protein according to the instructions given by the nucleus. Ribosomes have no membrane bounding it

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A region that contains genetic materials. It is also the cell's genetic control centre. Usually spherical or oval in shape, the nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane, a double layer membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane  contains nuclear pores, which regulate the passage of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
The RER (rough endoplasmic reticulum) is attached to the outer nuclear membrane. The RER is continuous with the ribosomes
Nucleolus is a noticeable structure in the nucleus. The nucleolus produce ribosomal ribonucleic acid and ribosomes (Ribonucleic acid help code, decode, regulate and express the genes. It copies information from the DNA and is transported out of the nucleus. DNA cannot leave the nucleus).

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Cell membrane: A membrane that separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment. It also function as a selectively-permeable barrier that allows appropriate substance into the cell and keeps inappropriate substance out of the cell.
Cytoplasm: A jelly-like substance to hold the organelles in the cell
Nucleus
Nuclear membrane
Ribosome
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body or apparatus
Mitochondria:
Lysosome: A membrane-bound pouch that contains digestive enzymes that is used to break down cell components and substances.

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Biology: Cell Structure I Nucleus Medical Media

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Difference between bacterial cell(Prokaryote) and human cell(Eukaryote)

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Difference between bacterial cell(Prokaryote) and human cell(Eukaryote)

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Prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell
Membrane-bound organelles refer to organelles that have a barrier surrounding it

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contain genetic programme to

construct cellular structures

run cellular activities

reproduce

carry out basic functions that are important for

survival

growth

responding to stimuli

self-regulation

reproduction

evolution