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From Thao Nguyen
•        The null hypothesis (i.e. no relationship/difference) is tested, and is rejected only if the p-value is less than .05.

•        In case the p-value is equal or more than .05, the null hypothesis is accepted, is that right?
From my understanding, if p value > 5%, we cannot conclude anything about the relationship. Is it right?

My response:

i. The proper way to discuss/mention/write/say about "null hypothesis" is this:
"null hypothesis FAIL TO BE REJECTED"  this is the correct way of stating this situation or result.
DO NOT say " null hypothesis is accepted".
Reason = At that moment of time, at that circumstances of obtaining said result, we DO NOT HAVE OTHER evidences or proofs- that may LEAD us to reject. Thus it is more ACCURATE to say:
" at this point of time (getting said results), we can only confidently say:  FAIL TO REJECT.  (versus ACCEPT).

By saying ACCEPT, you are determining to a certain degree of confidence "DECLARING NO DIFFERENCE" which in itself is a danger!

But by saying "at this point of time (getting said results), we can only confidently say : FAIL TO REJECT NULL, until the time comes, in the future, where we can obtain other evidences or proof that we can FINALLY REJECT NULL!.

ii. IF p > than 0.05, the conclusion is again "FAIL TO REJECT NULL"  (not accept Null)>

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National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

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Overview

Bipolar disorder (formerly called manic-depressive illness or manic depression) is a mental illness that causes unusual shifts in a person's mood, energy, activity levels, and concentration. These shifts can make it difficult to carry out day-to-day tasks.

There are three types of bipolar disorder. All three types involve clear changes in mood, energy, and activity levels. These moods range from periods of extremely "up," elated, irritable, or energized behavior (known as manic episodes) to very "down," sad, indifferent, or hopeless periods (known as depressive episodes). Less severe manic periods are known as hypomanic episodes.

Bipolar I disorder is defined by manic episodes that last for at least 7 days (nearly every day for most of the day) or by manic symptoms that are so severe that the person needs immediate medical care. Usually, depressive episodes occur as well, typically lasting at least 2 weeks. Episodes of depression with mixed features (having depressive symptoms and manic symptoms at the same time) are also possible. Experiencing four or more episodes of mania or depression within 1 year is called "rapid cycling."

Bipolar II disorder is defined by a pattern of depressive episodes and hypomanic episodes. The hypomanic episodes are less severe than the manic episodes in bipolar I disorder.

Cyclothymic disorder (also called cyclothymia) is defined by recurring hypomanic and depressive symptoms that are not intense enough or do not last long enough to qualify as hypomanic or depressive episodes.

Sometimes a person might experience symptoms of bipolar disorder that do not match the three categories listed above, and this is referred to as "other specified and unspecified bipolar and related disorders."

Bipolar disorder is often diagnosed during late adolescence (teen years) or early adulthood. Sometimes, bipolar symptoms can appear in children. Although the symptoms may vary over time, bipolar disorder usually requires lifelong treatment. Following a prescribed treatment plan can help people manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life.

Signs and symptoms

Risk factors

Treatments and therapies

Join a study

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Learn about bipolar disorder, including signs and symptoms, types, risk factors, how it is diagnosed, and potential treatments and therapies.

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Psychiatric Associates of Southern, CT - Psychopharmacology, Psychiatry, TMS - Mental Health Treatment Centers in Westport, Milford CT

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The understanding and treatment of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a significant public health issue, not only in the United States but across the world. However, after almost half a century of research, we still do not understand the exact mechanism by which this disorder acts. Twin data show that genetic factors (heritability) only explain 37% of cases. That suggests that approximately 60% of depression may be caused by specific environmental factors. Studies have identified stressful life events and childhood trauma as risk factors for MDD.

Over the years, it has become obvious that, while a number of depressed patients respond to antidepressant medications, many do not. How do we explain this? And how do we understand the mechanism by which newer treatments such as Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS), ketamine, and (potentially) psilocybin work in the brain?

The neuroplasticity theory of depression suggests that patients with MDD have altered neuronal and structural plasticity (the ability to change, grow and reorganize quickly). Put simply, areas of the brain that have been implicated in depression have shown atrophy and/or decreased volume by brain imaging. This has been confirmed by electron microscopy studies in animal models of depression and stress.

There is a large body of evidence suggesting that ongoing stress is associated with a high risk for developing MDD. Patients with this disorder have been shown to have an increased rate of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis abnormalities, including the secretion of higher levels of cortisol (the "stress hormone"). Interestingly, stress appears to decrease expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the brain in areas implicated in depression. Antidepressants and other treatments appear to reverse the effects of stress.

The neurotrophic model of depression, based upon a body of clinical and preclinical studies, proposes that neuroplasticity is regulated by factors such as BDNF. Stress decreases the expression of BDNF in areas of the brain associated with mood (like the limbic system). Decreased BDNF can contribute to atrophy of limbic brain structures, but the neurotrophic effects of antidepressants and other newer treatments such as TMS can reverse this atrophy and cell loss.

So, genetics and environment appear to play major roles in MDD. While changes in brain structure and function occur in this disorder, these changes appear to be reversed with a variety of treatments. And more research is needed, but it appears that the neuroplasticity theory of MDD goes farther to explain this disorder than any of the previous, more simplistic theories of neurotransmitter inhibition.

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Understanding Major Depressive Disorder MDD - Psychiatric Associates of Southern, CT

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The understanding and treatment of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a significant public health issue, not only in the United States but across the world. However, after almost half a century of research, we still do not understand the exact mechanism by which this disorder acts.

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Use this template to record your thoughts and do as instructed in this week tutorial.
Hope there be some behavioral/thought changes.

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*Optional Reading - Mental Health from Islamic Perspective

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*Optional Reading - Mental Health from Islamic Perspective

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Muslim Mental Health | Islamic Counselling

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What is Muslim Mental Health, it’s triggers and how we improve our psychological well being with the Islamic faith

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From Thao Nguyen

May I ask further about the Null hypothesis in Week 7, Doing Research 1?

1. How to apply it to my everyday thinking?

2. How to create the Null hypothesis? Can you check for my research idea whether it goes on right tracks?

Everyday Thinking:

Applying the cognitive bottom-up process and using inductive reasoning often shapes my perspective to see life as beautiful and human nature as good. Based on this, I propose the hypothesis that "Life has inherent beauty."

However, when transitioning to deductive reasoning, I can fall prey to confirmation bias. I tend to find more positive aspects, thus further reinforcing the aforementioned viewpoint. By evaluating my personal experience, I understand the meaning of scientific falsification.

Applying a scientific perspective to everyday life and therapy:

When I apply the hypothetico-deductive approach, is it correct if I present a counter-argument as "Life and human nature are inherently bad"? In this case, the Type 1 error would be: Reality is bad, but observation shows it as good. The Type 2 error would be: Reality is good, but observation shows it as bad. Is it right?

However, if we apply that scientific perspective to everyday life, two situations can arise:

1. Optimistic individuals (like me) can become more realistic by applying scientific principles of falsification.

2. Conversely, in the context of psychological therapy, pessimistic individuals who adopt the mentioned hypothesis would likely perceive life negatively. In this case, it is suitable to present the Null hypothesis as "Beautiful," opposing their existing beliefs.

Need help:

I am still unsure if the Null hypothesis should be "Bad" or not. I believe it should be "Neutral", but there would be three variables: Neutral, Good, and Bad, resulting in 9 possible scenarios instead of 4. I would appreciate your clarification on this matter.

This is indeed a long premise, arguments and end with the straightforward question about Null hypothesis. Rather than go to details, let me just answer your query with a simple answer:

i. Do not take 'neutral' because it will complicate things as you already aware.
ii. It is acceptable to take the Null as you first hypothesize it, that is "Life is beautiful". This is an acceptable (common hypothesize).
iii. so your Ho is: Life is Beautiful
iv. your alternative hypothesis (Ha) will be:  Life is not beautiful.
v. You can only reject the Null if and only if you have 'confidence' that your error will be less than 5% (due to chance). If and when this is proven, your conclusion is to state: I have rejected the Null.  (Note: never state I accept Null because this is scientifically not correct).
vi. likewise, if you discover the error is >5%, then your conclusion will be "I fail to reject Null" (for that moment of time, until or when the time comes, you have evidence that leads you to be able to reject Null).
vii. this is how scientific reasoning regarding hypothesis is discussed, argued and explained.

so in this case, you be committing type 1 error IF  it is TRUE(for a fact) that "life is beautiful" yet you mistakenly REJECT Ho.

And, you be committing type 2 error IF it is NOT TRUE (indeed false) that "life is beautiful" because you DID NOT REJECT Ho.

Question 2: Internal and External validity

Hi, my question is: is it possible for a result to have both validity high at the same time? Or it can only indicate one validity high?
Also, since the double-blind RCT receives many credits, can researchers use that method for all research to strengthen their studies?

i.Not sure what you mean by 'both' validity.
ii. not necessarily. depends on the context and complexity of the said research study.

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Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology - презентация онлайн

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Increase in scientific interest in cross-cultural
psychology of the last decades is firmly rooted
in societal developments in many Western
countries: globalization and migration (leading
to an increase of cross-cultural encounters)