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Modood (2005) - Multicultural Politics: Racism, Ethnicity, and Muslims in Britain

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Modood (2005) - Multicultural Politics: Racism, Ethnicity, and Muslims in Britain

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Modood (2005):  Muslims are increasingly perceived as the most threatening "other" to Western society.  It is argued that there is a type of new racism that is built on the notion of an “incompatibility
between different cultures” - "Cultural racism" if you will. From the Culturally racist viewpoint, culture is static or “quasi-natural. There is an attempt to naturalise culture (which like ethnicity is a social construction according to Modood (2005)). Due to cultural racism, muslim culture is seen as ‘inherently bad and unable to change over time. The culturally racist view relies on a belief in ‘inherentism’  and it is implied that muslims, in particular, can't and won't assimilate (i.e. muslims won't & can't change).

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Conducted Over a two-year period from 2012 to 2014. The project was funded by the Economic Social and Research Council (ESRC) and it examined people’s experiences of hate, prejudice and targeted hostility. The project took place within the Leicester area — a very ethnically diverse region of the UK. Overall, the LHCP included 604 white Britons (43%) and  72 people from other white backgrounds (5%), 441 people from Asian ethnicities (29%), 193 people from Black British, African or Caribbean ethnicities (13%),  32 Middle Easterners (2%), 29 mixed race people (2%) and 30 people with Gypsy/traveller roots (2%). In the study, participants answered a number of survey questions. In one question, participants were told to describe their latest hate crime perpetrator. 3/5 of respondents stated that their last experience had involved a white offender (61%). Also, in the study semi-structured interviews were conducted with victims. In one interview, an imam said that the abuse against him and his community mainly comes from “White English youth”. This indicates that anti-muslim hate crime is committed by a mainly white demographic. However, the same cannot be said for anti-semitic hate. E.g. In an interview, an Orthodox Jew said that anti-semitic abuse “generally” comes from “Asian people”.

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Community Security Trust (CST) Anti-Semitic cases

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Community Security Trust (CST) Anti-Semitic cases

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CST recorded 1,309 anti-semitic incidents in 2016, a 36% increase from the 960 incidents recorded by CST in 2015. 2016 was the worst year on record for the CST. Previously, the highest annual total of antisemitic incidents recorded by CST had been 1,182 incidents, in 2014.

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Race Disparity Audit (2017) - school exclusions 

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Race Disparity Audit (2017) - school exclusions 

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In 2015/16 Black Caribbean pupils were around twice as likely to receive a fixed period exclusion (10.1% compared to 5.2%) than White pupils.

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Only 47% of Black Caribbean pupils achieved five or more A*-C grades (including Maths and English) at GCSE in 2013/14, according to the department of education.

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In 2000/01, 38 in every 10,000 Black Caribbean pupils in England were permanently excluded. In comparison, 13 in every 10,000 white pupils were excluded permanently in England.

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There were notable differences within the Asian and Black ethnic groups. Indian pupils were much more likely to meet expected standards and make progress than Pakistani pupils (for example, 65% of Indian pupils met the expected standards for reading, writing and maths at KS2 compared with 47% of Pakistani pupils). On the other hand, Black African pupils showed higher achievement and progress than Black Caribbean pupils (54% of Black African pupils met the expected standards for reading, writing and maths compared with 43% of Black Caribbean pupils).

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Found that cultural stereotypes of South Asian pupils and parents (Pakistanis and Bangladeshis etc) prevailed. A view that ‘Asian people’ were homogenous - that they all behave in the same way and have the same attitudes, and so on - dominated. In Croziers study, students were interviewed. In the interviews, students revealed in their own words how they are made to feel excluded and ‘different’ at school. It was found that racial harassment had been exacerbated by events like 9/11. For Pakistani students etc these events were very troubling and impacted negatively on the way they were viewed. Asian girls were often described as domestic drudges, whereas Asian boys were viewed as arrogant and privileged within their Asian families. The Pakistani confirmed that such views impacted on their learning experience/opportunities. They felt that less was  expected of them at school compared to the white students. Lower expectations/preconceived ideas and discrimination contributed to minority ethnic underachievement. There was a clear insensitivity towards cultural difference.

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Cardiff University: Kerry Moore, Paul Mason and Justin Lewis

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Cardiff University: Kerry Moore, Paul Mason and Justin Lewis

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CU researchers did a study on the print news media’s coverage of British Muslims between 2000 and 2008. In brief, around two thirds of the media’s coverage focused on Muslims as a threat (in relation to terrorism or extremism more generally) or a problem (in terms of differences in values). Overall, references to radical Muslims outnumbered references to moderate Muslims by 17 to 1.

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The GMG found that the majority of media professionals are white, wealthy men. Basically, according to the GMG, Racism is used in the media to demonise certain ethnic groups and divide the proletariat in order to prevent workers of all races from posing a threat to Capitalism’s dominance and the leadership of the majority white media class. The majority white bourgeoisie (or media class) promotes racism in a number of ways. For example, using the Neo-Marxist perspective, the GMG found a number of negative immigrant stereotypes within the British media. For instance, there was a perspective that saw immigrants (many of whom are ethnic minorities) as hostile outsiders with a tendency to commit crimes and illegal activities.

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Institute of Race Relations (IRR) Researchers: Harmit Athwal and Jon Burnett

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Institute of Race Relations (IRR) Researchers: Harmit Athwal and Jon Burnett

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According to the IRR, at least 93 people died in racist attacks between 1999 and 2013. The attacker or attackers in 74% of cases (69 cases) were White British.  In 5 cases, the perpetrator(s) were Black or Black British and in 3 cases the perpetrator(s) were Asian or Asian British. Using census definitions, in 10% of cases (or 9 cases) the victim was from a white ethnic background, including 3 white British people (3%) and 3 Polish people (3%). Over half of those killed (53 people or 57%) were Asian or Asian British, including 22 Pakistanis (24%) and 14 Indians (15%). 16 victims (17%) were Black or Black British, 2 victims (2%) were from mixed ethnic groups and 13 people (14%) were from ‘other’ backgrounds, including 2 Iranian men (2%) and two Afghanis (2%). Among the victims, there were many immigrants and asylum seekers etc. In fact, 23 victims (25%) had only recently moved to the UK.

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Hate Crimes against Muslims (2016 and 2017)

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Hate Crimes against Muslims (2016 and 2017)

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Hate crimes targeting mosques across the UK doubled between 2016 and 2017. Police forces recorded 110 hate crimes directed at Muslim places of worship between March and July 2017, up from 47 over the same six month period in 2016. Racist abuse, acts of vandalism at mosques and bomb threats featured heavily among the reported hate crimes.

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British Hate Crime statistics for England and Wales (2016/17)

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British Hate Crime statistics for England and Wales (2016/17)

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In the year 2016/17 – according to Crime statistics for England and Wales -- there were 62,685 race related hate crimes and 5,949 religiously motivated hate crimes and 80,393 hate crimes overall including all hate crime areas. Compared to previous years, hate crime has skyrocketed. E.g. Compared to the year 2015/16, overall hate crime has increased by 29%; religious hate crime has increased by 35%; and race hate crime has increased by 15%

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The BTP, covering railway services in England, Scotland and Wales, including London underground, recorded 1,993 racially motivated hate crimes in 2015, an average of 5.5 per day. Excluding those incidents in which the race of the victim was not recorded, more than 3/4 involved non-white victims. 36% of incidents were against black people and 33% of incidents were against those of Asian origin. In total, only 346 hate crimes (17%) involved white victims. This shows us that, more often than not, non-white people are the victims of racially motivated hate crime. Therefore in this area of social life ethnic minorities are disadvantaged.

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According to the ONS, in the 2011 census, the highest rates of unemployment for women were in the Arab (64%), Bangladeshi (61%), Pakistani (60%) and Gypsy (60%) ethnic groups. Of those in employment, men from the Pakistani (57%), Black African (54%) and Bangladeshi (53%) ethnic groups were most likely to work in low-skilled jobs. Moreover, women from the Gypsy (71%) and Bangladeshi (67%) groups were the most likely to work low-skilled jobs.

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Race Disparity Audit (2017) Labour market participation and income

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Race Disparity Audit (2017) Labour market participation and income

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People who identified as “Other White” had the highest rate of employment with 4 out of 5 working age people in employment in 2016. In both the White British and Indian ethnic groups, around 3 out of 4 working-age people were employed. On the contrary, the employment rate in the Pakistani and Bangladeshi group was much lower, with just over 1 in 2 adults of working age in employment. Nearly 2 out of 5 working-age people in the Pakistani and Bangladeshi group were economically inactive. In addition to this group, those from Other Asian backgrounds (excluding Indian) and those who identified with “the Other ethnic group” were also more likely to be economically inactive than White British people.

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Race Disparity Audit (2017) - Poverty & living standards

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Race Disparity Audit (2017) - Poverty & living standards

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Asian and Black households and those in the Other ethnic group were more likely to be poor and were the most likely to be in persistent poverty. Around 1 in 4 children in households headed by people from an Asian background or those in the Other ethnic group were in persistent poverty, as were 1 in 5 children in Black households and 1 in 10 White British households. The ethnic minority population is more likely to live in areas of deprivation, especially Black, Pakistani and Bangladeshi people.